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PSYCHOLOGY: Perspectives & Connections 2nd Edition GREGORY J. FEIST ERIKA L. ROSENBERG Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Learning Chapter Eight Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Chapter Preview Basic Processes of Learning Conditioning Models of Learning Social Learning Theory The Interaction of Nature and Nurture in Learning Bringing It All Together: Making Connections in Learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1 Basic Processes of Learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Learning Enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience Includes many different forms of learning Learning and memory work together – without one, the other cannot function Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Habituation and the Orienting Response Orienting response – Automatic shift of attention toward a new stimulus Habituation – Sensory process by which organisms adapt to constant stimulation – Results in a decrease in responding to this now familiar stimulus Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2 Association Occurs when one piece of information from the environment is linked repeatedly p y with another,, and the organism begins to connect the two sources of information Associations are the key to the two major conditioning models of learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Conditioning Models of Learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Classical Conditioning Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which the learner has an automatic,, inborn response p Ivan Pavlov and his famous dogs – Involuntary behavior – Associations formed between the presentation of meat powder and the preparation of the saliva-collection apparatus Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 3 How Classical Conditioning Works Unconditioned response (UCR) – Salivation Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – Food – Natural, automatic, inborn reaction to a stimulus – Environmental input that produces the same response Conditioned stimulus (CS) – Ringing bell – Previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with the UCS Conditioned response (CR) - Salivation – Behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the CS Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Classical Conditioning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Classical Conditioning Forward conditioning – Neutral stimulus is presented just before the UCS Backward conditioning – Neutral stimulus follows the UCS Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 4 Classical Conditioning Two fundamental criteria for conditioning to occur: 1. 2. Multiple p pairings p g of UCS and neutral stimulus (CS) are necessary for an association to occur and for the CS to produce the conditioned response The UCS and CS must be paired or presented very close together in time in order for an association to form Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Classical Conditioning Stimulus generalization – Extension of the association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli Stimulus discrimination – Restriction of a CR to only the exact CS to which it was conditioned Extinction – Weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response, which occurs when the UCS is no longer paired with the CS Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Classical Conditioning Spontaneous recovery – Sudden reappearance of an extinguished p response Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 5 The Conditioning of Little Albert John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a baby to fear white rats byy pairing p g it with a veryy frightening g g noise Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. The Conditioning of Little Albert Little Albert generalized his fear to other things like white beards – Generalization Little Albert did not undergo deconditioning Raised ethical issues that are still used as the basis for certain considerations of research ethics Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Operant Conditioning Edward L. Thorndike (1905) – Law of effect Consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 6 Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1938) – Coined the term “operant” to refer to behaviors that act – or operate – on the environment to produce a specific outcome – Process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior – Voluntary behavior Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Operant Conditioning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Operant Conditioning Reinforcer – Any internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior – Primary reinforcers Not learned Innate and satisfy biological needs Food, water, or sex – Secondary (or conditioned) reinforcers Learned by association (classical conditioning) Money, grades, or approval Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 7 Operant Conditioning Reinforcement – Increases frequency of an act – Positive reinforcement (adding a reward) – Negative reinforcement (removing an unpleasant l t stimulus) ti l ) Punishment – Decreases frequency of an act – Positive punishment (adding an unpleasant stimulus) – Negative punishment (removing a desirable stimulus) Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. How Operant Conditioning Works Organisms learn from the consequences of th i behaviors their b h i – Skinner box – Shaping Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 8 Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous reinforcement Intermittent reinforcement – Rewarding a behavior every time it occurs – Reinforcement of a behavior – but not after every response Produces a stronger behavioral response Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed ratio (FR) – Pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses Variable ratio (VR) – Pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed interval (FI) – Pattern of intermittent reinforcement in p are always y reinforced which responses after a set period of time has passed Variable interval (VI) – Pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different duration have passed Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 9 Different Schedules of Reinforcement on Learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Conditioned Taste Aversion John Garcia – Research with rats – Food and saccharin water t paired i d with ith radiation Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Challenges to Conditioning Models of Learning Instinctive drift – Learned behavior that shifts toward instinctive,, unlearned behavior tendencies – Keller and Marian Breland (1961) Biological constraint model – Some behaviors are inherently more likely to be learned than others Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 10 Latent Learning Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later,, when reinforcement occurs Demonstrated by running rats through mazes Edward Tolman Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Social Learning Theory Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Observational Learning Observational learning – Learning by watching the behavior of others Enactive learning – Learning by doing Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 11 Social Learning Theory Albert Bandura (1986) – Kind of learning that occurs when we model or imitate the behavior of others Modeling – Imitation of behaviors performed by others – Bobo doll study (1960s) – The effects of video games on children and teens Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Social Learning Theory Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Interaction of Nature and Nurture in Learning Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 12 Imprinting Rapid and innate learning of the characteristics of a caregiver very soon after birth – Ethology – Sensitivity period Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Imitation, Mirror Neurons, and Learning For some neurons in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex, the experience of watching someone else do something is like doing it yourself – Children with autism may have deficits in mirror neuron systems Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Synaptic Change During Learning Learning causes physical changes to the neural network in the brain “Practice Practice makes perfect?” perfect? Synaptic connections can weaken if they are not regularly used – May be a biological explanation of some forms of forgetting Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 13 Bringing It All Together Making Connections in Learning: g Why y Do People Smoke? Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Why Do People Smoke? Social learning theory Operant conditioning – A form of peer acceptance – Helps maintain smoking behavior – Negative reinforcers Some use behavior modification to end the habit Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Why Do People Smoke? Copyright 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 14