Download Section 5: Language Mechanics and Word Usage

Section 5: Language Mechanics and
Word Usage
9th Grade-SAT PREP: Reading and Writing Proficiency
Lessons and Activities
(January 17-February 7; winter break; February 27March 2)
Importance of Language Mechanics
and Word Usage
 Constant emphasis on the correct use of English raises the
level of importance of these topics in daily lives and on
standardized tests
 All written work, from formal writing assignments to short
answers on homework questions, should demonstrate correct
mechanics and usage
 Complete sentences, along with the use of capital letters,
punctuation, and effective word choice is always required
Rules for Using End Marks
Periods, question marks, and exclamation points are called end marks because they come
at the end of sentences.
Periods:
1. Use a period to end a statement (declarative sentence). Example- It is cold outside.
2. Use a period after a command (imperative sentence). Example- Close the door.
3. Use a period at the end of an abbreviation. Examples- Dr. Mrs. Sun. Jan.
4. Use a period with initials. Example- Ursula K. Le Guin S.E. Hinton O. Henry
Question Marks:
1. Use a question mark after a question (interrogative sentence). Example- What time is it?
Exclamation Points:
1. Use an exclamation point after a sentence with strong emotion (exclamatory sentence). ExampleLook out!
Rules for Using Commas
Commons have many uses in sentences, addresses, letters, and numbers.
1. Use a comma between the words, phrases, and clauses in a series. Example- apples, peaches, and
pears
Mandy came home from school, did her homework, and called Kim.
2. Use a comma between the names of cities and states. Example- Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
3. Use a comma between the day and year in dates. Example- January 3, 2003
4. Use a comma to set off nouns in direct address. Example- Ramiro, it is time for lunch.
5. Use a comma to set off direct quotations in a sentence. Example- “We have math homework tonight,”
Alyssa said.
6. Use a comma in front of and, but, or, or nor in a compound sentence. Examples• They hiked to the top of the hill, and they made camp near the oak tree.
• Sonia loves pretzels, but Billy likes potato chips.
• Patrick will do a report on pollution, or he will do one on weather.
• Trish did not understand the assignment, nor did the other students in her group.
Rules for Using Commas (cont’d)
7. Use a comma to set off an appositive. Example- Justin, a computer whiz, enjoys creating
new computer games.
8. Use a comma to separate adjectives of equal importance. Example- The tall, distinguished man was a
stranger in town.
9. Use a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause in a sentence. Example•Yes, it is raining outside.
•Terrified by the thunger and lightning, the puppy crawled under the couch.
•If the snowstorm begins during the night, school will probably be canceled.
10. Use commas to set off parenthetical and nonessential expressions. Example- Of course, we’ll be glad
to help with the charity drive.
11. Use a comma after the greeting of a friendly letter and after the closing of all letters. Example- Dear
Aunt Janet,
Yours truly,
12. Use commas in numbers of more than three digits. Example- 1,436
7, 309, 576
Rules for using Colons and Semicolons
Colons:
Semi-Colons:
1. Use a colon to set off words in a list
1. Use a semicolon between independent
following an independent clause.
clauses not joined by and, but, or, or nor.
Example- Natalie packed the following
Example- Tom was in agreement; Brad
was not.
for the picnic: a salad, sandwiches, cake,
and a jug filled with iced tea.
2. Use a colon between hours and minutes.
Examples-10:15 A.M.
2:45 P.M.
3. Use a after the greeting of a business letter.
Example- Dear Mr. Smith: Dear Miss Jones:
4. Use a colon to set off an important idea.
Example- Directions: Read the story and
answer all the questions.
2. Use a semicolon between main clauses if there
are commas in one or both of the clauses.
Examples- Knowledge of computers, more so
now in the 21st century than ever before, is
necessary for a successful career; and
fortunately many American students use
computers every day in school and at home.
Rules for Using Apostrophes
Apostrophes are used with contractions and to show possessive nouns.
