Download Latin American Independence Reader

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political covltrol
rn,
uAn
titi"titn
and governnen''f
1:fl'j111::l;oJ"'"
ol fllOse ol llr(
rhtir holne
i.ri..t.a ihe centralized' absolurL5r rc3imt. o{
ot"p'l:
re
spanish
"'-.'ii.
1516 to 1700, spair and
ll*:.;.,;;;;1;t.;;
lnrhcorv' and to-some degrce ln
ruled bv the Habsburg n-ronarchy
-r.)rlrerla,ads.
,t-r. aurhorirl, of tl-re spanish
\''
u
lberian Relaiing to Portugal and Spatn'
irr ntanl ivavs an c\pressloll
'
rn
..',.'',.' *.r" Thc
ernp-rr'c\
political orgartizition o[ ] I1r Tbclian
p.r.,i..,
en
liitg
tvas
t:pl9tt'll,l'1"
rvith'the
Anericas spain hacL an extensive body of lawsdealing
large
exlren1ely
an
created
admilistration of the new worlc{. rvhiclt
legislative
thesc
Although
rt".eaucratic and legal system
""1'."ttiti."
to work in the major adninistratlve centers'
f rrno.tttaal.r"ta,-t* tended
ignored Spanish- colonies i'r'ere
ir-, tt-r" u.,ttyir-tg areas they were often
peninsula'
the cOuntries 0n the lberian
that
Habsburg European royal family
held the throne for the HolY Roman
Empire, Austria, the Neiherlands, Parts
ot ltaly and SPain. The HabsburSs
took the Spanish throne in 1516 under
Charles | (Charles V ofthe Holy Roman
Empire) and ruled Spain untilthe death
of Charles ll in 1700.
o|tenlinowtrioltl-}eirnonconpliancewirl-rtire}arn'so{theenlpirc'
were Spanish born
The senior functiorlaries in the Spanlsh colonies
excluded
and relerred lo as penilsLllares; the creoles were virtrialh'
that
sarislied
instilutiou
political
The
only
iron1 lhe admiDistratior'
In
(tovin
council)
cabildo
t\e
was
local aspi.rations to sorne degree
kittg
lor
the
practice
the late 17th century, it became an established
to sell adrnlnistralive posts to rhe highesr bidder aud the crcolcs r'rreLc
able to have more input at the local levels o{ the administratiot.t
As the lnost significant political instilution in r'vhicir the creoles were
largcll, replescnred' tlrc cabildos wete deslitled to pla\/ a signilicant
govenmental institutions
r ole in t1-re rvars ol independcnce. The
in
dle
Spar-tisl-r Ernpire, higl-Ll1'
as
were.
establisheci by Pofiugal
local ccorlomic
tllwarted
that
developed, costly bureaucracies
the Spanisi'r colonics,
Ur-tlikc
initiative ar-rd political expedmentation.
however, Poftuguese rule in Brazil was reladveh/ relaxed lt diil not
esrablish the tpe of colonial administratiolt that Spain heid trnril thc
lElh centurl ar.rd b-v then the Portuguesc abilitv to coutrol thc
Braziliar-r populalion was largel,v mitigated.
As in the Ibcrian empires, tlte government and judiciary in the
Brirish colonies represented an exleltsion of tl.re Euglish Parljaurcnt
The English s-vstem was based on colnnon larv, and the view tl]at
governance .,'vas an adlninistrative and jndicial s1'sten. Thc EngLish
brou5iht u'irh rhem a tladirion of partial representatior. and lhe
English colonies had a large degree of sell-governlrlellI. The colonies
all irad sone form of a representative assetnbly tllat i^/as \oted in b)'
popular support. \{hile only r.vhite male lancior'r,ners could vote, this
sliil constiiuled some degree ol detnocracy. In some colonies, cvcu tlle
go\:ernors vvere decided by poprrlar vote.
(crol/os)
In the Spanish colonies, creoles
were those born in the Americas but
descended solelY from sPaniards.
Catirdo The local government or
municipal council in colonial Spanish
America. lt was composed of elected
officials who were usually landowners
and represented the elites in Spanish
American society. lt was responsible for
all aspects of municipal government,
including policing, sanitation, taxation'
price and wage re6ulation, Iand
distribution and the administralion 0f
justice. lts jurisdiction extended beyond
the city to the surroundinS villages
and countryside.ln an emerg€ncy
the council could choose a governor,
lieutenant governor, or captain Seneral
Economic system
The colonial econorrly acioptecl by the European enpires \
/as
mercantilisrn. The basic prenise ol mercantiiisn is tL.tal national
Mercantilism A form of economic
n'ealth is measnred by the arnount of capital drat a courtrl,possesscs.
Prior to industr:ialization, golcl and silver wele the nost impottant
Iesoulces ihat a country coulci own. The mcrcaDtile therlr-v is that
colonies exist lor the economic benefit of the nother coriittLl' aud ar c
useless uniess tlrey help to achieve profit. The nother country shouicl.
drar'v |arv naterials lroln its possessions and se1l tinisl-rcd goods bacli
to the subject narioi.ls. wirh the baiance lavoring tire Europcau
countn'. This trade should bc monopolistic, so tirat loreigners wonld
nationalism with the goal of building
a
wealthy and powerful country.
colonial powers extracted bullion or
primary resources from the colonies
and expoted finished products to the
colonies to retain a favorable balance
of
trade.
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I'
lrdepetdence flover ents
meant that whcn foteislers
li0l fiXllpClc wllh in4tcrial gootls; it also
olii,*",r to tlaclc'in the colonics, protcctionist taxes wollld nake
",.r-.1
in.lperiaJ g(x)ds arlificially conrpetitive. Metcautilism guided the
irrrperial porvels in rireir econott.tic relationships rvith theil cokrnies'
The llritish passcd regrtlalory laws lo bcncfil their owtl ecot]omy'
Thcse laws crcaled a trade s1'stem wherebi'North Atllericaus
provicled raw goods t(l Briiain, and Britain used the taw goods 1o
produce manu[actrtred goods thal \n/ere sold on to Eriropean markets
ancl bacli to the colollies. As sr-tppliers u1 1211' goods ot-rly, the cokrnies
wcrr not ailowcd 1o c()rttpete wilh Britaill in manufacturing. Euglisll
ships and rtcrchants werc always favoted, cxch.tdinla other colintlies
f(In sharinpl in the British Enpire's wealth. Englatlcl's goverrrm€nt
implerrented nlercantilisrn with a scries oJ Navigation Acts
(1650 1o l67l) which esiabLished the rlrles lol colonial tlade
throughout the entire empirc, rloi just r'vith British America. These
were protectiol.list laws that nrade the price of irnported goclds fi tln-t
other parls of the etnpire mltch mote affordairle than for eign goods.
Ergland, in pat ticrilar, many colotlists defied the restriclions
ol the Navigalion Acts by smuggling French, Dtlich and other
cor.lr.rlries'glrods iDto the colony. WIlile relations between England
and thc color-rics wcrc straiued by these actions the nvtl sides ncver
cane to any real conilict. The British llovernnellt was olten lax in
enkrrcir.rg the acts, and its agenls in thc colonies weLe known fot
their corrr-lption. Thus, England developed a policy oI salutary neglect
toward the colonies, which meant that the trade laws that most hllrt
the colonial economy wcre not enforced.
Navigation Acts A series of laws
initiated in 165l that restricted the use
of foreign shipping for trade between
England (Great Britain after 1707) and
its colonies. This restricted colonial
trade in three ways:the colonies could
onlytrade with British merchants;
British ships had the exclusive risht to
transport imports and exports to the
colonies; and commodities produced in
the colonies could only be exported to
British ports.
lr.r Nerv
Spanish nrcrcantilism was eqrtally t estricrive. Unlike England,
l.rowe ver, its implementation was tightly enforce d and, given the
geograpl.ric characteristics of colonies, more complex. Spain
designared rnonopoly ports on either side of the Atlantic 1o oversee
the collection of taxes. During most oI the colonial period, legltlmate
transatlantic uade was confined to convo,vs wl'tich were supposed to
sail annually between Seville and the American ports. The transporl
ard distlitruLion of the goods fron Spair.t to the various administrative
centers could take a long
tine. Moreover, the quantities of
manrrfactLrred goods were insulficient and lhe prices inllaled. As
ir
rhe Briti:h colonies, snruggling competed with legitiinate comlnerce.
l6
Although its political and economic systelns cor.ltrol was more rigid,
Spain did no1 benefir as much lrom its mercantilist policies as the
British did. The problem for the Spar-rish \,vas thai the raw naterials
sl.rippcd ro Spain wcrc oni1, a small pcrccnrage of the cargo; bttllion
{rnost)y silver and sornc go}d) cornprised the majorily of Spanish
colonial cxpons. Inslcad of pl.(rducil]g tinished producrs ir Sl]ain for
salc abroad, thc spanish selll the raw materlals on to Englaud ot the
Nether lands for prodlrction, and paid for the finished goods with
brrllion. Tl.re long-tern result for spail] was a crippiing dependence on
plccious netals. inflation, and a faihrre to industrialize. Since Spain
itself had to rcly on finished goods lion.r abroad, it had difliculty
supplying i1s colonies with what they demanded. Mercantilism was
resented by the colonists who {elt its rest clions and were taxed but
saw no benefit lronr the system. By the late- l Tth century the inequiry,
Salutary neglect The British policy of
interfering very little in colonial affairs. lt
was in place from approximately 1690 to
u60. Colonisis were given a high degree
of autonomy in local affairs and in
turn supported the British governmeni
and Crown. After the Seven Years'
War, the British reversed this policy,
implementing and enforcing tariffs and
taxes, much to the objection of its
Norti
American subjects.
