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Botanical Journal of the Linnean Sociery ( 1989), /00: 15~3.
Theophrastus on geophytes
MOSHE NEGBI, F.L.S.
Department of Agricultural Botany, Faculry of Agriculture, The Hebrew Universiry
Jerusalem, Rehovoth, 76100, Israel
of
Received September /987, accepted.for publication June /988
NEGBI, M., 1989. Theophrastus on geophytes. The nature of the geophilous organs of the
geophytes described by Theophrastus (371-287 B.C.) in Historia Plantarum and De Caw·is Plantarum is
presented and discussed. Most of the geophytes and the hydrogeophytes mentioned in these books
(excluding species of Allium, biennial vegetables, and a few others) are critically reviewed. Certain
lost agricultural practices mentioned by Theophrastus are strengthened and made explicable by
comparisons from Pliny's Natural History, and Hebrew literature of the first centuries A.D.: Mishnah
and Talmud. Theophrastus's interest in plants is shown to be of a pure nature although most of his
examples are cultivated or otherwise useful plants. The possible sources of his knowledge of Egyptian
plants are discussed.
ADDITIONAL KEY WORDS: Corms- geophilous organs- history of botany- hydro-geophytes
- Pliny - rhizomes - tuberous roots - tubers.
CONTENTS
Introduction .
Theophrastus on geophilous organs.
Geophytes with replacing corms
Geophytes with perennial tuberous stems
Bulbous geophytes.
Geophytes with tuberous roots .
Rhizomatous geophytes
Reeds.
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
References.
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INTRODUCTION
The Greek philosopher Theophrastus (371-287 B.c.), an associate and later
the successor of Aristotle at the Lyceum of Athens, wrote on many subjects but of
his relatively few surviving works the longest and most influential are two
devoted to botany and herb-lore commonly known by their Latin titles as
Historia Plantarum ( HP) and De Causis Plan/arum (CP). Modern literature
relating to Theophrastus is extensive (cf. Stromberg, 1937; McDiarmid, 1976;
Morton, 1981; Arber, 1986: 307). Between 1923 and 1943 Gustav Senn
published much on Theophrastus's methodology, in particular his descriptions of
trees, but his interest in the underground organs of plants, apart from
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M. NEGBI
Stromberg’s survey ( 1937: 58-94), has received less attention. Theophrastus uses
for these the general term ‘root’ (rhica). I n addition to the root and other
underground parts in general the Ancient Greeks especially applied the term
rhisa to medically utilized roots and even whole herbs. Hence rhicotomeo, literally
‘cutting of roots’, meant digging up and collecting plants, especially for
medicinal and magical purposes (Liddel & Scott, 1940; Baily, 1950; Sarton,
1964; 545-546). The Greek physician-botanis ts, rhirotomoi (Singer, 1921: 60-62;
Lloyd, 1983: 119-123), used, among their simples, such ‘roots’ and other
geophilous organs as the tuberous roots of the mandrake, the bulb of the squill,
the corm of the cuckoo-pint and the hypocotyl-tuber of cyclamen (HP, Book 9).
Theophrastus, however, accepts this convention reluctantly and shows that
some underground parts are not roots (HP, 1.6: 6-12). He usually does it in
humble understatements, but sometimes in a more definite manner.
Theophrastus’s ‘root morphology’ has not been studied recently. It was,
however, very well presented by Agnes Arber (1950), though, due to the wide
scope of her book, she did not go into detail. Morton in his History of Botanical
Science (1981: 34) dealt with it rather laconically, using modern terminology. By
applying modern equivalents to the 4th century B . C . text he renders the ancient
scholar in a modern guise. I t is my conviction that, in order to understand
Theophrastus, one must try to adopt his way of thinking or, a t least his words.
For this reason I prefer to cite from, rather than paraphrase, translations of
Theophrastus.
This article reviews the knowledge presented by Theophrastus concerning
geophytes, excluding Allium species, biennial vegetables and others about which
very little is said, e.g. Colocasia antiquorum (L.) Schott (HP, 1.1.7; 1.6.9; 1.6.1.),
Galanthus nivalis L. (HP, 7.13.9), Mandragora ojicinarum L. (HP, 9.8.8; 9.9.1 l ) ,
Orchis spp. ( H P 9.18.3), Ornithogalum spp. ( H P 7.12.1; 7.13.9), Paeonia ofxinalis L.
( H P 9.8.6), Ranunculusjcaria L. (HP 7.7.3), Juncus spp., Scirpus holoschonoeous L.
and Schononeous nigricans L. ( H P 4.12.1-3).
The term ‘geophyte’ (from ge, earth, land, phyton plant), although of Greek
elements, was coined by the Danish botanist Christen C. Raunkiaer (1860-1938)
in his survey of the life-forms of plants based on the position and protection of
buds during an unfavourable season. He defined Geophytes as land plants whose
surviving buds or shoot apices are borne on subterranean shoots a t a distance
below the surface of the ground and are thus well adapted to survive in districts
with long and marked dry periods, e.g. in Attica where Theophrastus lived. The
geophytes which he mentioned exemplify Raunkiaer’s three groups: Rhizome
geophytes, e.g. Iris pallida, Cynodon dactylon; Stem-tuber geophytes, e.g. Crocus
satiuus, Gladiolus italicus, Gynandriris siyrinchium; Root-tuber geophytes, e.g.
Asphodelus aestivus; Bulb geophytes, e.g. Urginea maritima, Muscari comosum, Lilium
candidum.
T o these Raunkiaer added another group; Helophytes, with their buds
protected by being situated in water or in saturated mud at the bottom of the
water, e.g. Phragmites australis, usually having elongated horizontal rhizomes or
stolons, like dry-land Rhizome geophytes (cf. Raunkiaer, 1937).
Lake Copais (Kopais) in Boeotia, often mentioned by Theophrastus as a
locality for marsh or water plants, was an extensive fenland area, about 70 km
north-west of Athens and about 25 km long, parts of which in a dry season were
cultivated but from time to time were completely under water. Its effective
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
17
drainage by British engineers began in 1887 and was completed for total
cultivation and pasturing in 1931 by the British Lake Co pals Drainage
Company.
The English equivalent of the Greek text is based on Sir Arthur Hart's
translation of HP, Enquiry into Plants (1916, 1926), with not always acceptable
plant identification by Sir William Thiselton-Dyer. Some additional and
comparative information is given in De Causis Plantarum, the first two books of
which are available in modern English translation ( 1976). Since Hurt published
Enquiry, our understanding of the taxonomy, ecology and developmental
physiology of plants, including geophytes of the Mediterranean region, has
increased. The life cycle of many of Theophrastus's geophytes deserves new
interpretations.
I have not attempted to show Theophrastus's sequential position in the study
of geophytes. Almost nothing concerning geophytes has survived from his
predecessors, and Pliny's writings are, at best, a rendering of Theophrastus with
little improvements. Theophrastus appears to have been an accomplished
botanist able to describe particular phenomena and generalize upon them.
(However, the development of the ideas of the ancients regarding the pollination
of the fig and the date palm was studied since Assyrian and Greek sources
previous to Theophrastus have survived (Singer, 1921: 86-92; Sarton, 1964: 83,
309, 555-556). Here too Theophrastus stands as a singular giant.)
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHILOUS ORGANS
In the following, remarks in square brackets within the quotations are mine
while those in parentheses are of the translators of the classical texts.
Describing the variation in 'roots', Theophrastus reduces ad absurdum the
conventional usage of the word:
"For it is not right to call all that which is underground 'root', since in that
case the stalk of purse-tassels [ Muscari comosum (L.) Miller] and that of the
long onion and in general any part which is underground would be a root,
and so would the truffie, . . . the uingon [ Colocasia anti quorum; Sharples &
Minter, 1983], and all other underground plants. Whereas none of these is a
root; for we must base our definition on natural function and not on
position" (HP, 1.6.9).
Theophrastus defines the natural function of the root, earlier in the book, as the
part by which the plant draws its nourishment (HP, 1.1.9). It should be stressed
that Theophrastus clearly defines roots, at least once, by morphological criteria.
When contrasting the stems of Ficus benghalensis L. with the aerial roots, he says
that "the roots as they grow are easily distinguished from the branches, being
whiter, crooked and leafless" (HP, 4.4.4; cf. Stearn, l976b).
In his discussion on the parts of plants Theophrastus names several 'different'
roots which he considers not true roots-the fleshy root of the beet (a bienniel
root-hypocotyl tuber) and Asphodelus ramosus L. (renewal tuberous root), and
'root' of crocuses (renewal corms), radishes and turnips (biennial root tubers),
Urginea maritima (L.) Baker, Muscari comosum, "onions and things like these"
(bulbs), and those of reeds (rhizomes). Here in one paragraph (HP, 1.6.7) he
refers to almost all types of underground organs of perennation and propagation.
It is clear that Theophrastus does not consider rhizomes roots, for he says that
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some roots: “have joints as those of reeds and dog’s-tooth grass and anything of a
reedy character, and these roots . . . resemble the parts above ground, they are in
fact like reeds fastened in the ground by their fine roots” (HP, 1.6.7). He then
generalizes:
“. . . all such plants . . . have two kinds of roots; and so, in the opinion of
some, this is true generally of all plants which have a solid ‘head’ [bulbs,
corms and tubers] and send out roots from it downwards. These have . . .
fleshy or bark-like root, like squill, as well as the roots which grow from this.
For these not only differ in degree of stoutness . . . they are of quite distinct
classes. This is at once quite evident in cuckoo-pint and galingale, the root
being in the one case thick smooth and fleshy, in the other thin and fibrous.
Wherefore, we might question if such roots should be called ‘roots’;
inasmuch as they are under ground they would seem to be roots, but,
inasmuch as they are of opposite character to other roots, they would not.
For your root gets slenderer as it gets longer and tapers continuously to a
point; but the so called root of the squill, purse-tassels and cuckoo-pint does
just the opposite” (HP, 1.6.8).