1. Use an apostrophe in contractions to show what letters are missing. Examples- can not-can’t will
not-won’t
would not-won’t
2. Use an apostrophe to show possesive nouns.
Examples for singular nouns:
Sara’s kitten
The puppy’s toy
James’s book
Examples for plural nouns:
The puppies’ toys
The men’s shoe department
The twin sisters’ room
The mice’s nest
Rules for Using Quotation Marks,
Underlining, and Italics
Quotation Marks
Underlining (Italics)
1. Use quotation marks to set off the direct words
of a speaker.
Examples• “It is a great day,” he said.
• “If it rains,” said Ali, “the game will be
postponed.”
• Dara asked, “What is the math homework for
tonight?”
1. Underline (or italicize) the titles of books,
movies, and works of art.
Examples• Night (book)
• StarWars: Episode I—The Phantom Menace
(movie)
• The Mona Lisa (painting)
2. Use quotation marks around the titles of short
stories, articles, songs, poems, or the titles of
chapters in books.
Examples•“The Open Window” (story)
•“The Star-Spangled Banner” (song)
•“The Road Not Taken” (poem)
2. Underline (or italicize) the names of
newspapers, magazines, ships, trains, planes, and
spacecraft.
Examples•The New York Times (newspaper)
•Atlantic Monthly (magazine)
•U.S.S. Enterprise (ship)
3. Underline (or italicize) words for special
emphasis.
Example-
Rules for Using Parentheses, Dashes,
and Hyphens
 Parentheses:
 Use parentheses to enclose information that is added to a sentence, but
which is not of critical importance (sometimes, commas or dashes can be
used in place of parentheses). Example- During exams (now through next
Tuesday) Sara will concentrate on studying.
 Hyphens:
 Use a hyphen to connect two or more words to form compound words.
Examples- up-to-date double-header merry-go-round
 Use a hyphen to break words into syllables. Examples- fol-low base-ball
 Use a hyphen when writing certain numbers. Examples- twenty-three
eighty-nine
 Dashes:
 Use a dash to signal a break in thought.
Example- If I do well on the test tomorrow—and I’m sure I will because I
studied more than half the night—I’ll get an “A” in history this quarter.
A Proofreader’s Checklist
 Sentences begin with capital letters
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and end with the correct end mark.
Sentences are complete thoughts.
Fragments and run-ons have been
revised.
The beginning of each paragraph is
indented.
Commas are used in compound
sentences, between the words of a
list; after introductory words,
phrases, and clauses; and with
appositives.
Apostrophes are used correctly for
contractions and possessive nouns.
Verb tenses are correct.
 Subjects and predicates agree.
 Pronouns are used correctly.
 Quotation marks are used for
dialogue, and for the titles of short
stories, poems, and songs.
 Underlining (italics) is used for the
titles of books, movies, and works
of art, and also for the names of
newspapers, magazines, ships,
trains, and planes.
 Any parentheses, dashes, and
hyphens are used correctly.
 Spelling is correct.
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Rules for Capitalization
1. Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.
Example- George Washington Chinese Food
2. Capitalize initials. Example- John F. Kennedy
3. Capitalize titles when they are attached to a name.
Examples- Captain Sanchez Uncle Bob Pastor
Hardy
4. Capitalize the pronoun “I.”
5. Capitalize the days of the week. Examples- Sunday
Friday
6. Capitalize the months of the year. Examples- January
July
7. Capitalize the names of public and religious holidays.
Examples- Easter Fourth of July
8. Capitalize the names of cities, states, countries, and
continents. Examples- Chicago California United
States of America
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9. Capitalize the names of rivers, oceans,
mountains, and other geographical sites.
Examples- Mississippi Rocky Mountains
10. Capitalize the names of streets and avenues.
Examples- Thomas Street Sunset Avenue
11. Capitalize the names of companies,
organizations, and clubs. Examples- The Federal
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) General Motors
12. Capitalize the first word in a sentence.
Example- School is canceled today because of
the snowstorm.
