Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
The Ecosystem Benefits of managing the invasive non–native plant Rhododendron ponticum in Snowdonia Snowdonia Rhododendron Partnership 2015 Rhododendron in Snowdonia A plant native to areas of the middle-east and Mediterranean countries, it is thought that Rhododendron ponticum was first introduced to the UK as an ornamental plant during the in 1763 (Cross, 1975). However, it soon became established in the wild, with the rate of spread accelerating in the latter half of the 20th century. This is possibly as a result of changes in land use, increased grazing pressures and a reduction in rabbit populations as a result of myxomatosis. It has been suggested by some that the plants spread has become stable, although it remains an aggressive plant in certain areas and on certain habitats. As to why certain areas are affected worse than others, the reasons aren’t entirely clear. However, genetic analysis of Rhododendron suggests that British populations often contain the genes of Rhododendron catawbiense, a North American species, which may confer greater cold tolerance and therefore allow it to colonize colder parts of Britain. However, it is not known if this applies to Rhododendron in Snowdonia. Why we wish to eradicate Rhododendron ponticum Whilst it may be difficult to argue against the aesthetic attractiveness of the plant when it’s in bloom, the negative impacts of Rhododendron far outweigh the positive aspects of its presence. Invasive species have been identified as one of the major drivers of ecosystem degradation in Wales (UK National Ecosystems Assessment, 2011), and cost the Welsh economy approximately £7 billion per annum (National Assembly for Wales, 2013). Furthermore, invasive non-native species (INNS) are listed as the second biggest threat to native wildlife globally after habitat loss. Whilst it’s impossible to break the cost/threat posed to individual species and/or areas, much of this cost derives from the impacts of INNS on the ability of natural ecosystems to function properly, resulting in degradation to key ecosystem services. Due to its ability to out-compete, smother or shade native species, it has had severe detrimental impacts to many of our natural habitats. By now, it is widely regarded as one of the main invasive non-native species (INNS) present in north-west Wales, with an estimated area of over 2,000 ha now infested by Rhododendron within the National Park (SNPA, 2008). Area behind Beddgelert which has been cleared of Rhododendron ponticum (2014) What are ecosystems and ecosystem services? An ecosystem can be defined as a community of living organisms (biotic factors), which in conjunction with the physical environment (abiotic factors), function together in a given area of the environment. The benefits that humans derive from ecosystems are often referred to as ecosystem services. These can range significantly, but can be grouped into four broad categories; provisioning, regulating, cultural and supporting services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). They are defined as follows: Provisioning services are the products obtained from ecosystems. In Snowdonia, these would be such things as food, timber and peat; Regulating services are the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes, such as regulation of climate, water, pest and diseases; Cultural services are the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems through recreation and aesthetic pleasure; Supporting services are ecosystem services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services. Examples include biomass production, nutrient and water cycling, and the conservation of natural habitats. Annex I shows the level of impact Rhododendron infestation has on a wide variety of ecosystems services in Snowdonia. Some of the key impacts include: Soil quality – it has long been said that Rhododendron ponticum has adverse impacts on soil health, a key ecosystem service. These include increased soil acidity and a decrease in biodiversity essential for maintaining soil health e.g. earth worms (UK National Ecosystems Assessment, 2011). Pollination – species such as heather provide a valuable source of food for our native pollinator species. By decreasing the availability of food sources to pollinators, populations will decrease, as has been witnessed in recent years. Indeed, according to the Welsh Government, habitat loss is one of the main reasons for the decline in native pollinators in Wales (The Action Plan for Pollinators in Wales, 2013); Disease and pests – whilst Rhododendron itself can be considered a pest, its ability to host other diseases and pathogens such as Phytophora, thus facilitating their movement in the wider landscape, is of great concern. Such pathogens pose a threat to both native and commercial woodlands, both of which are vitally important in terms of their ecological and commercial values in Snowdonia; Primary productivity – this includes food production (both livestock and crops), timber production and wild fish stocks, all of which are essential