Monopoly ports A Spanish system
whereby only legally recognized ports
could engage in trade with the colonies.
It also
meantthat colonies could only
trade with 5pain, not directly with
0ne anolnet
I
)
rhe
New \Aiorid
shortages and high prices of thc SPanish monopoly becane morc
Thus'
flagrant. pronpting the colonists to create thcir olvn solutions
and
thelnselves'
among
in
tlade
Splnish iolonies began to engage
ol
inrra continental trade deveioped a virality of its olvn independent
the transaLlantic trade. As a tesult, tilc colonies saw a rise in nerry cLasses
of dlites in their societies. And with 6lites, also carne the dornintrodden'
Social systems
The pattern ol settlement and migration into the New Worjd was
clifferent for Spanish and British Amerlca Spanish emigrants did t-tclt
come to the Americas as lamily units since conciitions lvete Iore
demanclilg in tireil colonies. and opporrunitics were limited lnstead'
it was largeiy single men who came over as soldiers, oflicials, somc as
laborers. The Sltartish enpire also had a much denser indigenous
population than Bdtish North America Consequentl-v, there was nore
intermarriage or iutertacial relationships, and tl-tus a lalge percentage
ol r.nixed populations ir the Ibedan colonial regions ln r[]e Spanish
cokrnial tettitttries, r'acial classifications becanc very iinportant as tlle
basis oi maintaining class atld power distinctions Race was directlY
Actltity
Research proiect
The Pirates of the Caribbean
In fecent years, piracy in the waters of Southeasi Asra
and the Horn of A{rica (most notably Somaiia) has
presented challenges for international security and
considerable media attention. lntefest in the history
of piracy has also been fostered by the "Pirates ot
the Caribbean" fllms.
Spanish corns and a ring salvaged from the wreck ot the
pirate ship Whydah, whtch sank along with lts captain and
most of its cfew ln lTlZ and was iecovered in l9B4
A quick Internet search wilL yield both historical texts
and romanticized views of pirates, which brings us to
the foLlowing questions:
Who were the real Pirates of the Caribbean?
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4
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When did piracy hit its apex in the Caribbean?
What wefe they looking for?
Was Piracy a lucrative profession?
What were the dangers faced by people sailing in
the Caribbean?
5
Captain Kldd on his quarter deck from a 1907
iilustration by Howard Py e.
How historically accurate are the "Pirates of the
Caribbean" films (set in the 1740s accordrng
to Disnev)?
i7
i . IndePendence
movements
linkccl to social status in a society with a complex racial make-up, and
where family conltecLjoDs were important {or social advancemerl Tlle
highest classes werc Lhe pefiinsulares-those born in Spaini they had
tire most privileges, access Io the highest political positions and were at
the lop ol the social llierarchy. The creoles, those who were of Spanish
bkxrd, but born in the Americas, were denied certain positions and
privileges simply due to their place of birrh. Since the creoles and
peninstLlares were preoccupjed with their own conflicted social stalus.
ihcy did no1 notice the other social lensions that were developing'
P€iinsulares are people lrom the
lberian Peninsula who are of pure
Spanish descenl
Casfas A Portuguese and Spanish term
used in the Americas in reference to all
non-whites but.especially those who
Bclow the peninsulsres and creoles wele the mixed laces or c4stas as
they were sonctimes calied. This group included mestizls (mixed
European/Native American) and mulattos (Etlropean/Aliican ) and
were mixed race such as mesfiios.
mulattos and./obos.
The castas.' Race and social hierarchy
ln thc pcriod imrnediatcly preceding independence. a whole
gcnre ol arl ccnlered arotlnd visrLal ciassilication of the t4Jrrs, or
raccs, especially in Ncw Spain. These were created almost like
rurodern rrading cards, with cach card representiDg a specific
nrdrndi(.rrtd Lhc lcsultarrt ch ild
The image below is just one example o{ the int cate system that
was devcloped. However, this llas not a perlect sciellce; in sollle
respects, the desiflnation given to people was based on visltal
obscrvatiurrs ol priests or Olficials, and not based on actua] rtnions
thai led 1(} birih. A persort's racial designation could i)e changed
thr ough governnrcnl service or purchase; in the iater days of the
Spanish Ernpire {whe noney was in short supply in Spain), those
in the Iower casras could purchase "certificates of whiteness" that
would elevate them. This was only available to those who reached
a certain level ol affluencc, but it showed that there was still an
opporlunily lor rLpward mobility in Spanish Amedcan society.
A Ndtive Arnerican man and his mixed-race wife, from a series on mixed race
maniages in l\,4exico, Mexican school, I8th century.
18
Spanish + Afrjcan = mulatto
lndigcnor-rs (Naiive American or Anerindian) + mulatto = lobo
Spanish + indigcnous (Native Antcrican or Amerindian) = mestizo
Spanish plus castizo \rnestizo + Spanish) : Spanish
A
l
.mesfizo is a person with'one
European (or creole) parent and one
indigenous parent.
1
Worid
Discr-ission poini
wiih
Race and society
sparse creoie poplllarions. At the bottom ol thc social svstelll werc ihe
Narive Arrrricans and thttse of African descer-rr, iucluditlg slaves. Thcy
were considered decidedly infertor to lhe rest of tl.]e population and
facecl brazen discrirnination. social tnobiiit]' was extren.rely lirnitcd lor
these gror-lps; altlrough sorre of lhetn achieved rvcalth aud succcss,
rhcv renained excluded ftom the upper classes in the Spanisll colollies.
Unliltc the Spanish, those lvho migrated to Britisil Norrll Amcric.r
rr.rrall\ ,.rrc i I l | .r r n i v g I o . r p ' o * r r c n t. tvlrule.otttt.tttttiti, s srrl.ir 3
greatci personal {r-eedonrs al.rd/or greatcr ccottotnic opportunit\ '
Within English colonies, the sociai stlucture was latgely bascd utl
class, but there were always cetiain elhnicilies that were treatL'd as
less -thau - clc'sir ablc. In thc eally stagcs of ctllolialisn.t, the lrisl-r antl
Catl-rolics lvcre seelt as threats to colonialsecurity; thc)'lvere ottcn
discrininatecl against, leading to theil Iurlher migration rvcstwattls.
I
\ew
Ac#vitY
ftr'rnccl the nrajor ity of thc poprtlation. Although thcse' groups rvele
relegared to lower jobs and lilnitcd oppottunities, there fl'ere those
r,r'ho achieved wealth and thc'r-'efore status, especiaLlv in cities
r Th--
Why did the Spanish develop
sucn Intncate waYS ol
categorizing Lheir colonial
populations?
T0l( Link
65
ffi
ry
What mal<es race a
detining characteristic
tn^some s-o.,cieties and
What hdDDens when race
becomes a dominant factor in
social hierarchy? Can this be
changed in any Ln'ay?
fhc ( l.rss \v\leln t Ira t dr'r ' l' 'l'cd ur as b. .cd ' ,ll (L JIlr rli ri( < la rll cr
than lalnily connecLions. Weaithy landou'r-lcrs werc al the top.
Acfiuity
TOK Link
The noble savage
institutions ihat deny them tfue freedom and
equa ity. Thus, the nob e savage is happier and more
vlftuous than \ivesierners.
sociaL
r
Why was this concePt poPUlarrzed n tne
lSth century?
e
Why would Eutopeans and r'vhite Amerrcans believe
this iciea?
l2
l5th centufies) was
In Mexico, Aztec society (
divided inio oca famriy Bfoups that formed citY councils
io make decisions ihat affected the local commun tv
These ciiy counc ls, ln turn, rePofted to lhe centra
governrneni fot larger issues, such as warfare (detense)
The lncan government that ruled Perir (1438-1533)
had a similar stfucture to ihe Roman Empire: il-re king
had senate advisors, a strong army and ed the
conquest of other South Amerlcan tfibes.
Five North American tflbes came together and formed
the lroquols Confederation. As eariy as 1450 (but
ceriainly by I 525), an oraL constitut on or "Creat B nding
Law" was createci that lnc uded binding ldeas such as
federalism, separaiion of duties and checks and balances.