About the ‘head’ (bulb) of the squill, purse-tassels, garlic and onion he says that:
“this ‘head’ is as it were, an embryo or fruit; wherefore those who call such
plants ‘plants that produce themselves underground’ give a fair account of
them” (HP, 1.6.9).
In HP some geophytes are treated in consecutive sentences and even
paragraphs, and others under various topics: flowering season; root, stem and
leaf form; and utilization. But it is possible to reconstruct Theophrastus’s grasp of
them. Henceforth, every geophyte is dealt with separately.
GEOPHYTES WITH REPLACING CORMS
Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae)
Theophrastus calls the saffron-crocus (Crocus sativus) krokos ho euosmos namely
the scented crocus, krokos ko kemeros namely the cultivated crocus, or just krokos.
He says that the saffron-crocus has a narrow, hair-like leaf and states that it
blooms “. . . only for a few days. It pushes up the flower at once with the leaf, or
even seems to do so earlier’’ (HP, 6.6.10). The saffron-crocus does, indeed, have
very short flowering period (see below). Theophrastus, very accurately says that
it sometimes blooms before leaf appearance (i.e. being hysteranthous) as occurs
nowadays in certain years in the village Krokos in Macedonia, near L’Aquila,
Italy, and in La Mancha, Spain. O n the other hand, flowering sometimes occurs
simultaneously with leaf emergence or well after sprouting (Mathew, 1977;
Greenberg & Lambert Ortiz, 1983; Plessner et al., 1989).
Thephrastus states the flowering season clearly:
“In autumn bloom[s] . . . the crocus, both the scentless mountain form and
the cultivated one (saffron-crocus); for these bloom directly the first rains
come” (HP, 6.8.3).
Anywhere in its cultivation area, ranging from India to Spain, flowering lasts for
about a fortnight, sometime between October and December (Madan, Kapur &
Gupta, 1966; Ingram, 1969; Mathew, 1977; Tammaro & Di Francesco, 1978).
The two English translations of HP, 6.6.10, which relate the flowering of
C. sativus to the rising of the Pleiades (May 11 in Greece), are based on additions
to the text (“Enquiy” 6.6.10; and note f. to CP, 1.10.5). The translators
THEOPHRASTUS O N GEOPHYTES
19
overlooked the fact that the flowering season of the saffron-crocus is correctly
noted by Theophrastus himself (HP, 6.8.3). Further on he repeats that the
blooming duration of both the saffron-crocus and of the white kind (C. cancellatus
Herbert) is short (HP, 7.7.4; cf. the index of the “Enquiry”). The spinous scentless
crocus mentioned there as well, is most probably the safflower, Carthamus
tinctoria L., which still serves as a cheap surrogate for saffron (Rosengarten, 1973:
373).
Theophrastus was probably aware of the fact that the saffron-crocus does not
bear seed since he stated that “it is propagated from the root” ( H P , 6.6.10; cf.
N H , X X I , 31). Today, we know that this species, sterile because of its triploidy,
is only propagated by its corms (Warburg, 1957; Brighton, 1977; Basker &
Negbi, 1983). However, we do not know when its cultivation begun nor when its
putative ancestor (C. cartwightianus Herbert) mutated to the triploid form
(Mathew, 1977, 1982). We may assume, based on Theophrastus, that C. sativus
was a sterile taxon, and therefore necessarily cultivated, already in the 4th
century B.c.; indeed the saffron-crocus with its large exserted stigmas was
unmistakably portrayed by Minoan and Mycenaean artists going back to at
least 1500 B.C. (Marinatos, 1987: chap. V). Pliny says that the wild saffron is
more potent than the cultivated one which “is degenerating everywhere” (NH,
X X I , 31). Did Pliny mean C. cartwrightianus which is still being collected in the
Aegean region for its spice (Mathew, 1982)?
Theophrastus speaks neither about the distribution of the saffron-crocus nor
where he encountered it. However, he does say of perfume plants, including the
saffron-crocus, that “the most excellent and most fragrant come from Asia and
sunny regions” (HI‘, 9.7.3) and that Cyrenaica “also bears abundant fragrant
saffron-crocus” (HP, 4.3.1) of the purest scent (HP, 6.6.5). From what is known
of his biography and from his comparisons of the seasons and duration of
flowering of various crocuses it is assumed that he encountered the saffron-crocus
in Lesbos, Asia Minor or Macedonia (in the latter two areas it is still cultivated)
where he stayed with his master and colleague Aristotle between 347-335 B.C.
(McDiarmid, 1976; Morton, 1981: 49, n.31; cf. Introduction to CP, p. vii).
Crocus sp. or spp. (Iridaceae)
It seems likely that several Crocus species were known to Theophrastus. Their
‘roots’, including that of C. sativus, are repeatedly described as fleshy ( H P , 1.6.67; 1.6.1 1; 6.6.8). At one point he describes the corm in a modern way as ‘acornshaped’ (HP, 7.9.4).
Krokos ho leukos, which is identified in the “Enquiry” as a wild crocus,
C. cancellatus Herbert, has a short flowering duration (HP, 7.7.4). According to
the “Enquiry” (cf. the index) C. cancellatus blooms together with Senecio vulgaris L.
and Anemone coronaria L., i.e. in the winter ( H P , 7.10.2; but in HP, 7.10.2 a krokos
without an epithet is mentioned and not a white one!). However, Mathew
(1980) in Flora Europaea reports that C. cancellatus flowers between September and
November, too early for Anemone coronaria. Furthermore, since Greece is blessed
with seven white crocus species, four of which bloom in winter or spring
(Mathew, 1980), this identification is therefore, somewhat vague.
Theophrastus does not differentiate between the flower-stem (scape) of the
narcissus and the elongated perianth tube of the crocus (which stands upon a
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M. NEGBI
very short, hardly visible, subterranean pedicel). He regards both as flower-stems
(HP, 7.13.2).
Gladiolus italicus Miller, syn. G. segetum Ker-Gawler (Iridaceae)
This cormous plant, corn-flag (phasganon, xiphion and xiphos of HP) is a cornfield weed in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian areas, not recorded from
primary habitats by Mouterde (1966: 303-304, Zohary (1978: 617), Hamilton
(1980) and Feinbrun-Dothan (1986: 137-138), but also found on limestone
slopes, basalt and sand dunes in Turkey (Kit Tan & Edmondson, 1984).
In his section in herbs with fleshy roots Theophrastus writes of the culinary
value of the gladiolus corm, its shape and propagation:
“the root of. . . corn-flag phasganon] is sweet, and if cooked and pounded up
and mixed with flour, makes the bread sweet and wholesome. It is round
and without ‘bark’ and has small offsets . . . Many of them are found in
moles’ runs; for this animal likes them and collects them” (HP, 7.12.3).
These offsets are the propagating cormels (cormlets) that develop around the
base of the main replacing corm (Galil, 1961, 1969).
Theophrastus gives the etymology of one of its Greek names:
“corn-flag phasganon], which is called by some xiphos, (‘sword’), has a
sword-like leaf, whence its name . . .” (HP, 7.13.1).
The flowering stem of the corn-flag (xiphon) is mentioned together with that of
7.13.2). Flowering is recorded in late winter
the squill, purse-tassels and iris (HP,
or early spring ( H P , 6.8.1). The corn-flag, assumed to have been wild, is listed
among geophytes that are increased from seed (HP, 7.13.4). Pliny, also, does not
consider the gladiolus as a cultivated plant (NH, XXI 65, 107, 108, 11 1, 115).
The cultivated gladioli of our time have been developed from South African
species (Hamilton, 1980).
Gynandriris sisyrinchium (L.) Parl. (Iridaceae)
Sisyrinchion of HP was named Barbary nut, Iris sisyrinchion L. in the “Enquiry”.
I. sisyrinchium with other cormous irises were transferred into the genus Gynandiris
Parl. of which Gynandriris sisyrinchium is a Mediterranean and west IranoTuranian member. Its flowers have a violet-blue to purple perianth (Webb,
1980; Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986: 113-1 14). Theophrastus mentioned it twice; first
in relation to its sessile leaves that grow, in his words, “directly from the root”
[corm; HP, 1.10.71. I n the second place (HP, 7.13.9) the underground parts are
described:
“A peculiarity of Barbary nut is that the lower end of the root grows first,
and this is called . . . [lacuna in the text]; it grows during winter, but, when
spring appears, it decreases, while the upper part, which is edible, grows”.
More light is shed on this obscure description by Pliny:
“sisyrinchion possesses the remarkable property that its bottom grows in
winter, but in the spring-time when the violet [the flower] has appeared,
these diminish while the actual bulb . . . begins to swell out” (NH, XIX 95).
The single internoded corm of G. sisyrinchium carries the renewal bud on its
apex. The new growth, developing from the renewal bud after the first rains,
consists of underground sheath leaves, through the longest of which the scape
will sprout, bearing at its base feeding roots, two leaves and an apical
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
21
inflorescence. The axillary replacement corm, already conspicuous a t flowering,
continues to grow until the season’s end (Galil, 1981).
In light of what is known of the life cycle of sisyrinchion, it is possible to explain
Theophrastus’s and Pliny’s descriptions. The underground growth of the feeding
roots before the elongation of the scape is, probably, the winter growth, while the
increase in size of the axillary replacement corm is the spring growth.
Theophrastus’s interest in the Barbary nut is limited only to its underground
activity, probably because of the corm’s edibleness.
Arum italicum Miller (Araceae)
Aron of HP is identified in the “Enquiry” as A . italicum (cuckoo-pint). This
species of Arum, distributed in southern and western Europe, has an annually
replacing, horizontally oriented tuber, about 5 cm in diameter (Mill, 1984;
Prime, 1980). This ‘fleshy root’ of the cuckoo-pint is, according to Theophrastus,
thick, smooth (HP, 1.6.7-8) and without ‘bark‘ (HP, 7.9.4). Since the tuber is
useful, it receives a special treatment:
“The root [tuber] of cuckoo-pint is also edible, and so are the leaves, if they
are first boiled down in vinegar, they are sweet [both tubers and leaves
contain the water insoluble raphides of the stinging calcium-oxalate which
become soluble in vinegar, Professor E. Glotter, personal communication]
. . . To increase the root, having first stripped off the leaves (and the leaf is
very large), they dig it up and invert it in order that it may not shoot, but
may draw all nourishment into itself’ (HP, 7.12.2; cf. HP, 1.6.10).
