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Download Words and their characteristics Word classes Traditional v. modern
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Words and their characteristics • Internal stability – insertions made between, not within words • External independence – phonologically: may be preceded or followed by pauses – orthographically: separation by spaces or punctuation marks – syntactically: may be used alone as a single utterance – semantically: can be assigned meaning(s) Word classes • A word class: A group of words, which from a grammatical point of view behave in the same way: – morphologically: they show which class they belong to by using same endings e.g. -s, -ing for verbs, -ly, for adverbs. – Syntactically: show the class they belong - used in the same way in a sentence e.g. adjectives: used the and a noun, or after any form of be Traditional v. modern grammars parts of speech/word classes • • • • • • • • Noun Pronoun Adjective Verb Adverb Preposition Conjunction Interjection • • • • • • • • Verb Noun Determiner Adjective Adverb Preposition Conjunction Inserts Major word classes • Classification based on main functions and grammatical behaviour – Lexical words • • • • main carriers of meaning numerous and members of open classes have complex internal structure can be heads of phrases - they include: – nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs The structure of words – Function words • indicate relationship between lexical words or larger units • are members of closed systems • short and lack internal structure • frequent, occur in any text – Inserts • do not form integral part of a syntactic structure • carry emotional and interactional meanings • frequent in spoken texts • Morphology: the study of the structure of words • Domains – Lexical/derivational morphology: how new vocabulary items are built out of combination of elements e.g. in-describ-able – Inflectional morphology: the way words vary in their form to express grammatical contrast e.g. horse-s 1 Closed systems v. open classes • Closed system: • Open classes: – contains a limited number of members – new members not easily added – e.g. function words conjunctions, prepositions – membership indefinite and unlimited – new members easily admitted – e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives Elements in word construction • Base form: words which cannot be broken down into grammatical parts e.g. yes, boy, • affixes: meaningful dependent elements added before or after the base form – prefixes: pure lexical role; allow construction of many new words – suffixes: most purely lexical: change meaning of base form e.g. -ness, -ship, -able • few are purely grammatical: show how words must be used in sentences e.g. plural -s, past tense -ed Inflectional suffixes • • • • • • • • Noun plural, e.g. -s genitive case, e.g. -’s 3rd person singular, -s past tense, e.g. -ed contracted negative -n’t -ing form or present participle -ed form or past participle -er comparitive; -est superlative Adjectives and adverbs • Adjectives: express some feature of a noun or pronoun • identification criteria – occurrence before nouns e.g.a big house- attributive – occurrence after forms of the verb be - predicative – immediately preceded by intensifying words e.g. very – can be compared – permit addition of -ly to form adverbs • Types of adjectives – central: have both attributive and predicative functions e.g. happy – peripheral: have only one of these functions e.g. afraid, utter – common suffixes: -ish, -able, -ful,-al, -ic, -less Adjectives • Syntactic functions – attributive: premodify head of NP – predicative: subject or object complement – Postpositive: follow the noun they modify e.g. something useful – head of NPs e.g the innocent suffer • Semantic classification – stative v. dynamic • dynamic adjectives -use of subjective measurement – gradable / nongradable • most are gradable e.g. er, -est, very, so – inherent v. noninherent - if they characterize the referent of a noun directly or not 2