in supporting the local economy in Snowdonia. Due to its highly invasive nature, Rhododendron infestation will make otherwise suitable habitats unsuitable for grazing animals, thus reducing the amount of land available to farm. As we all know, Snowdonia is blessed with a rich diversity of habitats, which in turn support a rich array of plants and animals. Collectively, they are referred to as biodiversity, and include everything from the tiny micro organisms found in soils and waters to large plants and all the creatures which call Snowdonia their home. Basically, it’s all living things! As a non-native invasive plant, Rhododendron ponticum would not have grown naturally in Snowdonia had humans not introduced it. As mentioned above, its infestation can have dramatic impacts on the native habitats of Snowdonia, primarily habitats of the uplands (moorlands and heath), our native woodlands, unimproved or semi-improved species rich grasslands and freshwater habitats. Specific impacts on each key habitat are discussed below. Moorlands and Heath Snowdonia National Park and the surrounding regions are defined by upland habitats, where both moorland and heathland is widespread in areas such as the Migneint, the Berwyn Mountains and Mynydd Hiraethog, all of which are protected under either national or European law due to their ecological importance. Whilst the majority of these habitats are to be found in upland areas, they can also be found on hillsides between enclosed farmland and the open mountain (often referred to as Ffridd in Wales), and even in lowland areas such as Arthog Bog on the Mawddach Estuary. Such habitats provide a wide and diverse range of ecosystem services, as listed in Figure 1. Rhododendron encroachment into upland habitats can have drastic impacts on the ecosystem services we derive from them. Whilst altitude is thought to be a limiting factor in the spread of Rhododendron into upland areas (very few bushes have been recorded above 400m), its ability to withstand wide climatic variation and a tolerance to a range of substrates means it can grow almost anywhere where there is sufficient moisture (Snowdonia National Park, 2008). Due to its ability to withstand a wide range of environmental conditions, Rhododendrons is able to outcompete many native plants, having knock-on impacts on associated fauna and resulting in decreased ecosystem functioning. The dense shade produced by Rhododendron canopies leaves little light penetrating through, thus associated flora, even shade-loving bryophytes, or their associated fauna, are minimal. Furthermore, studies show that few species of invertebrates utilise Rhododendron as a food plant (Judd and Rotherham, 1992). Consequently there is little to threaten rhododendron’s expansion and food chains based on Rhododendron are likely to have low biodiversity value. Considering that biodiversity is widely regarded as a key supporting service, essential for the healthy functioning of all other ecosystem services whether they be provisioning, regulating or cultural, this can only be a bad thing. An example of this would be Rhododendron encroaching into heath land, suppressing the growth of native plants such as heather, thus diminishing a vital food source to local pollinator populations. Another example would be the growth of Rhododendron on bogs and mire. If dense stands are allowed to form, this will be to the detriment of bog forming mosses such as sphagnum spp. These mosses provide a range of ecosystem services such as retaining and filtering water, and peat formation. Furthermore, in abundance, Rhododendron growth could essentially dry out wetlands, making the underlying peat more susceptible to oxidisation. Ultimately, the carbon stored in peat would be released into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming rather than helping to mitigate it. As alluded to above, the uplands define Snowdonia as we know it. Indeed, it’s this diversity of landscapes and their ever changing colours throughout the seasons that attracts millions of visitors to the area each year. This makes tourism one of the main economic drivers in Snowdonia. It is difficult to believe that anyone would welcome a change from the diverse tapestry of native habitats we have in our landscape to one dominated by Rhododendron. Whilst some might argue that Rhododendron in bloom is itself a site worth seeing, it’s important to remember that the plant flowers for only a short time period, and that for the rest of the year it provides nothing but a monotonous green carpet on what would otherwise be a varied and colourful landscape, changing throughout the seasons. Along with grasslands, heathlands are one of the richest habitats in respect of flowering plants and of the 472 species found there, around one in four are threatened (State of Nature Report, 2013). Many of the species are often locally distinctive, thus their genetic make-up could differ drastically to other areas of the UK. The maintenance of genetic diversity is critical in view of the increased threat from climate change, and is needed in order to facilitate successful