He says in another place (HP, 7.13.2) that ‘inverted roots’ “have not a stem at
all nor flower, as the edible cuckoo-pint”. The reason for this treatment is not
specified, not even with the other plant, Muscari comosum, identically treated (HP,
7.12.2). How an inverted tuber, with its roots facing the surface, will be able to
get its “nourishment” from the soil is inexplicable. Pliny tells of a somewhat
similar treatment, carried out with squills, in which the bulbs are not inverted:
“. . . and to make them grow bigger, the leaves, which in this plant are of a
large size, are bent down in a circle round them and covered with soil, so
causing the head [bulbs] to draw all the juice into themselves” (NH, XIX
94).
I n this treatment the covering of the peripheral old leaves, probably increases
the competitive ability of the bulb to draw assimilates from young
photosynthesizing leaves.
Arumpalaestinum Boiss. and Colocasia antiqurum (L.) Schott (cf. HP, 1.6.11) were
cultivated in Palestine during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. According to
the Mishnah (codified early in the 3rd century A . D . ) , it took three years for their
tubers to reach harvest size (Felix, 1973). Concerning the Arum, the Mishnah
(Shevi’ith, 5.2-3) says that it should be covered with earth during the fallow
sabbatical year (probably for storage) and that the leaves are eaten by the poor.
Felix (1980) explains that the corm, consumed as that of its relative, C. antiqurum,
for its starch, is still eaten in Israel by Arabs and Jews from Near Eastern
countries. The Jerusalem Talmud (Yerushalmi) on Shevi’ith, mentions another
agricultural practice concerning Arum, called richun (or dichun; in some
manuscripts r and d are hardly distinguishable). According to Felix (1980) richun
meant bending down (Arum) leaves, probably by stepping on them, before the
spring time flowering, thus preventing the growth of new leaves and the
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M. NEGBI
emergence of the scape. Both these physiological processes draw upon substances
stored in the tuber and reduce it.
Lieberman (1955) tended to view in richun an uprooting process; he based his
argument upon HP, 1.6.10, however he reads turn the root on its side instead of
invert in the “Enquiry”. Since dichun was, according to other Hebrew sources
(Felix, 1980), carried out by foot, it is unlikely that it involved complete
(Theophrastus) or partial (Lieberman) uprooting. Felix’s interpretation to richun
or mine to the practice described by Pliny seem more acceptable. But it requires
more, literary and physiological, enquiry.
Concerning vegetative propagation, Theophrastus includes the cuckoo-pint
among the plants which produce plantable offsets (HP, 7.2.1).
Colchicum parnassicum Sart., Orph. & Heldr. ex. Boiss. (Liliaceae)
Colchicum parnassicum (meadow-saffron), a member of the Colchicum autumnale L.
group, is endemic to central and southern Greece (Brickell, 1980). The
poisonous alkaloid colchicine is derived from its corms and seeds (Stewart &
Stolman, 1960). Its replacing corm is a single swollen internode (Zohary, 1978:
599-60 1) .
Theophrastus mentions it only twice, each time under a different name: as
spalax among herbaceous plants with ‘fleshy roots’ (HP, 1.6.1 1 ) and as ephemeron,
a poisonous plant:
“On the other hand they say that for meadow-saffron (ephemeron) the
antidote has been found; for that there is another root which counteracts
that herb . . . Wherefore, they say that slaves take meadow-saffron when
greatly provoked, and then themselves have recourse to the antidote and
effect a c u r e s e e i n g that the poison does not cause a speedy and easy death
. . .” (HP, 9.16.6).
The twice repeated phrase “they say”, indicates that this is not first-hand
knowledge.
GEOPHYTES WITH PERENNIAL TUBEROUS STEMS
Anemone spp. (Ranunculaceae)
The three anemones referred to in HP were identified in the “Enquiry” as
Anemone coronaria L., A.pavonina Lam. and A. blanda Schott & Kotschy, they are
omni-Mediterranean, south European, and south-east European and north-west
Asian plants, respectively (Tutin, 1964; Davis, Coode & Cullen, 1965).
Anemone coronaria (anemone) is said to bloom soon after the beginning of the
growing season (HP, 7 . 7 . 3 ) . Theophrastus mentions Anemone coronaria as part of
an exact yearly flowering sequence in the Mediterranean landscape:
“both the growing and the flowering are almost continuous throughout the
year, for one continually succeeds to another, so that all seasons are covered;
thus after the dandelion will come the crocus, anemone [A. coronaria],
groundsel and the other plants of winter . . .”(HP, 7.10.2).
The other anemones are described in relation to flowering of plants used by
garland makers. Early in winter “come pheasant’s eye and polyanthus narcissus
and, among wild plants, the kind of anemone which is called the ‘mountain
anemone’ [A,blanda]” (HP, 6.8.1). The meadow kind (A.pavonina) comes with
corn-flag in late winter or spring (HP, 6.8.1).
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
23
Nothing is said about their perennial tuberous hypocotyls (Ben-Hod, 1987) or
flowers. Pliny adds that: "in Greece comes later still [in season] the anemone.
This however is a flower of the wild bulbs [tubers] ... " (NH, XXI 65).
Cyclamen graecum Link (Primulaceae)
Kyklaminos of HP is identified as C. graecum in the "Enquiry". The perennial
hypocotyl-tuber of this geophyte (Meikle & Sinnott, 1972; Feinbrun-Dothan,
1978: 3-4) receives some botanical treatment in HP, but more medicinal and
magicinal information.
Describing different fleshy roots, Theophrastus gives an almost anatomical
observation: "Some are smooth, loose and soft throughout, and, as it were,
without 'bark', as those of cuckoo-pint, while some have a 'bark' attached to the
fleshy part, as those of cyclamen" (HP, 7.9.4).
In dealing with medicinal uses of diverse parts of plants he says that cyclamen
"root is used for suppurating boils; and also a pessary for women, and mixed
with honey, for dressing wounds; the juice for purgings of the head .... They say
also that the root is a good charm for inducing rapid delivery and as a love
potion ... " (HP, 9.9.3; see also HP, 9.9.1). Here Theophrastus uses the phrase
"they say" not just to cite a second hand source but, perhaps also to express his
scepticism (cf. HP, 9.8.4-8).
Pliny describes diverse uses of the cyclamen tuber (NH, XXV, 114-116) and
adds the use of the flower in chaplets (NH, XXI, 51).
BULBOUS GEOPHYTES
Urginea maritima (L.) Baker, Syn. Drimia maritima (L.) Stearn (Liliaceae)
The squill (skilla in HP) is an omni-Mediterranean hysteranthous plant that
flowers before the rains. Its large perennial bulb is made of numerous scales (cf.
Speta, 1980) the outer of which become papery, its stem is devoid of leaves,
carrying a dense raceme of flowers that develop acropetally. Its seeds ripen and
disperse well before leaf emergence (Dafni, Shmida & Avishi, 1981). McNeill
(1980) states that its leaves emerge bifore blooming; possibly after was intended,
which agrees with Theophrastus; Dafni et al., 1981 and my observations in Israel
and Greece.
Most of these basic facts were known to Theophrastus. The bulbs of the squill
and those of some other geophytes, he says:
" ... have scales [husk like outer covering-not the inner scales] or a kind of
bark, as those of squill and purse-tassels and also of onion and things like
these. In all these it is possible to strip off a coat" (HP, 1.6. 7 cf. HP, 1.6.8-9).
The bulbs of these plants, he says, "consist of several layers" (HP, 7.9.4).
The squill also produces offsets (HP, 7.2.2) and like "the onion put out
another and another growth straight from the root" (HP, 7.4.12). The leaves are
broad; tear easily (HP, 7.13.1), "have no leaf-stalk" and "grow directly from the
root [bulb]" (HP, 1.10.7). The leafless flowering stem (HP, 1.10.7; 7.13.2) is
compared to that of the asphodel which "does not produce all its flowers at once;
in which respect it resembles squill, but the flowering begins at the bottom" (HP,
7.13.3; but so it is in the squill).
On the flowering and hysteranthous habit he says:
"It is found in squill and narcissus: namely that, whereas in most plants ...
24
M. NEGBI
the leaf comes up first and then presently the [flowering] stem, in these
plants the stem come up first” (HP, 7.13.5). “[But] in squill it is the stem
proper which thus appears and presently the flower appears emerging from
and sitting on it” (HP, 7.13.6).
Theophrastus notes the significance of squill flowering as signs for agricultural
practices:
“And it makes three flowering [namely, three flowering stems appear from
the same plant], of which the first appears to mark the first seed-time, the
second the middle one and the third the last one [of the autumn and early
winter]; for, according as these flowering have occurred, so the crop usually
turn out [cf. De Signis 55 where schinos and its fruiting seasons are described
as signs for sowing time]. But, when the flower-stem has waxed old, then the
growth of the leaves follow many days later” (HP, 7.13.6; cf. confused and
contradictory HP, 7.13.7).
The reading of squill for schinos in “Concerning Weather Signs” (De signis) is
preferable to mastich, since Pistacia lentiscus L. flowers in the spring which is not
the main season of sowing time in the Mediterranean region. However, it is not
clear howjowering in HP, 7.13.6 has changed to fruiting in De signis. Pliny also
saysjowering (NH, XVIII, 244).
Theophrastus says that all bulbous plants:
“are tenacious of life but especially squill, for this even lives when hung up
and continues to do so for a very long time, it is even able to keep other
things that are stored, for instance the pomegranate, if the stalk of the fruit
is set in it; and some cuttings strike more quickly if set in it;” (HP, 7.13.4).