The "noble savage" type: Te-Po, Chief of Rarotonga in the
Cook tslands, with extensive iaitoos anci carrying i spear
" ta ds tf 'oo ran
co onization once again r"turr".La i . ic.u
flthoug, ihe il-o rrert ba.l
Empire,
,avage
'
When did the firsi constitut on appear in ELrfope?
o
When did the ideas o{ checks and balances first
appea
ot " ili::#
" "
s rotlo'1.
r -u oPo. A.(ord;ng lo Lh
non Wesiefn or;'primitive" people are free and equal
a state o{ natufe but become corrupted by soc etli df
'e 'nob e
e
;
n lffi$
d Efl
, T -oPP
reliSious tolerance tirst appear in
:.How accurate
is the idea of the noble savage
for the Americas?
19
!
., lndependenae move.Trents
Tradcspeople and small fanners iormed the majodly of the population
and they we re spurr ed or.r by the opportunity lo inprove tlteir
sLandards ol living and attain social advancemenl through hard work.
ll is iurlxfiant to rcmcmber thal two ke.v groups rvere nnderrepresented
in British colonial societl': rhe aristocracy who rarelv emigrated; and the
very poor, who could nor af{ord to leave the n.rother country.
Unlike Spanish America the complex social hierarchy based or:r racial
idcntiry and nixtLrre was absent; the recoenized human spectrum
was largcly \ /hitc. B ut, as in the Spanish colonies, the African
Alnericans were at the botom ol ihe scale with laws that
discriminated against then and placed lirrits on rheir righls and
opportunitics. lt is oftelr lorgottcn that evcn ir the northern colonies
slaves were an integral part of colonial life, and that the lower white
classes based their ()\4,n sense of social superiority on the slaves \ /ho
wcre below them in social status. Native Americans were nol even
considclcd ro bc parl of the social spectrlur since they remained
outside of society; regarded as barbarians or savages, the,v were not
integratecl into the ciass or sociai system of British North Arrerica.
Role of reiigion
The Amcricas were colonized by Eu|opeans who wanted 10 extend
the inlluence of Christianitl,; while Spanish America was dorninated
b), the Rornan Catholic Church, the I I colonies were n.rostly-Lrut
noT entirely-Prolestanl. Anlong the settlers were those who sought
escape fi-onr persccutiolr ancl iirosc who werc drivcn by missionary
zcal. ln Spanish Anerica, tl're Catl-roiic Church piayed a significadt
and vitai role in the colonies in temrs of education, culture and the
Dissension is a conflid ol opinion
cvangeiization ol the nativc population. It also providcd social
wclfare to the gcncral populatiorr. The Catbolic Cl.rurch strenglhened
Spanish jmperial control oveL all segments of colonial society, and
was 1hc only failh acccplcd in thc region. Moreover. the church
participated in Lhe econoin,v as the leading corporate owner of land,
rcal estale and capital, after the Crown. It also served as a bank,
providing laymen with credir and invesrinetrl capilal.
In England, dissension was mainly
ln the British cololies ol Norlh America, plurality of faith, although
not ncccssarily tolerance ol dissension, was the norrn. In many
ways, what people believed depended on where they lived: The New
England cokrnisrs were largely Puritans. the Middle colonists were
a nrixIurc o{ rcligions, including Quakers, Catholics, Lutherans and
Jcws. The Southern colonists had a mixtlrre of religions as well,
inclllding Bapdsts and Anglicans. This meant thar the role of religion
and its rclationship with the state varicd throughout the I J colonies.
among those expected
used to describe those who did not
participate in.the Anglican Church
and instead were members of other
Protestant sects such as the Puritans.
Making up the original 15 colonies
were;
Ncw Endand
Rhrde lsland
Crnnecticut
lVlassachusetts
New',Hampshire
Midtlle;tolonies
i
Delaware
Pennsylvania
Actlvitf
20
NewYork
Case study
NewJersey
The Quaker state
Southern colonies'
Colonies were sometimes established to protect certain Christian groups
Maryland
from religious persecution. While not unique in this, the foundrng of
Vir6inia
Pennsylvania is an interesting case study as it was not just {ounded but
also governed on the basis of ideas of religious freedon, and iolerance
Norlh Carolina
€
to cooperate.
5outh Carolina
ue0fSra
1 , Spdn sh America from the end
of the Habsburgs to Ffench occuPdtron ot SParn
Spanish ArErerica fsoffi! the emd of the
*l-absbarngs to French occupatisn of Spalre
Spanish America was equally afiected by events in Elrrope. The l8th
century saw a change of leadership in Spain: with the deadr of
Charles II in 1700, Habsburg rule carle to an end, and after the Wat
of Spanish Succession (1701-14), Spain found itself under the
Bourbor monarciry. whereas tl're Habsburg rulers had bcer]
neglectfui of their colonies, the Bourbons sought ro tighten the
adlninistration ol thcse possessions. Moreover, the French and Indian
War had meant that Spain lost Florida. Havana and Maniia to lhe
Britisl-r (albeit temporarily); Spain wanted to rcassert its authority as
an imperial power. Coionial relotms were part of a larger set of
reforms meant to modernize the government and economy of
declining Spain.
To achieve these ains the Bour-bons introduced a series of teforms
in Spanish America in tlle 1700s. The changes reflected the general
concerns of the time. and addressed lin-riting the power of rhe
Carholic Churcir, imposing taxes, naintaining royal monopolies,
adding to coionial standing armies, Iimitir-rg powers of the creole elite,
and generally consolidatirg political and econonic interests fot thc
improvement of spain. To a lalge extent they reversed the cconomic
inclependence of the colonies. Much like tl-re Intolerable Acts, these
lar,vs were a significant source oI ulrest, and laid the foundarions fot
revolurion led by the creole 6lite.
Admrnistrative seorganlzatlom
One clear goal of rhe reforms was to inprove the tax yield from
America through restructuring imperial commerce to stimulate the
Spanish economy. First. the crown created two new viceroyaities:
one for Ner,v Granada in 1717 (based in Bogotii); and the other, in
1776, for La Plata (based in Bllenos Aires). The intendancy system
was also introduced. Intendants were peninsulares who were
appoinrt-d ds L,llicials ro over'\ee nriliran lcadelship, irnpl( nrt-nl
imperial lar,r' and collect taxes {rorn the creoles and the nativc
communities alike. Intendants were direcrly |esponsible to tire
Crown, not to the viceroys or generals. The intendancy systern
proved to be efficient in most areas and led to an increase in reventte
coilection for the Spanish Crown. The monarchy's need to raise
revenue led the irlposition of new taxes and the dghtening ol the tax
collection systern and a further outflow of bulllon thus transferrirq
riches to thc Spain. In terrrs of tightening control over the colonies,
tl-ris was a success, bul the creoles who lost their standing were
disgruntled by these changes and looked for oppoltunilies to
uvetturn tlt tircutnvcnl Lhcm.
Econognie s€orgas?izat;cn
In
1779. a fiee-trade decree was deliveled that allowed the SpanishArllelrcan purts to trade directly with each other ald with most ports
in Spain, and for-bade the productior-r oi certain commodities in the
27
'i
i
in(ieDendence movenrents
colonies to prolect Spanish goods. Although these measur.es
reviralizcd some seclors of the economy, the benelits to Spair] were
lirnited, givcn the lacli of Spanish industrial manufacture. At the
sarle tilne, ntany of the colonies began to extract resour.ces thar were
uscfLrl to othcr European powers and the Bdtish coionies in North
Alnerica ar.rd the Caribbean. However, n.rosr of this trade was illegal
because it was not carried on Spanish ships. The Bourbon
administration tried to limil and outiaw this irade bnt the effofls
werc largely futile; illegal trade continued. Adding to creole
alieuation, tlle Spanish trade monopoly was still dominared by
pe ninstLlar il.t.lport-export merchants r,r,ho were given advantagc
simply by rheir place of birth.
Re$lgioeas seforffi"ds
To
ljrlit
the powel of the Catholic Church, the Bourbons forced the
sale of chr,rrcl.r lands. This deprived the clergy of rents. which was a
significant source ol income for parish priests. Unlike the Habsburgs,
who oflen selected clergymen ro fill polirlcal o{fices, the Bourbons
preferred 10 appoiltt career military of{icers to oversee the coionies
which rneant that the church lost political autl-loriry as well. In 1767,
LheJesuits were expelled from the Americas to limit their influence,
espccially ir thc field of educatiorr. Many of the priests expelled were
creoles and thus were deprived of their homelands and missions. The
Iower clcrgy were permanentl). aiienated from the Crown, and it was
from their ranks that manl,of tlte insurgent officers and guerilla
leaders were recruited. The church did not activeiy object or attempt
1o intervcne, bu1 in manv cases the clergy were supported by cievout
laymen who had relatior-rs wjth fellow creojes and saw this as yer
anothcr attempt to limit their power.
lMiHitary defemse
Anothel concern for the monarch), was the defense of its ernpre.