restoration and conservation projects (National Ecosystem Assessment, 2011). Service Peat Description Meat from grazing animals (primarily sheep and some beef cattle in Snowdonia) and fibre (wool) Upland soils are amongst the most carbon rich in the world Wild game Traditionally, large areas of the uplands were managed for wild game Genetic resources Heathland are amongst some of the most species rich habitats Energy From hydro-electric and wind energy power schemes Water Over 80% of our water supplies comes from upland areas Pollination Heathland amongst most diverse habitats in terms of flowering plants Water quality Moss rich bogs act as a natural water filter Upland habitats have the ability to store large amounts of water, thus reducing risk of flood and providing a steady source during times of drought By conserving carbon rich soils and carbon sequestration potential Livestock Water regulation Climate control Disease regulation Regulation of pollutants Cultural heritage Human well-being By hosting such pathogens as phytophthora and ticks (lime disease) Intercept both water borne and air borne pollutants and pH buffering The uplands define Snowdonia as we know it a historical landscape with archaeological features that are degraded/damaged by rhododendron Derived from being outdoors (both mental and physical) Tourism and recreation Varied landscape of Snowdonia attracts millions of visitor annually Education Upland habitats provide a range of education opportunities Biodiversity Required for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems Soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, oxygen production Forests facilitate all these things, essential for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems and indeed, life itself Figure 1. Main ecosystem services derived from upland habitats The main benefits derived from controlling Rhododendron ponticum on moorlands and heath lands in Snowdonia are: Increasing the area of native flora for the benefit of biodiversity, including pollinator species, within the National Park; Decreasing the risk of spread of pests and diseases in the wider environment; Ensuring that wetlands such as blanket bogs remain in favourable condition and thus continue to provide associated ecosystem services in relation to water retention and quality; Bringing land back into agricultural production; Improving access to the countryside to the public and making the area more aesthetically pleasing. Woodlands Snowdonia is renowned for its vast variety of woodlands, from the ecologically rich Atlantic oak woods of Meirionydd, full of mosses, liverworts and lichens, the mixed ash woods of the Nant Gwynant valley and areas of wet woodland dotted around the Park. As with heaths and bogs, many of these are designated due to their high conservation value. It is also worth remembering that it isn’t only our native woodlands that are under threat from Rhododendron, but also commercially planted coniferous crops such as those found at Gwydir Forest, Coed-y-Brenin and the Dyfi Forest. It is fair to say that the relationship between Rhododendron and woodlands is not a good one. Due its ability to produce a dense canopy layer and grow in well shaded areas, Rhododendron will more than likely out-compete the natural regeneration of trees in woodlands, particularly lower plants such as bryophytes and lichens. If left untreated, the Rhododendron bushes will eventually form a thick blanket in the under storey, and as mature trees die, the woodlands will ultimately be replaced. This is a particular problem amongst light demanding tree species, such as oaks and birches. Unfortunately, it is not entirely clear what the full impacts of Rhododendron are on the natural cycle of woodland regeneration due to no such studies being taken (as far as we’re aware). This is primarily due to the length of time it takes for a Rhododendron stand to mature and then die back. Whilst it may be the case that stands will eventually die back and offer opportunities for native species to re-colonise, the longevity of Rhododendron means that such benefits would not be observed for centuries, and the shorter term damage far outweighs any potential opportunities for re-generation in the future. It is not only the above ground organisms that suffer as a result of Rhododendron infestation. For example, mycorrhizas, which are a community of soil fungi that form symbiotic (mutually beneficial) relationships with the roots of plants, will decrease in line with reduced diversity of plant species. Whilst some mycorrhiza form beneficial relationships with Rhododendron (thus facilitating its growth) others are adversely impacted, especially those associated with native woodlands. Consequently, woodland ecosystems that are dependent on these unique relationships between native trees and mycorrhizas for healthy functioning suffer and therefore any threat to this vital relationship is potentially critical. Rhododendron ponticum is also known to host pathogens such as Phytophthora ramorum (DEFRA), a pathogen which is a great threat to conifers, notably