It is, indeed, well known that the squill may flower for several consecutive years
without leaf formation when kept out of the ground under room conditions
(Dafni et al., 1981). And: “The fig progresses more quickly and is less eaten by
grubs, if the cutting is set in a squill-bulb, in fact anything so planted is vigorous
and grows faster” (HP, 2.5.5; and CP, 5.6.10; 5.9.5, where schinos is, probably,
squill or a squill-like plant and not mastich (Pistacia lentiscus) as in HP, 9.1.2; in
Pliny ( N H , XVII, 87) the fig “is planted in a squill”).
Jewish farmers at the time of the Mishnah were well aware of this
horticultural practice. Their religious law specifically forbade it because it
constitute the prohibited kilayim (“hybrids” or “diverse kinds”) of a tree in a
vegetable:
“A fig tree shoot may not be planted in squill that this may shade it, nor
may a vine-shoot be trained into a water-melon that this may pour its juice
onto it, since that is [the graft] a tree to a vegetable” (The Mishnah, 1933:
29).
The possibility that the bulb supplies the cutting not only with moisture but
also with rooting hormones, such as auxins (Felix, 1967), has not, so far been
investigated.
Scilla autumnalis L., S. bzfolia L. (Liliaceae)
These two species S. autumnalis, autumn squill (tiphoun, of HP) and S.bzfolia
(iakinthos he agria, of HP) are only briefly mentioned, S. autumnalis only once, as
an hysteranthouse plant:
“. . . those which bloom before the leaves and stems appear (as the autumn
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
25
squill seems to do, and other plants with conspicuous flowers, as well as,
among trees, the almond especially, if not alone) . . .” (HP, 7.13.7).
Here Theophrastus forcefully widens the scope of hysteranthy by including
trees which bloom before leaf appearance. Scilla. autumnalis is described as a subhysteranthous (McNeill, 1980) or hysteranthous species (Dafni et al., 1981).
Scilla bifolia is listed among plants that bloom late in winter or spring and not
for a short time (HP, 6.8.1-2). In Europe and in Israel it is described as
synanthous plant (McNeill, 1980; Zohary, 1978: 605).
Muscari comosum (L.) Miller, Syn. Leopoldia comosa (L.) Parl. (Liliaceae)
This bulbous plant, purse-tassels in the “Enquiry”, and bolbos in HP, is a
Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian species with a perennial bulb and a
racemose inflorescence of pale flowers topped by a tuft (coma) of sterile, showy,
violet pedicels (Eig, Zohary & Feinbrun, 1952: 366, 410, where it is named
Leopoldia comosa (L.) Parl.; Davis & Stuart, 1980).
The bulb of purse-tassels and its offsets are described in HP together with
those of the squill (cf. HP, 1.6.7-9; 7.2.2-3; 7.4.12; 7.9.4). Propagation by offsets
is described as follows:
“By roots [i.e., offsets-translator’s note] are planted garlic, onion, pursetassels, cuckoo-pint and in general such bulbous [and cormous] plants. Such
propagation is also possible in cases where the root persist for more than a
year, though the shoots last but for a year” (HP, 7.2.1).
Theophrastus (HP, 7.12.2) also says that the root [bulb] of purse-tassels is
edible and made to increase in size by a treatment similar to that described for
Arum italicum (see above).
Purse-tassels has narrow leaves (HP, 7.13.1) attached directly to the bulb
without leaf-stalks (HP, 1.10.7).
From Theophrastus’s sequence of the flowering seasons of coronary plants, one
may assume that “the ‘head’ of purse-tassels, for this too some interweave in
their garlands” (HP, 6.8.1), blooms in winter, Why ‘head’ is not clear, for
M . comosum inflorescence is a raceme and not an umbel or capitulum. Flowering
time in Israel is February to April (Eig et al., 1952: 366; flowering period is not
given in Flora Europaea (Davis & Stuart, 1980)).
Purse-tassels is also propagated by seed (HP, 7.13.2) and:
“It is said to be peculiarity of purse-tassels that all the seed do not
germinate a t once, but some in the same year, some in the next year” (HP,
7.13.5).
This mechanism of spreading germination in time was known to Theophrastus in
three other plants: Aegilops ovata L., clover ( T r i f l i u m fragzfrum L., HP, 7.13.5)
and beet (Beta maritima L., HP, 7.1.6; see also Evenari, 1984). It is remarkable that
this phenomenon was discovered not only in cultivated plants. Describing the
phenomenon in the cultivated beet he says: “. . . wherefore it is said that little
comes up from much seed” (HP, 7.1.6). Purse-tassels was, probably, also
cultivated in his time, since he mentioned a method to increase its bulb and
described its propagation from offsets (see above). It is impossible to tell whether
his clover (lotos) is a wild or cultivated plant. The aegilops is described as a weed,
and its germination was studied probably in order to control i t (cf. HP,
8.9.9).
26
M. NEGBI
Lilium candidum L., L. martagon L. & L. chalcedonicum L. (Liliaceae)
Three Lilium species are named in the “Enquiry”: L. candidum, Madonna lily for
leirion and krinon; L. martagon for hemerokalles; and L . chalcedonicum, Turks’ cap lily
for krinon to porphyroun. All are geophytes with perennial bulbs, made of
overlapping scales without a tunic, and a tall leafy flowering stem.
Lilium candidum is an east Mediterranean species, cultivated for generations for
its white flowers (5-15 on a stem). Lilium. martagon, spread over central and
southern Europe, bears 5- 10 pink to dark purplish flowers. Lilium chalcedonicum
grows in Greece and Albania, bearing 1-12 orange-red flowers. I n these species
the long filaments of the stamens have colours similar to that of the perianth.
(Eig el al., 1952: 361; Matthews, 1980).
The longest passage on the lilies in HP describes the flower, bulb, bulblets and
seed:
“krina (lilies) shew variation in colour which have been already mentioned
[HP, 6.6.31. The plant has in general a single stem, but occasionally divides
into two, which may be due to difference in position and climate. O n each
stem grows sometimes one flower, but sometimes more; (for it is the top of
the stem which produce the flower) but this sort is less common. There is
ample root [bulb], which is fleshy and round”.
“If the fruit [seed] is taken off, it germinates and produces a fresh plant, but
of smaller size; the plant also produce a sort of tear-like exudation, which
men also plant, as we have said” (HP, 6.6.8).
Leaves are not included in this general description, they are mentioned
elsewhere in comparison with those of the narcissus (HP, 6.6.9) and meadowsaffron (HP, 9.16.6).
The lily (krinon) flowers in summer together with Lychnis coronaria (L.) Desr.
and carnation (HP, 6.8.3).
The long colourful stamens in the big flower of the lily impressed
Theophrastus for he considered them as in inner flower within the outer one, the
perian th:
<L
However, among annuals, most are of this character-their
flowers are
two-coloured and twofold. I mean by ‘two-fold’ that the plant has another
flower inside the flower, in the middle as with rose, lily [krz&on],violet” (HP,
1.13.2).
Other flowers are compared in form, colour and scent to that of L. candidum:
the flower of Nymphaea stellata Willd. “is white, resembling in the narrowness of
its petals those of the krinon, but there are many petals growing close one upon
another” (HP, 4.8.9); “The flower of the elder [Sambucus nigra L.] is white . . .
and it has the heavy fragrance of lilies [leirii]” (HP, 3.13.6); “The flower [of
Smilax aspera L.] is white and fragrant like a lily [leirion]” (HP, 3.18.11.
The flower is also instrumental in the differentiation of taxa:
“. . . the colour evidently varies; as does still more that of the lilies [krina],if
it be true, as some say, that there is a crimson kind” (krinon to
porphyroun = L. chalcedonicum; HP, 6.6.3).
The martagon lily (hemerokalles), was considered a cultivated under-shrub
grown for its flowers (HP, 6.1.1) and propagated from seed (HP, 6.6.1 1).
Lilies in general were also propagated, as we have already seen, from bulblets
(tear-like exudation). O n the vegetative propagation of lilies Theophrastus has
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
27
more to say:
" ... roses and lilies (krinonia) grow from pieces of the stems as also dog'stooth grass [Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.]. Lilies and roses grow when the
whole stem is set. Most peculiar is the method of growth from exudation
[i.e. bulbils-translator's note] for it appears that the lily grows in this way
too, when the exudation that has been produced has dried up" (HP, 2.2.1
cf. HP, 9.1.4).
These methods of reproduction are described in CP as well and explained,
correctly, by the translator:
"In lily and rose even the split stem grows and sends out shoots [these ...
may develop from buds at the nodes or from adventitious buds which may
develop from the callus which forms at the cut surface of the
stem-translator's note]" (CP, 1.4.4).
"The most distinctive mode of generation is from exudations [that is, from
bulbis or bulblets .... formed above ground ... in the axials of the leaves of
the common bulbiferous lily . . . from the translator's note] as in the
alexander [Smyrnium olusatrum L.], lily and a few others" (CP, 1.4.6).
Naturalistic representations of white lilies (L. candidum) have been found on
many jars uncovered in Minoan Crete and Thera (late 16th century B.c.). Most
impressive were those on frescoes: white lily in Amnisos, Crete and purple ones
(L. martagon or L. chalcedonicum) in Hagia Triada, Crete, and Akrotiri, Thera
(Higgins, 1967; Hood, 1978; Rackham, 1978; Doumas, 1983; Marinatos, 1984:
chap. VII). These are among the best plant paintings made in the Aegean
world, one cannot tell whether they were already cultivated or wild. However, it
is very tempting to consider them the forerunners of Greek biology, as the
Minoan portrayals of animals by Charles Singer ( 1921: 11-12) did.