The c0lonies barely had al't operational military under the Habsourgs
ancl so thc BoLrLbons creaied a more organized milltary de1ense {orce.
At first rhey rried to rely upon oificers deployed straight from Spain
but so I'ew were willini: io accept commissions in the Americas. so
the Crown had ro rely on colonial-born nen to increase rhe olficer
corps. The Spaniards organized the rnilitias along race lines so that
there were individual linits for whites. blacks and mixed-race people.
Furthermore, nearly all the highest-ranking officers were Spanishborn, with creo)cs occnpf ing the secondary levels of command. This
added b racial tensions that wolrld have ro be addressed in later years.
zo
While the creoles were most decisively restricted by rhese changes, ail
sectors oi colonial society were hostiie to Bourbon reforms. As ln
British North America, there was open resistance to the new lau,s,
and in some places, they led to riots and revolts. In peni, the rebellion
ol tUpac Arnalu II (Jos6 Gabriel Condorcanqui Noguera) Iasted from
l78l ro l79l and led ro i00,OO deaths and rremendous properry
damage. Also in t78I, the Comuneros-a group of Indians and
mestizos-rose r,rp in New Granada againsL the Spanish Crown. These
revolts, and the srnaller ones that occurred througltout the ernprrc,
signaled increasing dissaris{action with the Bourbon leadership.
? . Spanish America fforn the end of the Habsburgs to French OccuDation oi
Spain
hr dre nidst of the rurmoil in rhe colonies Napole on I of France
snccessfully invaded a weakened Spair.r and replaced rhe Bourbon
nronalchy witl.r his brother Joseph in 1808. France's invasion of
St)ain had precipirared the abdicatlon of Charles IV, and he was
succeedecl by his son, who became Ferdiland VII; rhc creoles
throughoul the Arnericas refused to recognize Bonapart€ rule and
instead claimed lo1'alty io Ferdinand. As wirh rhe Brirish colonisrs In
1773. the creoles wcre, at this poinr, still loyal ro the Crown but thcl'
saw an oppol'tunity to assert thcit autonomy. The resuit was yet
another series o1 revolts that would turn inlo a nLimbel o{ wars of
indrpcrtdencc in tlrl vice"ol a lries.
Adivit'l
The causes of wars of independence
You have been provided with an overyiew of the conditions in the Americas
prior to independence. By examining these and determinin6 how aLl of these
are responsible-and to what degree-you can decide rrvhat you think caused
these revo utions to take place.
Additionally, the historian must make clear the differences benveen the ongterm causes and short tern.t causes. Long,term causes tend to be related to
conditions; short-term causes concern specific events that may act as catalysts.
Using the chart below, consider the maln issues that have been discussed so far
and determine their ro e in revolution. These issues have been discussed in the
text, however fufther research could be useful in order to develop the ihemes.
Self'government
Limited political participation of creoles
The role of cobldos (town councils)
Class structure
Ethnic or facial stfucture
Intellectual movements
Changes to British colonial policies,
1760s
,''..r'.:
Bourbon reforms (throughout the tSth century)
Spanish otiiciais appointed directly by the Crown, territories
better divided for administrative purposes
.e.9";*19-11,ir,.,
Social
Questions for discussion
I
?
what e\tent was the demand for no taxation wthout rcpresentation the most
signifcant force motivating the North American independence moven.rent?
To
'The gievances that the creoles held against peninsular Spaniards was the
most significant cause of the independence movementsl' To what extent and
lor whai reasons do vou apree with this view?
29
I
!The Caribbean and
Latin A.nerica: Revoiuton and indeDendence
The faribbeam amd Latin Asmerica: Revolutiom and imdependec?ce
The revolution in the United
States proved to be tl're {ilst of
a series
ol fcvolutions in the
Americas that would lead to
independence from France, Spain
and Portugal, in chlonological
order. Eacl] revolution had
its rools nol just in the
Enlightennent but in the
r evolutions that had aileady
occuned. Just like US
independence, tire Haitian
revolution proved to be an
important canse of lhe revolutions
in Latin America. More
imnr,'di:trlr;
thp Frer rh
Revolution and subsequent
Napoleonic Enpire plovided
tlr c c:ulv.r. f,rr eh-rnop
This is a modefn map of Hispaniola; on the eastern third of the island is Haiti, or
the French coiony of Saint Domingue; on the west side was the Spanish co ony of
Santo Domingo.
The fiaitian Revoflutlen, i791-1804
The Haitian Revolution broughr {orth ideas of racial equality that
proved threatening to the rest of tl.Ie Americas. especially ro those
regions that depended on slave labor. The revolution took placc irr
the French colony oI Saint Doningue, the easten part Of the island
of Hispaniola. The island was important to France; it procluceri the
important commodity of sugar ard provided lwo filths of its ovcrscas
tlade. It l.rad a plantation econony that relied on slavery to keep
ils level of production higll. On the eve of tlte revolution, the
population ol Haiti was divided by race, legally and socialll'.
White s were the clominant group in society. wiLl-r a populatior-r
of 40,000 Lhat was divided by class, but equai in legal priviieges.
SinilarJy, the 30,000 free non-whites Uens de coleur) were also
socially divelse and only linked by the legal and societal
discrimidation that they facecl. The overwhe lning majoriry of the
populatiorr consisted ol 500,000 slaves. While this might seen lil<e a
homogenorrs group, ethnically they were diverse, and the rights and
priviieges thev had varied from plar.ttation to plantation; some were
even glanted ri.re right to farn their own lard and sell their ltroduce.
In
1789, the French Revolution provided the caaalyst for chan;1c in
the colony. The whites wer-e clividecl as ihe wealthy llJrdnd blancs)
triecl to ensure continued dor.ninance for themselves but thc lniddlc'
and lorver dasses \petit blancs) felt it was their right tO rule ancl
forrrred a National Guard to take actioll. The gens de coleut saw ihe
revolution as Lheir opportunity for equal rigl.rts, and in 1790 the
National Assembly in France granted them political rigitrs. The whitcs
Discussion point
As a French colony, St.
Domrngue was paft oi an
ruiidrLr y. rL 5urL d
society, how can there be
niffercnrec h'.trareen loo;l
iquo,,Ly a,
u or
d, cLtudl|ry,
35
tr" l
dependence nrovements
"l wos born a slove but noture gove ne the soul of
o free
man,"
the French colony, occupied most
of the coastal towns. From 'l79i
to 1798, the biacks battled and
defeated the British forces.
ln 1799, the mulattos launched
a rebellion against Toussaint and
were soundly defeated by his
armies. He then turned his attention
to Santo Domingo (ceded to France
Dy 5parn In 1795) ard governed the whole island.
He was named the governor-general of St. Domingue
and professed loyalty to France but nonetheless issued
a constit.tion lor the .o,ory. Ahnough he was a radical
who desired change, he governed autocratically rather
than democratically- Napoleon feared that Toussaint,s
constitution and dictat6rial manner challenged his
authority and renewed warfare against the colony once
he concluded peace with the British. ln i BO2, Toussalnt
was betrayed by the French who summoned him to a
meetin& captured him upon his arrival and bound him.
He was put on a ship to France with his {amily and later
imprisoned in the Ffench Alps where he died of
apoplexy and pneumonia on April 6, 180J.
"ln overthrowing m9 you hove done no more thsn cut down
tunk ofthe tree ofthe black libefty in St. Doningue_it
willspring bock fron the roots, for they are numerous
the
rnrcrc detcrrnir.red ro prevenl thc
implenentation of this through their
owrl organization and the developmenr of a colonial assembly. Thus
in 1791, wberr nternbers o[ the gens de raleur organized an armed
derronsrration to dcmand rhal thcir rights be granted, the leaders
were seized and cxecuted by the colonial governnerlt. Soon
1l.tereaftel. the colon)/ facetl a series of revolts ancl dols across racial
and class liDcs. ln August 1791, rhe slaves in the nofthern part of the
island revolted. By November, nearl,v half oJ the slaves were in revolt
with the aoal o{ ridding rhe cololry ol slavery arld i1s white
population. Thel' 3113.tr"6 and destrol,cd rhe plantations ancl arry
whiles that they encountered. Slaves who remained joyal to therr
nasters faced a similar fare. The siave revolr eclipsed the conflicts
betwccn whitcs anri ge,':s /e coleur. The whites became equal)1
barbarous iD their treatment of slaves ancl they managed to maintain
contr'ol of tlte towns, but not for long. The slaves deveioped ancl
perlccted thcir use 0f gucrrilla warfar.e.