larch and to our native broadleaf woodlands and to heathland species i.e. bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus). As a host, Rhododendron is likely to facilitate the spread of such pests in the wider countryside. Unfortunately, Phytophthora does not seriously threaten Rhododendron’s survival. Consequently, its elimination will dispose of one of the major pathways for the spread of Phythophora and other diseases. In view of the increased threat posed from such diseases as a result of climate change (Ray, 2008), reducing potential pathways now is essential in order to conserve ecosystems over the coming decades. Furthermore, it may produce biochemicals which can affect other plants, inhibiting the germination or seedling establishment of other species. Rhododendron infestation in non-native commercial forestry plantations can also be highly problematic when it comes to harvesting those crops. This is primarily due to issues relating to access, as treatment of Rhododendron becomes increasingly difficult within dense woodland. This will ultimately push up the cost of felling timber, sometimes adding tens of thousands to forest operations. This has been witnessed firsthand here in Snowdonia in areas such as Coed yr Eryr in Nant Gwynant. Rhododendron also makes the replanting or regeneration of these plantations almost impossible as the stumps which are left behind are a huge issue in terms of restricting access. Without whole stump removal, planting by both machine or by hand would become very difficult, and the costs associated with such operations would increase dramatically. Service Timber Genetic resources Water Crops and livestock Water quantity Air quality Description Both native woodlands and forest plantations are important sources of timber, used for a variety of purposes i.e. fuel, construction, pulp etc.. Having healthy, mixed species woodlands provides local genetic variability including the genetic resource of the component biota. Heavily wooded catchments often provide water to wider communities and improving water quality. Woodlands sometimes facilitate livestock (agro-forestry) and provide non-timber products such as berries, honey, fungi and meat i.e. venison Woodlands also provide shelter and forage for livestock. Regulating flood control by reducing the flow rate of water into the lower catchment during prolonged periods of rain; by creating a complex structure, woodland slow the passage of water to the rivers, aiding infiltration and ameliorating flooding . (McIntyre et al, 2008) Trees produce oxygen, which is essential for life on earth, and capture atmospheric pollutants Soil quality Can stabilise and thus protect soil from erosion Pollination Provide habitat for diverse wild pollinator communities Associated fauna i.e. bats can help regulate the incidence and spread of insect pests By sequestering carbon (in soils and in the timber itself) Diseases and pests Climate control Provide localised shelter to wild and domestic livestock during extreme weather Environmental setting Providing, amongst others things, an educational resource, recreational opportunities and a sense of place Biodiversity Maintain a wild and diverse range of wildlife, often locally distinctive and adapted to those areas Soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, oxygen production Forests facilitate all these things, essential for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems and indeed, life itself Figure 2. Ecosystem services derived from the woodlands in Snowdonia The main benefits derived from controlling Rhododendron ponticum in the woodlands of Snowdonia include: Improve the diversity of flora associated with native woodlands in Snowdonia; Allow for forest operations such as felling to be undertaken more efficiently, thus reducing costs; Reduce the risk of spread of pests and diseases within woodlands (both native and plantations); Make for healthier and more resilient woodland ecosystems which in turn offer local genetic variability; Improve soil quality and decrease soil erosion; Increase recreational opportunities within woodlands. Semi-natural or unimproved grasslands Semi-natural or unimproved grasslands are usually species rich when compared with areas of improved grassland. Although not abundant in Snowdonia, those that are left offer a unique habitat, not only rich in plant diversity, but also supporting an array of fungi and invertebrate species. Furthermore, they provide valuable grazing land for livestock, which is required to manage the encroachment of scrub and maintain the species rich vegetation found in these habitats. Services provided by semi-natural and improved grasslands can be found in Figure 3. Species rich grasslands have declined dramatically over the last few decades, with an estimated 97% loss in such habitats in the last 50 years (Check: David Stevens for Wales data)Pywell et al., 2002). Whilst such habitats aren’t abundant in Snowdonia (owing primarily to the topography of north-west Wales), it is vital that those remaining fragments are conserved due to their scarcity. Whilst INNS