Allium spp. (Liliaceae)
The cultivated bulbous Allium cepa L., A. sativum L., A. porrum L. and the wild
A. nigrim L. are treated by Theophrastus mainly in Chapter 7 of Historia
Plantarum. The structure of their bulbs and offset formation were dealt with in
HP and, consequently in this article, in connection with other bulbous plants,
Uriginea maritima and Muscari comosum. A fuller review of onions and their allies in
Theophrastus and Pliny (NH Books XXXII-XXXIV) will be attempted in a
separate article.
Narcissus serotinus L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Both narkissos and the other leirion (leirion to heteron) of HP were identified in
the "Enquiry" as Narcissus serotinus. This Mediterranean bulbous plant is
hysteranthous. Its bicoloured flowers, white perianth and orange corona, appear
in autumn and its leaves, usually, in spring (Webb, 1980a; Dafni et al., 1981).
Theophrastus deals with this plant, cultivated in his time, in some detail:
"The narcissus or leirion (for some call it by one name, some by the other)
has its ground-leaves like those of the asphodel, but much broader, like
those of the krinon lily [cf. HP, 7.13.1], ... its stem is leafless and grass-green
and bears the flower at the top [cf. HP, 7.13.2]; the fruit [seed] is in a kind of
membrane-like vessel [capsule] and is very large, black ... and oblong ...
28
M. NEGBI
This as it falls germinates of its own accord; however men collect and set the
seed and also plant the root [bulb], which is fleshy, round and large. The
plant blooms very late, after the setting of Arcturus about the equinox”
(HP, 6.6.9).
Professor Sharples wrote to me that the exact reading of the last sentence
should be : “. . . after Arcturus and around the equinox”. Taking into
consideration the calendars of Theophrastus and his contemporaries
(Introduction to CP, pp. xlvi-lix) and that C. serotinus blooms in autumn (Webb,
1980), this sentence could read: “The plant blooms after the rising of Arcturus
and around the autumnal equinox [September 221”. The autumnal flowering is
mentioned once more in HP (6.8.3), and in more detail, with speculation about
the nature of hysteranthy in CP:
“SO too the [season is advanced toward autumn] with . . . bulbous plants . . .
autumn squill, and narcissus. Some even sprout after the rising of Arcturus,
whether we should say that they sprout later than the rest and call them
“late” or else call them “early”, since they come out with the first rains, for
it makes no difference at the moment” (CP, 1.10.5).
The autumn flowering is compared with that of the squill:
“In the case of narcissus it is only the flower-stem which comes up, and it
immediately pushes up the flower. . . But, when the flower-stem [of Urginea]
has waxed old, then the growth of the leaves follows many days later. So
also is it with narcissus, except that it has no second stem besides the flowerstem, as we said [HP, 7.13.21, nor any visible fruit [this is in contrast with
what he says in HP, 6.6.91; but the flower itself perishes with the stem, and
when it has withered, then the plant puts up its leaves” (HP, 7.13.6; cf.
confused passage 7.13.7 which ends, however; “About these matters then
there is doubt”!).
Narcissus tazetta L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Leirion was identified in the “Enquiry” as either Narcissus spp. or the
polyanthus-narcissus N . tazetta. The polymorphic N . tazetta, is a Mediterranean
species cultivated for centuries. It has a large bulb and very fragrant flowers,
with a white perianth and yellow or orange corona (Webb, 1980), which appear
after the foliage (Eig et al., 1952: 368). Theophrastus describes the flower:
“Some flowers again consist of a single “leaf’ [i.e. are gamopetalous (or
gameosepa1ous)-translator’s note; Narcissus has connate perianth tube and
free perianth segments] having merely as an indication of more, as that of
bindweed [Calystegia sepium (L.) R.Br. or Conuoluulus aruensis (L.)]. For in the
flower of this the separate ‘leaves’ are not distinct; nor it is so in the lower
part of the narcissus, but there are angular projections from the edges
[=corona]” (HP, 1.13.2).
Narcissus. taeetta blooms with narkissos ( N .poeticus L.; a name given only once in
the “Enquiry”), in the winter (HP, 6.8.1). The polyanthus-narcissus is also
increased from seeds (HP, 7.13.4) as N. serotinus (see above, HP, 6.6.9).
Pancratium maritimum L. (Amaryllidaceae)
Pancratium maritimurn is an hysteranthous or sub-hysteranthous bulbous plant
which inhabits the shores of the Mediterranean, the Atlantic in the Magreb,
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
29
Iberian peninsula and France and also those of the Black and Caspian seas
(Webb, 1980). The plant described briefly in HP as bolbos ho eriophoros has been
identified as this:
"But the greatest and most distinct differences is shown by the 'woolbearing' purse-tassels; for there is such a kind, and it grows on the sea-shore,
and it has the wool beneath the outer tunic, so that it is between the edible
inside and the outside: of it are woven felt shoes and other articles of
apparel" (HP, 7.13.8).
This property of P. maritimum is not described in standard publications of the
eastern Mediterranean flora (Eig et al., 1952: 369; Post, 1933: 609; Zohary, 1978;
Webb, 1980).
Pliny is not certain about this plant, which he reads in HP simply as bolbos
(and so Rackham translated it as Muscari comosum). He changed its habitat from
sea-shore into river banks, and adds, referring to Theophrastus:
" ... but he does not state, at all events in the copies of his work that have
come into my hands, either the region in which this manufacture goes on or
any particulars in regard to it beyond the fact that the plant is called 'woolbearing' ... " (HN, XIX, 32).
At the present we cannot offer any solution as to the real identity of
Theophrastus's bolbos ho eriophoros.
GEOPHYTES WITH TUBEROUS ROOTS
Asphodelus ramosus L. and A. aestivus Brot. (Liliaceae)
Asphodelus ramosus is a south-west European species, extending eastwards to
south-west Greece (Richardson & Smythies, 1980). It has a short rhizomatous
stem, clusters of replacing napiform roots and a much branched, scape 40150 em tall.
Theophrastus describes asphodel as an amphibious plant (HP, 1.4.3), but
otherwise his treatment is very realistic:
'[leaves] in most pot-herbs ... grow directly from the root, as in asphodel
... " (HP, 1.10.7). "Asphodel has a long leafwhich is somewhat narrow and
tough" (HP, 7 .13.1). " ... the root of some [are] oblong and acorn-shaped
as those of asphodel and crocus ... " (HP, 7.9.4).
It has "the tallest [stem] of all [herbs which have fleshy or tuberous
roots)-for the antherikos (asphodel-stem) is very tall ... Asphodel also produce
much fruit [seed) and ... is woody: ... it is triangular and ... black; it is found
in the round vessel [capsule] which is below the flower [since the tepals are
connate in their bases the flower seems to begin above the ovary], and it falls out
in summer when this splits open (cf. HP, 7.13.4). It does not produce all its
flower at once; ... the flowering begins at the bottom .... A peculiarity of the
plant as compared with others which have a smooth stem appears to be that,
though it is slender, it has outgrowth at the top. It provides many things useful
for food: the stalk is edible when fried, the seed when roasted, and above all the
root [cf. HP, 7.12.1] when cut up with figs; in fact Hesiod says [Op. 41], the plant
is extremely profitable" (HP, 7.13.2-3).
These descriptions of the asphodel are correct and the details concerning root
shape, seed shape and colour, and capsule splitting show a first hand knowledge
30
M. NEGBI
of the plant. Moreover, an insect that lives in the stem and its metamorphosis are
also known to him:
“In the stalk of asphodel forms a grub which changes into another creature
like a hornet, and then, when the stem withers, eats its way out and flies
away” (HP, 7.13.3).
The late Professor Isaac Harpaz and Professor David Rosen (personal
communication) think that this insect may be a member of Syrphidae (Diptera),
whose larvae are grubs and the adults mimic in their colours hornets and bees.
However, those in Israel burrow in narcissus and onion bulbs and in the lower
part of the stem of the omni-Mediterranean Asphodelus aestivus Brot.
( = A . microcarpus Viv.). The exact species cannot be determined from the details
given by Theophrastus.
Flowering of the asphodel is also described in HP, but under another name
pothos:
“[in] summer [flowers] . . . the plant called regret (pothos), of which there
are two kinds, one with a flower like that of larkspur [Debhinium orientale
Sims] the other not coloured but white, which is used at funerals, and this
one lasts longer” (HP, 6.8.3).
The flowering season of A . ramosus is not specified in Flora Europaea, but its
relative A. microcarpus ( = A . aestivus) blooms in Israel from January to April (Eig
el al., 1952: 356).
Based on Theophrastus’s description of the oblong root (HP, 7.9.4) and his
consideration of the antherikus as the tallest of all flowering stems of this plant
group (HP, 7.13.2), I think that Theophrastus’s asphodel is not A. ramosus
which has napiform roots, a scape of 40-150 cm and is limited only to south west
Greece. Asphodelus aestivus, which has fusiform roots, scapes of two metres and is
distributed all over Greece (Richardson & Smythie, 1980) seems like a better
candidate.
Aconitum anthora L. (Ranunculaceae)
Monkshood or wolfs bane appears in HP under four different names: akoniton,
thelyphonon, mouphonon and skorpios. Aconitum anthora is known today and in
antiquity as a source for the poisonous alkaloids aconitine and pseudo-aconitine,
is a perennial with stout leafy stems and tuberous stock with brown fragile roots.
It is spread, according to Tutin (1964) in south, central and east Europe and
only in northern Greece; according to Shteinberg (1937) its distribution range
includes Crimea, Caucasus and the east Mediterranean area. According to
Theophrastus it grows in Crete and Zakynthos, but is most abundant and best in
Herakleia in Pontus (HP, 9.14.4). In order to accept the name given in the
“Enquiry”, the wider distribution of-the species seems more acceptable since it
includes both Greece and Pontus.
Aconitum has a hollow stem, like that of ferula, and is therefore described by
6.1.4). The stem is also very fibrous (HP,
Theophrastus as a spineless plant (HP,
6.1.4; 6.2.9) and:
“it has a leaf like chicory [cyclamen in HP, 9.18.21, a root like in shape and
colour to a prawn [scorpion in HP, 9.18.21, and in this root resides its
deadly property, whereas they say that the leaf and fruit produce no effect.