A Frcnch artcntpr to resrore order through enforcing the rights of the
lailure. In 77 92, 6,000 French rroops were
clispatched to Saint Domingue to enforce French law and impose
order on the colony. Instead, the fighting intensified as a numoer ol
groups battled against one anotitcr ir a nuddied civil war. In
desperation, the French comnlissloner aboiished slaverv in 1791.
While the French attempted ro esrablish conrrol, a leader ot the
slaves emerged: Toussaint IlOuverrure.
gens de coleur nnet wiLh
36
1
J
Tlre Caribbeaf
a|d
Lai n
Amefca: Revo uttor afLi lndePendefce
Torissaint proved to be a strong leader who managed to organize the
blacks against the invading armies. After defeating the French,
Toussaint thought that their lighl would be ovel, but the British soon
arrived, seeking to take advar-rtage of the chaos and Linderestimating
yet again the power oI colonial arrlies. The French had declared war
on Great Britain and colonial expansion seemed lipe for the taking.
Ga ring the support ol white plantation owners, the British managed
to gain contr-ol over key coastal areas bLlt then found themselves
fighting against multiple biack armies. The invasion turned ir.rto a
r /ar of attritioD thar c]Iagged on until 1798. The Britisir leadership
saw the fighting as futiie and negotiated a peace in which they
supportcd Toussaint in exchange lor promiscs to allow tracle 1o
c()ntinLle ancl to not send revolutiolary expeditions to British
possessrons.
Witir British witl-rdrawai tile colony was in the hands of Toussaint
and lris biacks and tlne gens de coleur. These two groups turned against
ore another and engaged in lurrher warlare. Tbe gens de coletu'were
decisivcly dcfeatcd in 1800 and in 1801 Toussaint then turned to
conquer ihe eastern, Spanish part of the island. The new Frenclt
governnenr-the Corsulate-recognized TorlssainL as GovernotGeneral and coirlrande r-in-chie { of the colony. AIso in 1801,
Tonssaint put into place a constitution for the country. whiie Saint
Domingue noninally remained parr of the French empire. tl.tis was
seen as a bid fol independence by the French leader Napoleon.
Lr Janualy 1802, Napoleon sent ar1 expeditionary force to the island
to prevent it frorn breaking free fron the empile. Toussaint, altcr
initial resistance. arter.r"Lpted negotiations with the French bLLt tnstead
they arrestcd him and sent him to France where he was iutptisoned.
Sent to a jail in the AIps, he died ol malnlltrition ancl exposure.
wirile this happened, the French {ought against Haitian guerrillas.
hr tutay I801, the Fr:ench resumed the Napoleor]ic rnrar with Great
Blitain and thus lacked the resources to continue
lighting against the Haitian revolutionaries. While
ihe gucrrillas besieged the coastal towns the French
nor,i, had ro cortend with the British navy, too.
Keeping Haiti l.rad been very costly for Napoleon and
in Novembcr he decided to evacuate the remainitlg
French soldiers.
l,
1804, the republic of Haiti was
proclairned, ihe name change representing a break
On Janllary
ar.lci its tladitions. Very few whites
relnained, ar.rd the blacks were in power in the
new countly. it was governed by Jean ,Iacques
Dessalines, Toussaint's Iaithlul lieutenant who
implemented a rulhless military mle and even
crur,r,ncd hirnsell Emperor of Haiii. His bfutality
.,rclrrdt.tl thc rn.tc.actc u,I all retnainitrg w]rites {)ll
the island and a rctLlrn to plartation labor Io
resuscitate the econony. He co-opted lhe lens de
L?/drr to oversee the plantations as Africans orce
again wor-ked in the Jields in harsh conditiolts.
He iurmediatcly laced opposition for this aDcl was
with Erlrope
The rebellion o{ the slaves rn Santo Domingo, Alrgust 23,
1791, French school, lBth century.
37
I,
ndependence moven]ents
in 1806. Alrhough rhe whites were gote, Haitian
society rel.rained stratified. The qens de coleur replaced the whites as
the dolrrinairt group. The black masses renained below them. Haiti
was a Lreacol] 01 hope for abolitjonists in North America. and a
warning for the creole population in Spanish America.
assassinared
Span!sFr-Armeri€am waEs of izrdependence
The United States War of Independence recognizeri the unity of
I I ol Britain's colonies againsi a common enem),, but the Spanish
Americans whct sought independence did not form a sir-r-rilar unrreq
lront. Insteacl. they were divided geouraphically, and not just inlo the
lorir viceroyalties; in rtrost cases they were furlher djvided and
fought not only against Napoleonic France and later Spain but also
against each other.
Viceroyalty After the conquest ofthe
Americas, Spain divided the colonies
into administrative units.led by a viceroy
who ran the territory in the name of
the:monarch.
These indc'pcndence movements began more than
l0 years a{ier the
but had much deeper roots; the creoles, social and
economic resentl.l.lents againsr the Spanish and peninsulares, who
dominatcd after the Bonrbon reforns were implemented, sought
chance. Likcwise, in rnany places the cttstas thal resented the[
sccondary status saw an opportunity t() press for equality. These
wars, tl.)ereiore, were nrired ltot just in the drive lor political
indcpendence but also the desir-e for social equality. The resuiring
\ /ars \r''lere long, bloody affairs that often created further tensions
rathcr tllan allaying then.
US Revolution
Spanish Anlericans were encolrraged ancj inspired Lry borh the US
and
Fr cnch revolutions. Equaliy, they were terrifiecl by the lesults of
thc HaiLian revolution and their own wars of independence were
informec] as mucll b]/ a desire ro prevenl such an uprising as to create
new. independent lcpublics. Taliing into account the krcal situation,
they sourht to created political strLrctures that were workable; LrLis
lneanl the creatiot] of a nurnber of new courtri€s or,rt of the
viceroyalties; rather rhan rrnification. there was balkanizatiorr.
Using rheif historical loyalties to the Bourbon monarchy and not the
statc, creoles in the viceroyalties refused to recognize Napoleon I,s
brother Josc'ph Bonaparre as the kins of Spain and began tlteir
struggle with an argunten{ tltat, withoul a king. the people were
sovereign. Much like their North American counterparts, the creole
rebeilion began as a push lor autonomy, not an outwarcl demand for
independence. They lhus crealed rheir own independent governing
bodies that would rule until Fernando VII was restored. These juntas
werc reiected or opposed by peninsular olficials who did all rhat they
could to block the eslablishmenr of creole bodies. furthcr
cxaccr-balir-rg resenrnlcnt ald prrshing the creoles towards a drive for
independence. The creoles subsequently lost what confidence they
had in tl.re rennants ol irnperial leadership and revolted.
Jtt
Whiie rhe risings happened concuuently, the narure of rhe
independence wars varied fron place to place. Each area hacl ils own
leaders with their own philosophies and agendas. In tlte northern
Viceroyalry ol New Spain, Father Hidalgo soughr to bring about a social
revokrtion; in New Granada iltodern-day Coiornbia). the leaclers were
trying to preempl a potential slave rebellion Iike the one they had seen
Discussion point
Balkanization is the
{ragmentation or division of a
geopolitical entity. Why is rhis
term now used to describe
this phenomenon?
Iunta A group of oeople conhollinp
a government especially after.a
revotultonary setzure ot power.
Discussion point
How and why have juntas
been put into piace in the
Americas in the 20th century?
!
,The Caribbean and Latin America: Revoluiion and indeoendence
in Haiti. In both cases the creole leaders were addressing the issues that
faced their own region's resources, demography and geography
In l314. wirh rhe collapse of the French Emple, Ferdinand VII was
restored to the Spanish throne. This signified an important change,
since most ol the poiitical and iegal changes on botl'r sides ol tl.re
Atlartic had bcer done in his naille. Fcrdinand was an absolutist who
disapproved of the political changes undertaken in tlle Napoleonic
period. A similar reverse occuued in the coionies and to address ir
Ferdir.rand organized the largest expeditionarlu force that Spain had
ever sent to the Anericas Lrp to that time. Ferdinand launched a
colrnterlevolution that, in eflect, constituted a definitive break with
the autonomous local governnents, wiricl'r hatl not )'et declared formal
indepe ndence. The governments of these regions, which had their-.
origins in the juntas of I 810. and even moderates tere. who had
entertained reconciliation with the Crown, now saw tlte need tu
separatc lrom Spain.
t\ew Spaira amd the cause
@f
Mextcan
independesace
The viceroyalty of New Spain had the largesr population and was one
of the most ethnically diverse colonies. On September 16, 1E10.