has not traditionally been one of the main drivers in the decline of seminatural grasslands in the UK, it could pose an increased threat to these habitats in future years should they go untreated (UK National Ecosystems Assessment, 2011). Many of the impacts Rhododendron has on species rich grassland habitats are similar to those associated with other habitats discussed previously. That is, due its ability to outcompete natural vegetation associated with unimproved or semi-improved grasslands, Rhododendron will eventually replace native species and compromise the ecosystems services they serve. For example, Rhododendron encroachment into unimproved grasslands will essentially exclude livestock (due to the density of the bushes), rendering them unsuitable for grazing livestock. Furthermore, Rhododendron itself is also poisonous to cattle and sheep (Cooper and Johnson, 1984). Consequently, if left to spread, that piece of land will essentially become unproductive. This then leads to the loss of species diversity, which will impact on local populations of pollinators and so on.... in addition, the loss of productive land will lead to reduced agricultural subsidies to farmers, which is obviously never welcomed! It is also worth mentioning the impacts of Rhododendron on soil, as it is said that its growth will have an acidifying impact in areas in which it grows. However, there is little scientific evidence out there to back this up. What is perhaps a little more apparent is the impact Rhododendrons can have on earthworms, essential for the maintenance of healthy soil. Although unimproved or semi-improved grasslands can be found on a range of soils (calcareous, neutral or acidic), they are often fairly productive free-draining soils compared to those found in higher altitudes. Earthworms are an essential part of maintaining healthy soil, and are also a vital food source to other species, primarily birds and small rodents. Consequently, a decrease in populations could have dramatic impacts on local food chains and soil health. Service Livestock Genetic resources Biomass Pollination Climate Water Description Semi improved or unimproved grasslands require appropriate grazing to eliminate invasive weeds and maintain diversity, thus providing food (meat, milk) and fibre (wool) Less intensively managed grasslands are far more species rich than those which have been improved, thus they maintain a higher level of genetic resources For silage or crops Less intensively managed grasslands are far more species rich than those which have been improved Grassland soils are a reserve of carbon and other greenhouse gases Increased vegetation cover will reduce surface water run-off , providing flood protection, and storing pollutants, particularly in riparian areas Environmental settings Protecting valued species and agricultural heritage and providing areas for recreational activities i.e. walking and educational visits Biodiversity Required for the maintenance of healthy ecosystems Figure 3. Ecosystem services derived from semi-improved or unimproved grassland habitats The main benefits derived from controlling Rhododendron ponticum within the grasslands of Snowdonia are: Reinstating land which was previously unsuitable for grazing back into agricultural production, primarily grazing and arable to a smaller extent; Decrease the risk of illness/fatalities within livestock as a result of the ingestion of Rhododendron litter; Increase vegetation cover and therefore reduce surface run-off. Freshwater habitats (lakes and rivers) Whilst the threat of Rhododendron on freshwater habitats is perhaps less apparent than other INNS such as Himalayan balsam (Impatiens glandulifera) and Japanese knotweed (Fallopia japonica), it can nevertheless have severe harmful impacts these ecosystems. Rhododendron will thrive in riparian areas, outcompeting native vegetation on river banks and the shores of lakes and ponds. Whilst the loss of native vegetation in these areas will result in many of the same impacts as in other habitats i.e. loss of food source to native pollinators, it can also have additional adverse impacts in freshwater environments. For example, riparian vegetation supports a diverse population of invertebrates, the main food source of some fish species. Trout depend on invertebrates which live in riparian areas for up to 80% of their food source. Rhododendron stands don’t support anywhere near the same level of invertebrates as those of native vegetation, therefore decreasing the food source to fish populations significantly. the lack of understorey associated with a stand of Rhododendron leaves soil bare and thus susceptible to erosion during periods of heavy rain. Whilst this is true in other habitats, it’s more of a problem on streams and rivers where the force of the water is able to erode far quicker than surface run-off in fields or woodlands. Erosion can have adverse impacts on water quality which in turn, impacts on local fish populations. Often, such soils are rich in metals, and increased flow can wash such undesirable elements into watercourses, altering the pH