The fruit is that of a herb, not that of a shrub or tree. [If he means here fruit
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
31
in our sense of the word, and not seed, he probably refers to the dry
dehiscent capsule of Aconitum as contrasted with fleshy fruits of many fruit
trees.] It is a low-growing herb and shows no special features, but is like
corn, except that the seed is not in an ear. It grows everywhere and not only
at Akonai, from whence it gets its name ... " (HP, 9.16.4-5).
He goes on to describe its uses as an antidote (HP, 9.16.7; 9.18.2) and relates a
number of incredible stories, of which he says "Indeed fabulous tales are not
composed without some reason" (HP, 9.18.2).
RHIZOMATOUS GEOPHYTES
Iris pallida Lam. (Iridaceae)
The iris of HP, identified as Iris pallida in the "Enquiry", is endemic to north
Italy and north Jugoslavia and naturalized in south Europe. It is a rhizomatous
iris with relatively tall stem (up to 120 em) and long leaves (up to 60 em; Webb
& Chater, 1980).
Theophrastus describes a plant that blooms in summer (HP, l. 7.2), has a
fragrant 'root' (HP, 1. 7.2), a tough stem similar to, but smaller than, that of the
asphodel (HP, 7.13.2) and reed-like leaves (HP, 7.13.1). Its fragrance is
mentioned in HP, 4.5.2 and again in the section (HP, 9. 7) entitled by the
translator "Of other aromatic plants-all oriental, except the iris":
"From Europe itself comes ... the iris. This is best in Illyria, not in the part
near the sea, but in that which is further inland and lives more to the north.
In different districts it varies· in quality; no special attention is needed,
except to scrape the roots clean and dry them" (HP, 9. 7.3-4).
Drying the roots is important for keeping them, but they also are more
fragrant when dried (CP, 6.11.13; 6.14.8). Iris root are less fragrant in
Macedonia and Thrace, where the soil is rich and damp (CP, 6.18.12).
In a note (to HP, 4.5.2) Sir Arthur Hort refers to the modern use of the 'orrisroot'-the dry rhizomes of several European species of Iris. It is used today in
perfumes, sachets and as additives to soaps and dentifrice (Pai, 1974). Though
Theophrastus does not specify its ancient use in HP, he does describe the making
of perfume from iris root in Concerning Odours, 23.24. 28.33, ("Enquiry" Vol. 2:
345-351).
Another iris (xiris), referred to briefly in a section on superstitious habits
concerning root extraction (HP, 9.8. 7), is identified in the "Enquiry" as Iris
foetidissima L.
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (Gramineae)
Theophrastus's agrostis, dog's-tooth grass (Cynodon dactylon) in the "Enquiry", is
mentioned several times in HP together with the galingale (Cyperus longus L.) and
reeds, mainly because of their jointed rhizomes (roots; HP, 1.6. 7, see
above-Theophrastus on Geophilus Organs).
This rhizomatous plant is a weed over large parts of the old and new worlds
(Tutin, 1980). The features that make this plant a weed were known to
Theophrastus:
"[Dog's-tooth grass] tends downwards quite as much as upward, and shew
32
M. NEGBI
their strength in that direction ... therefore these plants ... are hard to
destroy" (HP, 4.10.5; see also HP, 1.6.10).
And more on its growth:
"Dog's-tooth grass grows almost the same way ... from the joints for the
roots [rhizomes] are jointed, and from each joint it sends a shoot upwards
and a root downwards" (HP, 4.10.6).
The difficulties of eradicating C. dactylon by mechanical means are still
common knowledge for, as Theophrastus says, dog's-tooth grass "grow from
pieces of the stems" (HP, 2.2.1).
Cyperus longus L. (Cperaceae)
Kypeiros of HP is defined as gaiingale, C. longus, in the "Enquiry". This Cyperus
species is spread widely in the Mediterranean and Irano-Turanian
phytogeographical areas as well as in central and western Europe. It is perennial
plant with long rhizomes, 3-10 mm wide, tall solitary stems and leaves, 2-10 mm
wide, whose umbels are subtended by 2-6 bracts, the outer exceeding the
inflorescence rays (DeFilipps, 1980; Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986: 362).
There is more information in HP concerning Cyperus longus than any other
sedge or reed. The general description of the rhizome by Theophrastus, as being
similar to the above ground parts of the reed by having joints and being fastened
in the ground by their fine roots and hence not being a true root (HP, 1.6.7), has
already been cited herein and would not be repeated here or in the description of
other rhizomatous geophytes and hydro-geophytes.
In contrast with the general description of reeds, Theophrastus says that the
stem of some marsh and pond plants, such as galingale, are smooth and without
joints (HP, 1.5.3). In another place he says that galingale has a few knots on it
stem (HP, 1.8.1). The leaves are pointed (HP, 1.10.5) and familiar, for he
compares them to those of other plants (HP, 4.8.12; 4.11.12).
Besides growing "in clumps and ... common to almost all rivers, marshes and
lakes" (HP, 4.8.1), Theophrastus describes it in lake Copai:s in Boetia, some
70 km from Athens. In classical times, in spite of attempts to drain it, the lake
was always swampy (Dunbabin & Hooper, 1970).
In his detailed account of the hydrophytes of lake Copai:s (HP, 4.10 and parts
of 4.11) he says of Cyperus longus:
"Most peculiar of these ... is ... [Typha angustata Bory & Chaub.] ... in not
having roots as the others; for the others tend downwards quite as much as
upwards and shew strength in that direction; and especially it is true of
galingale ... therefore these plants too and all others like them are hard to
destroy. The root of galinga1e exceeds 'all the others in diversity of
characters which it shews, in that part of it is stout and fleshy, part slender
and woody. So also is this plant peculiar in its way of shooting and
originating; for from the trunk-like stock [rhizome-translator's note] grows
another slender root sideways, [stolon-translator's note] and on this again
forms the fleshy part which contains the shoot from which the stalk springs.
In like manner it also sends out roots downwards, wherefore of all plants it
is hardest to kill, and troublesome to get rid of' (HP, 4.1 0.5).
It is clear that Theophrastus describes the mature rhizome as trunk-like stock,
the side branching new rhizomes as another slender root (not necessarily stolons)
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
33
and the buds they bear will sprout (spring up) to form erect flowering stems.
It was necessary to get rid of the galingale for it, probably, spread from the
lake into the near-by fields and hampered agriculture. Theophrastus says that it
grows on the lake's shores, in its water and as "they say":
"some of these plants grow also on the floating islands, for instance
galingale, sedge and phleos; thus all parts of the lake contain these plants"
(HP, 4.10.6).
So, though lake Copai:s was not far from Athens, Theophrastus did not see
those floating islands, he only heard of them (cf. HP, 4. 12.2) .
Galingale was also used as child food, especially the tender part next to the
'root' (HP, 4.10.7). This tender part is probably the newly sprouting buds, of
either the erect stems or the creeping rhizomes.
Cyperus papyrus L. (Cyperaceae)
The papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) is described with two other Cyperus species in HP,
4.8 in a chapter entitled by the translator: "On the plants of rivers, marshes and lakes,
especially in Egypt". Thus it is obvious that Theophrastus's information about this
and other Egyptian plants is second-hand, but it does, botanically speaking,
deserve all possible praise (see Conclusions).
The papyrus is a tropical African plant, introduced to or spontaneous in
Egypt, Sicily, Malta and Israel. In the Near East it extends as far north as lake
Hula (or Huleh) in the upper Jordan valley (DeFilipps, 1980; Feinbrun-Dothan,
1986: 358-359.
The two last mentioned features of Cyperus longus should have been taken into
consideration when early Aegean depictions of sedges were described as those of
C. papyrus. The papyrus has no leaves, and its bracts are much shorter than the
rays of the umbel (Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986: 358-359); cf. Smith (1965), Negbi
(1978) and Warren (1979). Warren's thesis that the setting of the 'Miniature
Fresco' from the west house in Akrotiri, Thera, is Aegean rather than African,
may be strengthened by identifying the sedge depicted on it as C. longus rather
than C. papyrus.
On its cultivation in Hellenistic and Roman Egypt see Lewis (1974: 108-114)
Papyrus in Classical Antiquiry. Today, it is of a much limited spread, a process
which had probably already started at the time ofTiberius (Sarton, 1964: 24--26,
and n.l4: 24). Lewis (1974: 4-5) says that it gradually disappeared from most of
Egypt in the Middle Ages, when the demand for writing material from this plant
had ceased.
Theophrastus describes the plant and its habitat:
"The papyrus does not grow in deep water, but only in a depth of about
two cubits, and sometimes shallower. The thickness of the root [rhizome] is
that of the wrist of a stalwart man, and the length above four cubits; it
grows above the ground itself, throwing down slender matted roots into the
mud, and producing above the stalks which give it its name 'papyrus'; these
are three-cornered and about ten cubits long, having a plume which is
useless and weak, and no fruit whatever; and these stalks the plant sends up
at many points"(HP, 4.8.3).
This description is so accurate, as if Theophrastus himself had examined the
plant in its habitat. The erroneous statement that it does not fruit is probably
34
M. NEGBI
due to the fruit (nut) being shorter than the glumes (1/2~3/5) enclosing it
(DeFilipps, 1980). Later on he deals with some of the plant's uses putting in
proportion it use in paper making, a subject mentioned earlier by Herodotos and
later described excellently by Pliny (NH, XIII, 23~27). Theophrastus says:
"They use the roots instead of wood, not only for burning, but also for
making a great variety of articles ... The 'papyrus' [the stalk~translator's
note] itself is useful for many purposes; ... they make boats from it, and
from the rind they weave sails, mats, a kind of raiment, coverlets, ropes and
many other things. Most familiar to foreigners are the papyrus-rolls made of
it; but above all the plant also is of very great use in the way offood. For all
the natives chew the papyrus both raw, boiled and roasted; they swallow
the juice and spit out the quid. Such is the papyrus and such its uses" (HP,
4.8.4).