Father Miguel Hidalgo began the Mexican revolntion in car-nest with
his Griro de Dolores, a call for independence from Spain tltat appealed
not just to the creole s but to Native Americans. ,re.rttzr.r, lree blacks
and mulattos. He saw not just the politicai oppression of Spain tl.rat
the creoles wanred to redr-ess, but also the problems that the lower
classes faced: hunger', poverty, lack of land and high taxes. His
program called for redistribution o{ land, abolirion of slavery and an
end to Indian tribute. His plan led to rl-le insurrection of the masses
that terrified the creoles and penitsulares alike. An estimated 80,000
joined his army, but they ra/ere not disciplined or organized and chaos
soon reigned. Tlr.e peninsulares and creoles took advantagc of this,
using both the royal army and local militias to defeat Hidalgo's
warriors. Hidaleo himsell was captuled and execured in l8 i 1.
Indian tribute Resources or taxes that
the indigenous populations of Spanisfr
America had to pay to the Spanish
Crown.
This did not stop the revolution in Mexico. however. Wltile the
royalists managed to control the cities, the countryside was in the
hands of a number of insurgent groups. In southern Mexico, another
priest became the leader of the revolutionary movement. Father Josd
Maria Nlorelos tought against rhe royal army and in I 8 l4 drafted thc
Corstitutior.ral Decr.ee for the Liberty oI Mexico, therebl, esrablisl.ring
an independent republic. As in the Unired Srates, rhe declararion ol
independence appeared after the war frad begun. Unlike US
independer.rce, Mexico's would be in{used b1' Cathojicism (the oniy
tolerated religion), and include the abolirion of slavety. Like Hidalgo,
Morelos was captured and executed, but his ideas helped keep rlte wars
of independence going. Mexico faced years of guenilla war-farc
where there were no decisive or clear battles but instead a prolt
'nged
war of attrition.
Mexican 6lites began to recognize tltat independence was looming
and that they could create a stale in which rltey played a don.rinant
role or leave it ro the masses. Thus. creoles. the Catholic hier-archy,
peninsulares and miiitar_v ieadcrs collaborated to create an
39
i . lndependeace nrovemenb
indcpcndenl Mcxico. Lcd bi'Agnstin de ltlrrbide, t}'re1' developed tl.re
l'lar.t de lgrrala wl.rich had three cicar gLlaranlces: indepcndcncc fi'om
tirc Spanish Cnrr'vn, lhe suprenacy ol the Roman Catholic Chnrch
and etlrraiiry or pcnin:;ulares ald clcoles. In the nteantiit-le, iturbide's
[()rc€5 succcedcd on 1hc l)atrlelicld aDd defeatecl ti_re loyalist lorces.
Ilc ihelr prcssulcd ttre Spanish p()lilical chief .iUan O'Donojri to sisn
the Trcaty o1 Crircloba thal recogrized .11l independcnt Mcxico.
The plar-r prcscrvcd the social ordcr iu Mexico-which, ultirrratei_v,
oniy dclayc'd civil war-and created an indepeldenr sovereign state.
It also callccl 1or the establishrlenl of a monarchl,, bur the Bourbons
rclusccl 1o scnd a1r)/ lamily r11gntrs15. As a resLrlt, Iturbicle became
Enlperor of Mexico il-r 1822.
Our Lady of Guadalupe
ln 1531, the Vrrgrn l\lary
appeared to convefted
Mexican native Juan Diego
and this inrage appeared on
his cloak. This icon became
the symbol of Mexlcan masses
thal rebelled against the Spanish
Crown and sought rndependence
and socia eqrality cjuring the
Mexican War o{ Independence.
The Virgin is the patron saint
of Mexlco and remalns an
importdnt syn.rbol; in the J\4exican
Revolutron
(l9l 0-20),
Zapata's
folowers carried the Virgin on
standards nto batt e and today it
I
rs common to see her
churches, on t shlris and even as
a lattoo in Mex co and the
southwestern Untted States.
The Repexb!fr€ of l/effiezueEa
In Vcnczuela, as in Mexico, rhc creoles were unlted by class
intcrcsls il addition to a desire lor national soveteignty. There
had already treen localized cails for independence from Franctsco
de Miranda, a Venezuelan revolutionarl'who led a war for
indepcndence in 1806. On July 5, l8l l, the creoles cleclared al
independcnt Republic of Venezuela tltar represenred their.iiberal
political agenda and thc preservarion of their power base. They
advocaled a 1ranchise basecl on property and the elimiiration oI
the slaye tradc but nol slaverl'. It became very clear that this was
a cleolc r-cvolution and thal non-whites were not included.
40
The royalisrs capitalizcd on this and recruircd non-rvhites. Thc
Vcnczuelan war was ltot just a war allainst Spain but also a civil
war. A Spanish oflicer,.iosi Tom6s Boves, led a largely mixed-race
arm)r that was respolsible {or some of the bloociiest battles agatnsr
the creole patriots. In 1814, Boves entered Caracas, instituting a
l
f
e tarrbocon onc Latrn Amefica: Revolution and independence
reign o{ terror and bringing down the republic. Spain took
a{ivantase of rhe cltaos and disparched 11,000 soldiers to Spal.tish
America and retook Catacas in Mair 1815.
Spanish occupation seemed to revitalize the Venezuelan
indepcndence moveffrel]t and united the diverse for.ces. Its leacrcr,
Sirntin Bolivar, reinlorced support for the cause of liberation and he
welcomed all races into his armies. The need for lnore support
brought equality; non-whites who supported the royalist caLlse saw
their rights repc'aied and joir"red rhe patriors. Uuderstanding that his
own personal atritude set ar important exarnple, Bolivar freed his
own siavcs.
Thc Spanisl.r were fightrng in multipie tlteaters and had to rlake
decisiols on wheLe to light. Forces rvere split. ihere was a detcrioration
ol morale and war-weariness was prcvalent in the Spanish arrrry.
ln 1820, events in Spain once again intervened on the patriots'
behalf. An ar]l]y coup led to the restoration o{ more liberal laws
and a weakened Spanish army had ro negotiate with tltc patdots.
The Spanish withdrew but did not recognize the new states;
r.ronetheiess, Venezuela had won its independence. iniiially as part
of Gran Colombia (modern Ecllador, Colonbia, Panama and
Venezuela). In 1830, Verezuela and Ecuador-both seceded and
bccane independent republics.
Formerly the viceroyalty of Nueva
Granada,
in
1819
cran Colombia
was formed
duringthe wars of independence
from Spain. lt dissolved in lB30 with the
secession of Venezuela and Ecuadot
and also includes the modern states of
Colombia and Panama.
Foreign imterventien in Spamisil Arglerica
Foreign assisrance was significant but less so than in North Ameuca.
Aithongh rhe British l-rad inirially supportec{ revoiurion in Venezuela,
Napoleor.r's invasion of Spain had transformed Spain into an allv o{
Britain, and thc forces pledged ro rhe patriors instead went ro ligilr in
the peninsular n'ar. AJtet this, the Venezltelans received no suppon
lrom Europe or the United States. wltiie iudividual North Aruencans
providecl assistance to Spanish American patriots, and US public
syrnpathy was cieal'ly on their side, there was no official recognirion
or assistance fi'om the United States governrnent. The patriots did,
however. receive suppofi from Haitian president Alexandre perioD
who provided money, volunteers and weapons wl-Lich enabled the
patriots ro conlinue the struggle for independence on the condition
that Bolivar expand the fighr for independence to include the
liberation of slaves, a plomise that hc hept.
Of greater signilicance in the armed struggie was the role of foreign
volLlnteels. Fightil]g under Bolivar's comrnand were the Blitisit
Legion units cor.nposed of volunteers that colrsisted mainly of
Napoieonic War vcterans as r,r'ell as some Gcrr.nan veterans. In March
i819, Bolivar cornbiued most of his {oreign volunteers into a brigadc
of 250 men with James Rooke as commander. Tl-re British Leeions
corrsisted of re 1st British Legion led by Colonel James Towers
English, tire 2nd Bdtlsh Legion led b),Colonel John Blosserr, and thc
Irish Legion, led by Colonel William Aylmer. The Britisl.r Legions
played a pivotal role ilt rhe Vai'gas Swamp Battle on JLrly 25, 1819,
aud Bolivar crc'dited them for the victories at the subsequent battles
ol Boyaca ald Carabobo. Bolivar called rhern "the saviors of
my counrrY
Foreign legions are small military
units composed of {orei8n volunteers.
Numerous foreign legions participated
in the wars for independence in the
Americas.
41
i :
inaieDeitcence ratovemeni:
5le'm6e. SoBivar amd .Eeis€ eie Saut R/Eartfn
Tw() n.lcr plovided rrilitary lcadcrship drat rvent bel,onci the borders of
iht'ir owrr nations-Sim6n Bolivat.and.losd de San lvlartin. The,rr at'e
cousiclcrcd to be the Lr,vo Ieading figurcs in the struggle for Larin
Arrerican indcpendence. Thc),both understood that independence {or
part ()1 Sita[ish Aurerica rvortld nrean independence lor all, aDd thus
Lhcy lirLrght on thc bartleficliis not.jitsi ilt their o\ /n countries but
throu!lhout tbe region. Thev met only or.rce, on Jril,v 26, 1822, in
Grral'aquil (Ecuadof) anci while Lhey had siniiar objeciives rhey had
vcr,v dillclcut ideas on the orllanization, strLlclure and lornts ot
llove unenl lO| the nevv natiol slares.