and chemical composition of freshwater habitats and having significant adverse impact on local fish populations. Furthermore, large scale erosion can also often lead to significant loss of land which would otherwise be suitable for farming. This is particularly problematic along larger rivers and during flash flooding events. The water that we use to drink and wash in comes from freshwater habitats via reservoirs and water treatments works. The cleaner the water is reaching these works, the easier it is to treat and, more importantly perhaps, less expensive and less damaging to the environment. The accumulation of dead Rhododendron litter is especially problematic in standing water such as ponds and the edges of lakes. Such habitats are often rich in flora and fauna, supporting wild fish stocks, invertebrates and a range of freshwater flora. Rhododendron leaves are notoriously slow at decomposing, thus they are able to accumulate on the surface of standing water, forming a thick, impenetrable film. Many of the plants which are affected in such circumstances are natural cleansers of water, thus further contributing to the worsening of water quality within a catchment. Whilst discussing freshwater habitats, mention must be made to other habitats that are perhaps not freshwater habitats in their own rights, but have a strong link to our rivers, ponds and lakes. These include such habitats as floodplain wetlands, marshlands and fenlands. The ecosystem services derived from these habitats vary massively, but would include such things as providing land for grazing, removal of pollutants, flood control and climate control (through the conservation of carbon rich peaty soils). They can also impact on manmade structures associated with freshwater habitats, such as culverts. As Rhododendron leaves decay far slower than that of native species, they can often accumulate in culvers and small channels, leading to blockage. If this happens on a larger scale, it can lead to localised flooding of roads for example. Service Description Water Lack of understorey can lead to increased levels of riverside erosion Wild fish In rivers, ponds and lakes Farmed fish Similar to wild fish Peat On adjacent habitats i.e. floodplains and bogs/marshes Riparian habitat controls surface water run-off and reduces sedimentation levels Both river-flow and flood regulation Natural freshwater systems support physical recreation. Mismanaged freshwater habitats can be sources of water borne diseases and disease vectors Water quality Water quantity Human health Environmental setting Tourism and recreation Biodiversity Can provide a sense of place, defining specific landscapes Attracting fishing enthusiasts, naturalists and outdoor recreationists Support a diverse range of species essential for maintaining ecosystem health i.e. spawning grounds Figure 4. Ecosystem services derived from freshwater and associated riparian habitats The main benefits derived from controlling the spread of Rhododendron ponticum on the freshwater habitats of Snowdonia are: Minimising the impact on riparian habitats and the flora and fauna they support; Reduce the risk of contamination as a result of increased sedimentation; Decrease soil erosion, which can impact on both water quality and lead to the loss of agriculturally productive land. Improve flood alleviation by slowing the flow of rainwater into catchments. What we are doing One of the main statutory purposes of all National Parks is to ‘conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage’ of the area in which that respective National Park lies. The spread of invasive non-native species poses a threat to all three of the above, as reflected by Objective 5b of the Snowdonia National Park Management Plan 2010-15 (SNPA, 2010). This states that the Authority will ‘continue efforts to reduce the land area covered by invasive species’ within Snowdonia and its environs over the coming years. In order to achieve this objective, Snowdonia National Park Authority have been working in partnership with other relevant organisations, third sector nature groups and private landowners over the last decade in treating vast areas blighted with Rhododendron infestation. Project partners include the National Trust, Natural Resources Wales (previously the Countryside Council or Wales and Forestry Commission Wales) and Gwynedd Council, as well as various volunteer groups. Using local contractors, over 600ha of land has been treated to date (winter 2014), primarily around the Nant Gwynant/Beddgelert area, the Ffestiniog Valley and along the Mawddach Estuary. To put it into perspective, that’s around the size of 560 standard football pitches! Treatment involves three stages of work – the primary phase of clearance, and a secondary and third phase to tackle re-growth. These are usually undertaken 2 and 5 years after the initial work respectively. Methods of control are dependent on factors such as accessibility, density and height, but the most common are cutting and then burning or chipping the vegetation, stem injecting individual plants with glyphosate based chemicals