Herodotus in The Histories mentioned several of the uses of the papyrus
described later by Theophrastus, including its usage in shoe making, which the
latter does not mention (cf. Lewis, 1974: 21~32). Nevertheless, it seems that
Theophrastus does not base his knowledge concerning the usages of the plant on
Herodotus; moreover, his botanical information are not mentioned in The
Histories.
Theophrastus also described the papyrus of lake Huleh (see above): "It grows
also in Syria about the lake in which grows also sweet-flag [Acarus calamus L. ];
and Antigonus made of it the cables for his ships" (HP, 4.8.5). Pliny gives more
details about the use of the papyrus of lake Hula, though he, mistakenly, calls
the monarch Antiochus instead of Antigonus. He says that the King "would only
allow rope made from this Syrian papyrus to be used in his navy" (NH, XIII,
22). Antigonus Monopthalamus, engaged in continuous wars with Ptolemy I
Soter, who controlled Egypt and its papyrus, was fortunate to have the northernmost papyrus in his domain (Lewis, 1974: 8; cf. Introduction to CP, p. viii).
Cyperus auricomus Sieber ex Sprengel (Cyperaceae)
Sari, identified in the "Enquiry" as C. auricomus, an African plant with short
rhizomes and 50~100cm tall stems (DeFilipps, 1980), is mentioned by
Theophrastus as an Egyptian plant, useful as food as the papyros (HP, 4.8.2). He
describes its habitat, form and uses in some detail:
"The sari grows in water in marshes and plains, when the river left them, it
has a hard twisted root [rhizome], and from it grows what they call the saria
[stalks, like those of the papyrus~translator's note]; these are about two
cubits long and as thick as a man's thumb; this stalk too is three-cornered,
like the papyrus, and has a similar foliage. This also they chew, spitting out
the quid; and smiths use the root, for its makes excellent charcoal, because
the wood is hard" (HP, 4.8.5).
Cyperus esculentus L. (Cyperaceae)
Mnasion ( = malinathalle) of HP, identified in the "Enquiry" as Cyperus esculentus,
is an annual or perennial plant with long slender rhizomes, sometimes with
tubers up to 155 mm in diameter. It is widespread in the Mediterranean and
southern Europe. The cultivated variety, sativus, is grown in southern and
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
35
central Europe for its edible tubers (tiger nuts), has larger and more elongated
tubers and seldom flowers (DeFilipps, 1980). In HP, C. esculentus is described as
an herbaceous plant that has not other "use except for food" (HP, 4.8.6). It is as
edible as the sari and papyros (HP, 4.8.6). Its description is as follows:
"On sandy places [in Egypt] which are not far from the river there grows
under ground the thing called malinathalle [the tuber]; this is round in shape
and as large as medlar, but has no stone and no bark. It sends out leaves
like those of galingale. These the people of the country collect and boil in
beer made from barley, and they become extremely sweet, and all men use
them as sweetmeats" (HP, 4.8.12).
Cyperus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae)
Kypeiron of HP, mentioned only once in a list of perfume plants growing in Asia
and sunny regions (HP, 9.7.3), is identified as C. rotundus in the "Enquiry". It is a
Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Tropical species whose young tubers are
edible and used in popular medicine (DeFilipps, 1980). Though Theophrastus
does not say which part of the plant is fragrant, we may assume it is the tuber.
Carex riparia Curtis (Cyperaceae)
Boutomos of HP, Carex riparia of the "Enquiry", grows almost all over Europe in
wet meadows, marshes and ditches (Chater, 1980). Theophrastus describes it as
a plant with a smooth stem (HP, 1.5.3) and pointed leaves (HP, 1.10.5), which
grows in clumps (HP, 4.8.1). In lake Co pais it occupies the three habitats-land,
water and floating islands (HP, 4.10.6). Its tender part next to the root is eaten
by children (HP, 4.10.7). It has two forms, a 'female'-barren but useful for
basketry, and a useless 'male' (HP, 4.10.4).
It is not clear on what grounds Carex riparia was chosen to represent boutomos.
In Greece (according to Flora Europaea) there are about ten more Carex spp. in
similar habitats (Chater, 1980).
Erianthus ravennae (L.) Beauv., Syn. =Saccharum ravennae (L.) Murray
(Gramineae)
Phleos of HP, Erianthus ravennae of the "Enquiry", is also one of the plants of lake
Copai:s which grows on land, in the water and on the floating islands (HP,
4.10.1; 4.1.6).
Saccharum ( =Erianthus) ravennae is a rhizomatous perennial, 2-3m tall. It
grows in large crowded tufts on stream banks and marshes in the Mediterranean
and lrano-Turanian zones. Its inflorescence is a large open panicle of numerous
fragile racemes (Clayton, 1980; Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986: 319-321).
Phleos has a tender part next to the root (a budding rhizome or vertical shoot)
which is eaten by children, while the rhizome is eaten by cattle (HP, 4.1 0. 7).
The fruit of phleos is what Theophrastus calls the 'plume'. It is used as soap or
lye. The inflorescence or its product (it is not clear which) is soft, cake-like and
reddish. The barren 'female' plant of phleos is useful for basket work (HP, 4.1 0.4).
36
M. NEGBI
REEDS
Reeds (kalamoi) are described by Theophrastus under different headings.
Those with epithet were given specific names in the "Enquiry", others are called
just reeds.
Those described as reeds in general, have a fibrous bark of only one coat (HP,
1.5.2). It is possible that Theophrastus considered the leaf sheath that covers the
reed as a single coated bark (cf. HP, l.l 0.9). The core of the reed is described as
membranous (HP, 1.6.2)-he probably refers to the horizontal partitions in the
hollow reed at every joint (cf. the 'tube-reed' of HP, 4.11.1 0).
Their jointed root resembles the jointed above-ground parts (HP, 1.5.3; 1.6. 7;
1.8.5; 4.11.12) and, hence, are not root (see above Theophrastus on Geophilous
Organs).
On the propagation of reeds he has only this to say:
"There is a certain reed also which grows if one cuts it in lengths from joint
to joint and sets them sideways, burying it in dung and soil" (HP, 2.2.1).
This is probably Arundo donax L., which is cultivated now and may have been in
his time too (see below).
Reeds grow in rivers, but not deeper than five feet (HP, 4.9.1). In lake Copa!s
they grow on land and in the water (HP, 4.10.1; 4.10.6). When there is a
drought, all lake plants dry up, but especially the reeds (HP, 4.10.7). On the
other hand "all reeds are tenacious of life, and if cut or burnt down, grow up
again more vigorously; also their roots are stout and numerous, so that the plant
is hard to destroy" (HP, 4.ll.l2).
A review of some specific reeds follows.
Arundo donax L. (Gramineae)
This name is applied in the "Enquiry" (see index) to a number of reeds: donax,
kalamos toxikos, kalamos ho aulytikos, kalamos ho akonikos, kalamos ho syringias, and
kalamos ho charakias. It is a tall stout rhizomatous perennial with hollow culms
and broad leaf blades. Its inflorescence is a large plumose panicle. It is a
Mediterranean, Irano-Turanian and Euro-Siberian species (Feinbrun-Dothan,
1986: 268-269). In southern Europe it is extensively planted for shelter and the
manufacture of baskets, rustic furniture, musical instruments, screens and other
articles; it is widely naturalized in ditches and river-banks (Tutin, 1980).
Theophrastus says that the reed used for pipe-making (kalamos ho aulytikos)
grows in reed-beds in lake Copls (HP, 4.10.1; 4.ll.l), adding:
"It grows in general whenever the lake is full; but because in former days
this was supposed to happen generally once in nine years, they made the
growth of the reed to correspond, taking what was really an accident to be a
regular principle. As a matter of fact it grows whenever after the rainy
season the water remains in the lake for at least two years, and it is finer if
the water remains longer ... " (HP, 4.11.3).
This reed differs from other reeds-it is fuller, more fleshy, has broader and
whiter leaves and a smaller 'plume' ("eunuch reeds" have no plume at all; HP,
4.11.4). Theophrastus describes the cutting season, treatments applied to the
reeds and the manufacture of the mouthpieces and their tongues (HP, 4.11.5-7).
The local hydro-geography of lake Copals region is detailed, relating soil and
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
37
water quality to that of the reed (HP, 4-.11.8-9). Such detailed knowledge
reflects the importance of the reeds in this area for the manufacture of wind
instruments in his time.
Other reeds described in HP, (4-.11.10-12) were identified in the "Enquiry" as
Arundo donax. This is not acceptable since their descriptions follow the statement:
"let this suffice for the account of the growth and character of the reed used for
pipes, of the manufacture, and of its distinctive features as compared with other
reeds" (HP, 4-.11.9). Moreover, the part in question begins: "But these are not
the only kinds of reed; there are several others with distinctive characters which
are easily recognised" (HP, 4-.11.10). The identity of all reeds with epithets,
other than ho aulytikos and, perhaps, donax require further study.
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel, Syn. Ph. communis Trin.
(Gramineae)
The "Enquiry" translates kalamos ho plokimos meaning weaving reed into speargrass. This rhizomatous hydrophyte is spread almost all over Europe as well as in
the Irano-Turanian, Sahara-Arabian and the Tropic zones (Tutin, 1980;
Feinbrun-Dothan, 1986: 269-270). This common reed receives in the "Enquiry"
very little treatment, unless, by reed in general (most of the kalamoi without
epithets), Theophrastus also refers to Phragmites australis.
This reed is described as slenderer and weaker than the 'stake reed' and as a
'weaving reed'. It also grows on the floating islands of lake Copais (HP, 4-.11.1;
cf. NH, XXXVI, 168-169).