Bolivar's political goal rvas unitl' lor Sorrrh Anerica and his acceprance
of thc lcadership of Gran Coloi.trbia (Ecuador, Colonbia, Venczuela) in
1 819, sl.rowed lhis cl eterfirin ati otr. IIe belieyed that sovereigtrrv
trclorrlleci lo the majoritv r,vho n,ere non r,r,hite, but fearetl the rvranny
ol rlris donrinaI)t class ancl thus cstablishcd a dictalorial s),slen rhat he
called "able despotisnr." llc imposcd a stronq executive to cnrorce
lcgal equalitY i,vhcre racial inequality prevailed. He also r.er,r'arded
nriliLar'1' ls2dgr5 ior-their service in the war rhrough allocation of lancl,
giving thcm local clominancc. As he was often away lighring the
battLes ol the conlincnt, he nccded to delegate authorilv to strol!:
r]}err r,r,hon he hctl;cd wolrlcl i]ltplcrncnt his reforms. Frustrared by
his inability to charlgc the intcrrelated race and class s_r,stcms in Gral
Colonrtria, and wrackecl u'ith illness, he r,vas disilhisicl.red by the power
hc r,viclcled. An assassinarion arrenlpt in l62E iufther rn'ealteneri hirn
and his govcrrtmelt had thc problems ol debt, a clisor.ganized r.nilitatv
and civil discon tcnt.
Sim6n Bolivar (t 783-1830)
It is difficult to provide a chronological account of the
military and politicaL leadership of Bolivar as he served
in both capacities concurrently. The liberator of norlhern
South America, Sim6n Bolivar was a wealthy creole
Venezuelan who was orphaned early in life and
educated by private tutors. Like many members of the
Spanish-American 6lite, he lived and studied in Europe
ftom I 804 to 18O7, learning from the ideas of the
Enlightenn.rent and rejedcing the tyranny of Napoleon
Bonaparte whose conquest of Europe he experienced.
He also toured the United States and observed what he
saw as a successful constitutional democracy that could
be implemented in his mother country. Upon his retufn
to Venezuela, he helped mobilize his countrymen who
desired independence from Spain (now being ruled by
loseoh Bonaocr e). Wl-en Lhe Vere-uelars op,ed,or
self-government Bolivar was dispatched to Creat Britain
to gain the support of its govemment. Upon his retuff,
io fourd Le co-ntry t- c vil war as royd isi. banlea
agarnst patriots. He initial\, fought for the cause of
independence but was forced into exile in Jamaica in
l8l5 after a defeat at the hands
of royalist forces. While in exile
he wrote "Letter from Jamaica"
which was an exhortation to
the British for assistance in the
Spanish-American battle for
IncePendence.
Bolivar also spent tin'te jn Haiti where he
recejved pfomises of assistance from president petion.
He then went to New Cranada (Colombia) to continue
his fight for independence. There he received a
commission and 200 soldiers under his command. He
anac\ed oyal'sT ioi' es arc Ddhlec lor i-deperoen-e
first in Venezuela. In 1819 he crossed the Andes and
assisted with the conquests of New Cranada and
Ecuador. This time, he was successful in his battles,
steadily taking territory and consolidating nonhern 5outh
America as independent and republican. His final battle
was the cavalry battle of Junin, fought {or the final
liberation of Penj on August Z I B2f
! .ihe
Caribbean and Larin Ameica: RevolLrtion ,rnd indeDendence
1830, he addressed the Congress, saying, "Feilow citizens.
I am ashamed to say it, but independence is the sole bencfit we havc
gained. ar the sacrifice of all others." He renounced his presidencl'
and, on Deccrnbel 17, 1810, died fron.r tuberculosis and exhaustiotl.
In
" Ameicans; Let us no longer be the object of the
sarcasm of those wretched Spaniards who are x.tpetior
to Lts only in wickedlless, while thE do not excel us in
valor, becattse our indulgence is what gives then their
strength- If they appear grcat to us, it is because we are
on our knees. Let us avenge three centuries
of sharne. War alone can only save us
tfuough the path
oJ
honor!"
Sirn6n Bolivat
Ocbber 1812, Cartagena.
Jos6 Francis€o de San Martin Matorras
(r 778-l8sO)
5an Marlir-, lhe Argenl'ne soc oI a Spanish officer,
was Lne i,beraror of southern SouLh America,
Ahl-ough born ;n ArSenlina. he was <enr ro Spain
in 1786 for formal education and military training.
He served in the Spanish army, first in Murcia and
with distinction in the battles of Bail6n (l B0B) and Aibuera
(181 I ) but he could not advance further in the spanish afmy; even
though he had lived most of his life in Spain he was discriminated a6ainst
because he had been born in Amedca. He then moved to Cadiz where
he net oiher creoles ord was iniroduced to men dovocating
independence. In 1811, he resigned his commission in the Spanish army
so he could return to Argentina after 25 years in Europe.
As a seasoned, experienced military leader San Martin was given a
commission and created the cavalry corps for the Argentine army.
The Mounted Crenadiers first faced action in 1813 when they were called
upon to fight against recently arrived Spanish forces in San Lorenzo, near
Montevideo. He was also given command of the northern army after
Ceneral Belgrano was defeated in Upper Per[. After such difficult battles
San Mart(n feit that it would be best to attack the royalist forces not in
Afgentina but in Chile and made a difficult trek with his army to reach
the other, side of the continent. The Army of the Andes succeeded in its
task and joined with Chilean patriots led by Bernardo O'Higgins.
The combined army defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Chacabuco
tn 18 l / and Derated Ln,te.
Although he was offered leadership of Chile, San Martin deferred to the
Chilean O'Higgins and continued the battle for independence. In 1B1B
he won the Battle of Maipri, completing the liberation of Chile and moved
on to Peni. His army successfully took Lima in l82l and he was given
the title of "protector" over that country Bolivar was aiso advancing his
army, and the t\,\io men met iir Cuayaquil in i 822. The subject of the
meeting remained a secret but San Martin resigned his commission,
abdicated from his position of protector and retired from privaie life,
leaving the final conquest of Perrj to Bolivar. In I824 San Martin went to
France where he died impoverished and in exile, in I850. His remains
were later transferred to Buenos Aires.
43
tr
|
lndependeac-- ritovements
Actavlry
Leadership
5im6n Bolivar, Jos6 de San Martin and George Washington
These men provided military and political leadership that was critical
to tnerr
countries' independence from the mother couniries.
Complete the table.
Learner profile link
Principled
Spaniords ond Conodions, count on deoth, even if indifferent, if you
do not
actively wo* in fovot of the independence of Anerico. Americons,
count on lit'e,
even if guilty.
S
ffron Bo ivar, lune 15,
t8l3
in Trujtllo, Venezuela
Bolivafs statement represented a fuil-blown assault on Spaniards.
It legitimized death to all Spaniards who did not overtly suppoft the
independence movements. paifiots often cornmitted atrocities against
the Spaniards and vice versa.
Can systematic extermination ever be justified?
As Bolivar's forcc's 10r,rght in the north, San Martin.s Arny of the
Andes trad crossed ilto Chilcan Lerritor,v and engaged the royalist
anny thcre with thc assistance of Cl.rilean leader Bernardo O;Higgins
in the Batlle o1 Chacabucho in Febrlrary lgl7. The reason for crossing
thc Andes was tltal the stroitgest oI the royalisl arrl.lies was in per[]
and San Manill fch thai Lhe liberation of all Spanish America_
including his homeland Argentina-was dependent upon expellinil
the Spanislt hom lhe enlire conrincnt. Thus, he led his army in 2
grucling, high-altirudc trck thi-ough ruouniain passes, losing one
third
ol his men and over hail ol his horscs.
Rcalizing that patrior lorces had crossed the Andes, ro_valists raced
to
the fronrier ro ty ro biock them ton conrinuing to S;ntiago. Despite
44
the losscs. San Marrin's foLces ournunbercd rhe ro_vallsrs +.OOO to
1,500 but thc royalists were exJ)ecting rcinforcements. Royalisl
strategy was 1() cielay the patriot arn)/ unli] the needed
reiniolccrlents arrivcd.
:'-fhe Cerbbedn dnd Lain Amerca: Revolutjon and Indeper{tence
Bernardo OiHiggins (1778-1842)
Bernardo O'Higgins was the illegitimate son of
Ambrose O'Higgins, an lrish-born governor-general
of Chile ord ,sabel Riquelrres, daugl-ter of
weallhy Creoles. Bernardo was lls 5ert lo Peri,
then Spain and finally England for his formal
education. When studying in England, he met
Francisco lViranda, one of the earliest proponents of
Spanish American independence. Upon his fathels death in
I B01, he returned to Chile both as a farmer and local politician.