or simply spraying the leaves of the plant using standard knapsack equipment (usually used for treating re-growth during the second and third phase of work). Further monitoring is undertaken post treatment, usually five to 10 years after the third phase of work is completed, to ensure recolonisation has not taken place. What you can do Almost all the Rhododendron which we now see growing in the natural environment originated from gardens, where it is often planted as an ornamental plant, particularly since the post Victorian era. Whilst the popularity of Rhododendron ponticum as an ornamental plant has somewhat lessened in recent times, those plants which remain, unfortunately, still provide a significant seed source into the wider environment. Consequently, if you have Rhododendron bushes growing in your gardens, then we ask that you destroy those plants and replace them with more appropriate species of tree or shrubs. Staff from the Conservation and Agriculture department at Snowdonia National Park can provide free advice regarding suitable management techniques and/or appropriate species for re-planting including other species or hybrids of Rhododendron should it be required. With continual support from relevant stakeholders, efforts to control the spread of Rhododendron will persist, both complementing work already undertaken, and expanding into areas that have so far been untreated. It is hoped that with adequate resources, continued efforts and strategic implementation of work programmes, Snowdonia National Park can once again be free of Rhododendron ponticum. Conclusion Rhododendron ponticum is a highly invasive non-native species that has had dramatic adverse impacts on some of Snowdonia’s natural habitats. Its ability to out-compete natural vegetation and dominate vast areas of the landscape alters the functioning of natural ecosystems and degrades the quality of services they provide. Whilst it is acknowledged that further research needs to be undertaken to measure the true extent of its impact on elements of the environment, they are considered negative amongst experts in the field. With sustained management and effective partnership working, successful eradication of Rhododendron ponticum is possible, allowing for the recovery of affected habitats and associated services. However, this will only be possible with both long-term and landscape scale management, and with the support of sustainable funding streams. Bibliography Awdurdod Parc Cenedlaethol Eryri (2008). Rhododendron in Snowdonia and a strategy for its control. Snowdonia National Park Authority, Penrhyndeudraeth. Cooper, M R & Johnson, A W (1984). Poisonous Plants in Britain and their effects on Animals and Man. MAFF Reference Book 161. HMSO, London. Cross, J.R. (1975). Biological Flora of the British Isles; Rhododendron ponticum L. Journal of Ecology, Vol 63, No 1. British Ecological Society. London. DEFRA. Phytophthora ramorum – A Practical Guide for Established Parks & Gardens, Amenity Landscapes and Woodland Areas. DEFRA, London. (http://www.fera.defra.gov.uk/plants/publications/documents/factsheets/pramparks.pdf) Judd, S and Rotherham, I.D. (1992). The phytophagus insect fauna of Rhododendron ponticum. The Entomologist, 111, 134 - 150 McIntyre, N et al. (2008). The potential for reducing flood risk through changes to rural land management: outcomes from the Flood Risk Management Research Consortium. Journal of Flood Risk Management. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press, Washington. National Assembly for Wales (2013). Research Note – Invasive Alien Species. Research Service, National Assembly for Wales, Cardiff. Pywell, R.F., Bullock, J.M., Hopkins, A., Walker, K.J., Sparks, T.H., Burke, M.J.W. and Peel, S. (2002). Restoration of species-rich grassland on arable land: assessing the limiting processes using a multisite experiment. Journal of Applied Ecology, British Ecological Society, London. Ray, D (2008). Impacts of climate change on forestry in Wales. Forestry Research, Edinburgh. Royal Society for the Protection of Birds (2013). State of Nature Report . RSPB. Bedfordshire. Snowdonia National Park Authority (2008) Rhododendron in Snowdonia and a strategy for its control. Snowdonia National Park Authority, Penrhyndeudrath Snowdonia National Park Authority (2010). Snowdonia National Park Management Plan 201015. Snowdonia National Park Authority, Penrhyndeudraeth. UK National Ecosystems Assessment (2011). UK National Ecosystems Assessment Technical Report. UNEP - WCMC, Cambridge. Welsh Government (2013) The Action Plan for Pollinators in Wales. Welsh Government, Cardiff. Annex I Service Group Ecosystem Service Mountains, Moorlands and Heath (lakes and rivers) High Moderate N/A Timber Peat Asthetic value Climate Hazard (flood and erosion) Disease and pests Pollination Water quality Soil quality Air quality Soil formation Biodiversity Supporting unimproved grassland Very High Low Genetic resources Regulating Freshwater habitats Livestock Water Cultural Semi-natural or Crops Wild fish Provisioning Woodlands Nutrient cycling Water cycling Primary production