Bamboos (Gramineae)
Kalamos ho indikos of HP, 4-.11.13:
" ... is very distinct, and as it were a totally different kind; the 'male'
[Dendrocalamus strictus Nees. in the "Enquiry"] is solid and the 'female'
[Bamhusa arundinacea Retz. in the "Enquiry"] hollow ... a number of reeds of
this kind grow from one base and they do not form a bush; the leaf is not
long ... these reeds are of great size and of good substance, so that they are
used for javelins. They grow by the river Akesines [Chenab in north west
India and east Pakistan]".
The Greek heard about these plants a century earlier. In The Histories
Herodotos mentions, probably, bamboos in a somewhat legendary way: "Some
[Indian tribes] live in the marshy-country by the river and eat raw fish, which
they catch from the boats made of reeds-each boat made from a single joint"
(3.98.4-).
It is noteworthy that in Pliny's time bamboos were already grown in Roman
temples (NH, XVI, 162).
Typha domingensis (Pers.) Steudel., Syn. T. angustata Bory & Chaub.
(Typhaceae)
Typhe of HP was identified in the "Enquiry" as T. angustata. This species is
spread over the Mediterranean, Tropical Africa and Tropical America. It is an
38
M. NEGBI
aquatic, semi-terrestrial perennial with creeping rhizomes, basal leaves and erect
and leafless scapes (Cook, 1980; Baytop, 1984).
Theophrastus describes it as a plant with smooth, joint-less and leafless stems
(HP, 1.5.3; 1.8.1; 4.1 0.6), that grows in lake Copai:s, both on land and in water,
and is most peculiar by not having so many roots as other rhizomatous plants
such as Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus longus (HP, 4.10.6). Its younger shoots, either
budding rhizomes or scapes, serve as food for children (HP, 4.10.7).
CONCLUSIONS
The accounts, given by Theophrastus, of geophytes and their underground
parts show that he lacked only an adequate botanical terminology for geophilous
organs; and the taxonomic nomenclature of modern biology (cf. Introduction to
CP, pp. xvii-xviii). His descriptions of the various geophytes show, nevertheless,
an extensive botanical knowledge of geophytes, and in many cases, his first-hand
experience.
Theophrastus described in Historia Plantarum, a great number of geophytes, of
which many were cultivated (e.g. the Allium spp. and biennial vegetables-not
dealt with in this article) and many that are known today as wild plants. In his
time many wild plants were used for food, medicines and other diverse purposes.
By their nature the swollen geophilous organs were the source of some useful
plant products, notably food and medicines, but in a number of geophytes above
ground organs were also used (Table 1). Only two of Theophrastus's geophytes
dealt with in this article were not utilized: Cynodon dactylon and Cyperus longus,
both, however, were weeds. C. longus may have interested Theophrastus more
because rather than being confined to lake Copai's, it became a very resistant
weed in near-by fields (HP, 4.10.5).
Although Theophrastus's interest in plants was primarily utilitarian, HP
includes many sections on wild plants and even an entire book devoted to wild
trees (HP, 3), "but" he says "most of the wild kinds have no names, and few
know about them, while most of the cultivated kinds have received names and
they are more commonly observed ... " (HP, 1.14.4). Hence, the fact that most
of the geophytes described by Theophrastus were of some usage, is most
probably due to knowledge accumulated by his predecessors on cultivated and
useful wild plants.
Of particular interest are plants, now known as wild, whose means of
propagation and special treatments were detailed by Theophrastus. These
"cultivated" plants: Arum italicum, Lilium martagon, L. chalcedonicum, Muscari
comosum, Narcissus serotinus may have been, at his time at an incipient stages of
cultivation, which were, probably, terminated in preference of more promising
plants. Lilium candidum was, probably, more successful in cultivation than its two
relatives, and likewise, Narcissus tazetta. The cultivation of Arum italicum and
Muscari comosum were terminated, probably in favour of other edible plants, not
of their respective genera. A species of Muscari, M. ambrosiacum Medikus is today
cultivated for its strong musk-like scent, though not for food as was M. comosum in
the 4th century B.c. Wild or non-domesticated plants are cultivated or grown,
even today, in many societies as ornamentals. For example, many wild geophytes
are grown in Israel, especially by Arab gardners. Similarly, some horticultural
forms of Narcissus have been derived from wild taxa unchanged as many other
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
39
plants commonly grown in rockeries (Rees, 1972: 3-4). There is evidence that at
the beginning of agriculture wild plants were cultivated. It took a long time for
these to mutate into domesticated plants (Zeven & Zhukovsky, 1975: 12;
Harlan, 1977).
Note that the cultivated Cyperus esculentus was not classified in HP as such.
Theophrastus' interest in wild life is evident in two subjects, which are related
to, but not inclusive in, geophytes:
TABLE
I. Utilization of geophytes according to Historia Plantarum
Above ground parts
Plant name
Cultivated
Flower
Leaf
Stem
A. Cormous and tuberous geophytes:
Crocus sativus
+
Garlands
& perfume
Crocus spp.
Garlands
Gladiolus
Garlands
Gynandriris
Arum
+
Colchicum
Anemone spp.
Garlands
Cyclamen
Gyperus
esculentus
C. rotundus
B. Bulbous geophytes:
Urginea
Scilla spp.
Muscari
Lilium spp.
Narcissus spp.
Pancratium
?'
+
+
+
Food
Food
Food
Medicine & poison
Medicine & charm
Food
Perfume
Garlands
& sign for
seeding
Garlands
Garland
Garlands
Garlands
Medicine & rooting
substrate
Food
Wool-like material
C. Geophytes with root tubers:
Asphodelus
Aconitum
D. Rhizomatous geophytes:
Iris pal/ida
Cynodon dactylon
G_yperus
longus
C. papyrus
C. auricomus
Carex riparia
Saccharum
Arundo donax
Phragmites
Bamboos
T_ypha
angus/ala
Underground part
Garlands?
Food
Food
Garlands
-d
'Cultivated according to NH, XIX, 93.
'Either young sprouting shoots or rhizomes are edible.
'Cultivated nowadays in Europe.
dGrown in Roman temples according to NH, XVI, 162.
Food
Medicine & poison
Perfume
Boat, sail,
Rope & paper
making; food
Food
Baskets, food'
Foodb
Flutes
Baskets
Javelins
Food'
Wood & fuel
Fuel
Food'
Food'
Food'
40
M. NEGBI
1. His description of the natural sequence of growth and reproduction begins:
"Each plant having its proper season for growth, flowering and maturing of the
fruit, nothing grows before its proper season ... but each awaits its proper season
... For some are plants which belong properly to summer ... " (HP, 7.10.1).
This and the entire section (HP, 7.10) entitled by the translator: "Of the seasons at
which herbs grow and flower", indicate an acute observation. Most of the plants
listed in the sequence are wild, some are geophytes and many, but by no means
all, are of some use, especially as coronary plants.
2. In Theophrastus's detailed study of hydrophytes and hydrogeophytes in
general and especially those of lake Copai's (HP, 4.10-11), most of the plants
dealt with are wild and some of no specified use. Most important in this study
are the generalizations he arrived at-his description of the three natural
habitats of the lake-banks, water and floating islands; the plants of three habits
that live in the lake; trees, herbaceous and clump-forming (HP, 4.8.1 ); the
hydro-geographical study of the lake and its near-by region; and the
understanding of the cosmopolitan nature of the hydrophytes (HP, 4.8.1).
Both subjects show that Theophrastus's interest in plants was philosophical, or
pure, as well as applied.
It is clear that Theophrastus based his knowledge of the three Egyptian hydrogeophytes, Cyperus papyrus (papyros), C. aurocomus (sari), and C. esculentus
(mansion=malinatalle), on a very reliable source. There are no known earlier
Greek references that may be considered a source. Herodotos provided very little
botanical description, even on the papyrus (Lewis, 1974). Was Theophrastus
informed about Egyptian plants by some of "Alexander's officers," who were
"acute, trained observers, who sent detailed reports to Athens" concerning these
plants, as suggested by Stearn ( 1976a) in connection with the plants oflndia (see
also Introduction to the "Enquiry" pp. xxiii-xxv; and CP, 2.5.5, where the
Admiral Androsthenes is reporting about the irrigation of Tylos island in the
Persian Gulf). Or, perhaps, did the information about Egyptian plants reach
Greece through Greek mercenaries and merchants who settled in Egypt during
the 7th century B.c, especially in Greek emporia, such as Naucratis, on the
Canopic branch of the Nile? (Boardman, 1980). They were, probably, better
suited as transmitters of knowledge than Alexander's soldiers who conquered
Egypt in 332 B.c. Noteworthy is that Psammetichos I (664-610 B.c), who gave
his Greek mercenaries two pieces of land, named Camps ( = Stratopedea), on
either side of the Pelusian branch of the Nile, also "went so far as to put some
Egyptian boys into their charge, to be taught Greek; and their learning of the
language was the origin of the class of Egyptian interpreters .... They were the
first foreigners to live in Egypt, and after their original settlement there, the
Greek began regular intercourse with the Egyptian, so that we have accurate
knowledge of Egyptian history ... " (Herodotos, 2. 152-154) and of Egyptian
plants.
On the sources of Theophrastus's knowledge about plants of foreign lands we
could mainly speculate. On the other hand, we may envisage one of the ways by
which the Master performed a first hand observation. This is in a rare situation
in Historia Plantarum (4.12.2) where he speaks ofhimself:
" ... the 'sharp' rush []uncus acutus] and the 'entire' rush [Schoenus nigricans]
grow from the same stock, which seems extraordinary, and indeed it was
strange to see it when the whole clump of rushes was brought bifore me, for
THEOPHRASTUS ON GEOPHYTES
from the same stock there were growing 'barren' rushes
'fruiting' ones. This then is a matter for further enquiry".
41
and also a few
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am most grateful to Professor R. W. Sharples, Department of Greek,
University College, London, and Professor D. Weissert, Department of Classical
Studies, The University of Tel Aviv, for their most valuable comments and
suggestions concerning transliteration of plants names in Greek and the meaning
of obscure passages in Theophrastus and their English translation.
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