When the Napoleonic wars led to a debate over the future of Spanish
America, O'Higgins sided with those who advocated full ind'ependence.
Lacking rn military training he comrnissioned Colonel Juan MacKenna to
train hirn, and heformed two cavalry units out of his farmhands. ln lBl4,
his orrries were ret bv de'eaL ar lre hands of befter equ,ppec and
trained royalists and had to retreat to Argentina. At this point he made
plans with San Marlin as his army regrouped and trained to face the
royalists again.
In i Bl Z San lMartin's army crossed the Andes, cjefeated the royalists and
took Santiago. As the highest-ranking member of the Chilean army,
O'Higgins was made Supreme Director of Chile (after San Martin
graciously declined) and instituted economic, political and social reforms
designed to create a neW modefn state. He was, however, opposed by
the well-connected creoles who resented his chanses as he threatened
their domination over Chile. ln t823, O'Higgins resigned and left Chile for
Pefli. Although he was permitted to return to Chile, his health deteriorated
substantially and he could not risk the arduous journey. Nonetheless, he
remained actively interested in Chilean poJitics and urged a strengthening
of the army and expansion to the Stfaits of Magellan. He died in 1842 in
Lima, and his remains were buried in Santiago, Chiie, in 1866.
San Marlin knetv that he had a narrow wiudow of opportunity and
tooli it. The patrir)t forces had lhc assistance of Cfrilcan lighreL-s lcd Lry
Ge ne ra
ls O'Higgins and Solcr'.
To dcfeat the royalists. San
Martin clivicled his arm_rr itr rwo. The first
grorrp, led bi, O'HiggirLs, was slrpposcd to divert atrention bV
attacking the left flanli of the royallst forces. h.r thc mcanrime, Soler's
grolrp was supposed to attack tlom the rigl-rt and encircle thc arm\/.
By launching sirrnltaneous attacks, they hoped ro confuse the
Spanisll torces. O'Fliggins'{orces advanced more quicklv thalt c\pL'.rcd.
but Soler managed to lollow throLLglt and encircic rhc Spanish, rvhile
O'Higgirs contiitlicd to hantntet a\4/ay at the hont oI the ari.r.iv.
Thc rovalists suffered 500 deacl and 600 captured conrparr:d to
12 latalities for the patriots in battle (althougl.t 100 rrrorc dic'd o1 their
woi-rnds later). Royaiist survivols {led and San Martin and O'Higgir-rs
crtered Sanliago as viclors. Althougit the patriots woulcl havc to
defeat thc Spanish one lnole time ar Maipil in April I818, rhis batrle
gavc the Chileans contlol of their capiral and allor,ved fherr ro being
creaunll a govcntiTlcnt.
I
: Economlc and social effecis of lhe revolLtltons on the Amercas
possibic blacks were freed and afier the war were evacuated to other
parts 01 the Britisit Empire ir-rciuding approximately 3,500 who wenr
ro
Nova Scoria and New Brunswicl(. In the south. rnany black
ciaims for
Ileedom were ignored ar.rcl even free blacks were sold into siavcry ar
the erd of dre war. Slaver.y remainecl a soLrrce of tension among Lhe
states and was an unresolved issue that woulcl cause conflict ior rhe
new country well into dte l9dt cenrury. It was the nost divisive
clomestic issue that the United States faced.
Spanlsle ,{nrerica
The econorny
It is difficult ro assess the impact of revolution on all of Spanish
Amelica but certain generaiizations can be made. The wars l,rad
devastatilg effects on the economic resources of Lhe region.
The minlng industry in particular was harmecl by the war_both
sidcs o{ten destrol,ed cxtant mines so that they would not benelit
the opposing side. Livestock was depleteci by hungry ar.mies
marching through villages and ranching areas.
Although governmerrs discussed the neecl to build national
econorlies tl.rere were lew incentives for those with rvealth or
ingenuity to do so. Most preferred to purchase imported
manulactured goods. They were thus reliant on the continucd
production and expot-t ol raw materials that, in turn, made them
dependent on cheap labor. At the same time, without industry, tltere
was litrle inrernal denand for rlte goods tirey produced, so the iogicai
oLltcotlte was export. In the face of such a sitriation mclst of tirc
countries weicomed for.eign investment ancl free trade. The results,
Ihey would latcr discover, would not yieltl the indusrrial socieues
tbat their partners had created; instead they became relianr on
loleign invesiors that established contr.ol over most dolrrestic industrv
ln the new countrics and often had a strangiehold on key resolrrces.
5ocial
statq..s
Spanisir Arnelica was in a very di{ferent
situation to rhc Unired Stares or Hairi,
due to the nature of their wars of
independence. Unlike their coLrnterparts
in tire nonh, the Spanish Antericans had
to mobiiizc a substantial nunber of non
wlltes to create an al'ny capable of
defeating thc royalist forces. This meant
that at the end of the wars the non-whites
would dernand i<e1, libe nies, and while
politicai righrs lvere gtanled, social status
renained a rvav of subjugating tl.re
0ther races.
Creoles were successful in retaining their
conlrol
political and soclal lile. Although
independence brought an end to tite
aristocracv, there was still a class of dlites based on race tltat domutatecl
Spanish Anterican lile. They reserved for tiremseh,es all bureauct.aric
positions ancl rnade it much easier for their sons to get an edrrcaLicrn
o1
Native wofkers haruesttng coffee beans
rn Costa Rica, lBOOS.
55
ircepencence iltoventenis
tharr lor- Othcls. A ELlropeair education was still s(jen as important to
social sranclinq, and was dilficult for-nol-whites to attaiD.
11 was still possiblc k;r lree uon,r,rdtites to advance sociall,v or
ccoltonticaliv. The,v laced cliscrimination and lar,r,s nteant to protect
thL'm \.r'crclt'1 always cnforced but thel,attained ntore rigltts than
prcviously. The nrixed-racc ir-rdigcnous populations taced even n.role
sever e discr intination ancl often rc'sponded n,itl-r revolts against rhe
govcrnllents in l)olver. These rcvolts werc generall_v suppressed
quickly, but tlterc w,ere anolllalies. Tire yaqui lnc.lians of northeln
Mcxico eltgased in ncariy a centur\/ of i,r,arfate against subseqrienr
goyclllntcr-tts dcspiLc r cceiving the rrost brlltal ueatnent.
At tirc cnd of thc rcvolrrLions, slavery renained in Spauish Alnenca.
Althourrh Bolivat outlar,ved slavery durir.rg the wars, it persisted after rhe
war. As in North Anerica. ntosr ieaders of the inclependence movetnent
sa\,v thc hylxrcrisy in dreir ()wn light for irdependence but continuecl
lhc bondage o[ others. They \",/cre nor inc]inecl, however, to act upon
thcse lcc]ings. Rcliancc orr natural resources and primary produce for
incomc aiso ntealtl col]tinltiltg an econoutic systent
ilral \.as relialtt on low-paid indiS;enous and slave
labor. This in turn iLtsiified rhe srraritied social svsrem
thaL licpt thc creoles irr ytower.
Tbe situation in Spanish Anrctica n as by lo neans
l]orlOgenOrrs. .lusl as slaycry was not important to
the ec()nomies ol the New England states, il was
ul.lintl)ortant in Mcxico, Ccnttal America and
Cl.rilc-thrcc coLurtries that abojished slaver,v shor.tly
atter indepcltdence. On the otlter itaud, tite
.r'Lrnt t ics vr'ltrt t. :lar q.) v\,t: mr,t r itr rl,,, ,rt rr
(Colombia, Vcnczue la. Pem, Argentina and Ecuador.)
worrld conlinue slavery well into rhe lg40s and
i850s. Onlf inlctrsi{icarior.r ol slavc revoits antl a lear
ol political instability led lo er.nancipation ther.e.
A/lexrcan
women making toriillas ln the lBOOs.
Conc!uslon
By thc 1820s, independence had been achieved in most of tltc'
Americas. Onh'sorle islands ir the Caribbean and sone coastal
colonial oLllposts remained. Europear influencc was waning ancl thc
Ulrite d States had begurl to establish itself as a doninarlt pon'er in
the region.
In general, iDdependelce had neant long, bloody. costly wars for
tl.rese new countries and in addition to creatinll new goverllments
ar-rd wliring colrstitrtions they wouid be plagued by war debt lhat
rvould ir-revitably lead to cor-rflicts in the nerv states. There were also
unrcsolved social issues in all of the ltew counlries dlar would t'reed
to be addressed. Often tl-re 61ites tried to ignote these hoping to
ailay thc problcms. The issues ol the da1'-ernancipatior-t, suftlaple.
taxation Iemained and intensified untii futnte generations had io
conflonl thenl, often \,vith eqrrally terrible resrtlts.
56