13. Capitalize the first word in a quotation.
Example- Tommy said, “Let’s go to the movies
Friday night.”
14. Capitalize all of the words of the greeting of
a letter. Only Capitalize the first word of a
closing of a letter. Examples- Dear Miss
Williams, Yours truly,
15. Capitalize the first word and all important
words in the title of books, poems, songs,
movies, plays, and works of art. Examples- The
Outsiders (book) “The Raven” (poem)
“America the Beautiful” (song) “Lift Every
Voice and Sing” (art)
Sentences, Fragments, and Run-ons
1. A sentence must have a subject and predicate. It begins with a capital letter and ends
with a period, a question mark, or an exclamation point.
Examples- It rained all night. (declarative)
Please close the door. (imperative)
Where did I leave my keys? (interrogative)
Watch out! (exclamatory)
2. A compound sentence contains two sentences joined by a commas and the words and, but, or, or nor.
Example- Cody likes to watch TV, but Jimmy likes to listen to music.
3. A complex sentence contains a main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Example- Because the snowstorm closed New York’s airports, Brad was unable to fly home until the
weekend.
4. A sentence fragment is an incomplete thought. Fragments should always be corrected.
Examples- A letter to Uncle Bob. (fragment)
I sent a letter to Uncle Bob. (correct)
Went hiking (fragment)
We went hiking in the park. (correct)
5. A run-on sentence connects two or more sentences without the proper punctuation. The sentences
should either be written separately, or should be joined by a comma and a word such as and, but, or, or
nor. Run-ons should always be corrected.
Examples- Tanya did her homework, she went shopping with her mother. (run-on)
Tanya did her homework, and she went shopping with her mother. (correct)
Common and Proper Nouns
Nouns
 Nouns may be singular and name one person, place, thing, or
idea.
 Nouns may be plural and name more than one person, place,
thing, or idea.
 Possessive nouns show ownership. An apostrophe (‘) is used
to show the possessive case. Example-Jennifer’s bicycle
Verbs
 A verb is a word that shows action, a condition, or that a
thing exists.
 Most verbs are regular verbs, which form their past tense by
adding d or ed. Examples- walk, walked miss, missed
 When helping verbs like has, have, or had are used with a
verb, they for a verb phrase called the past participle.
Example- He had finished earlier than anyone else.
 Irregular verbs do not form their past tense by adding ed.
These verbs have different forms. Examples
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
Become
Became
Has, have, had become
Choose
Chose
Has, have, had chosen
Eat
Ate
Has, have, had eaten
Teach
Taught
Has, have, had taught
Verb Tenses
Verb tense helps to show when something
happened in a sentence. The three main
tenses are simple present, simple past, and
simple future.
•Present Tense Verbs show action that is
happening now.
•Example- Joanie walks home with Rachel after
school.
•Past Tense Verbs show action that has already
happened.
•Example-Joanie walked home with Rachel
yesterday.
•Future Tense Verbs show action that has not yet
happened.
•Example-Joanie will walk home with Rachel
tomorrow.
Along with simple present, past, and future
tense, verbs may have perfect tenses. These
tenses use has, have, or had with the past
participle.
•Present Perfect Tense shows an action that started
in the past and continues in the present. If requires
has or have with the past participle.
• Example- Joanie has walked home with Rachel
after school.
•Past Perfect Tense shows a past action that ended
before another past action started. It requires had
with the past participle.
•Example- Joanie had walked home with Rachel
after school.
•Future Perfect Tense shows a future action that will
have ended before another action starts. It requires
shall have or will have with the past participle.
•Example- Joanie will have walked home with
Rachel after school.
Subjective Case Pronouns
Pronouns
 A pronoun is a word that takes the place
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Singular
First Person:
I
Plural
We
of a noun.
Second Person: You
You
Subjective case pronouns take the place
of nouns that are subjects of a sentence. Third Person: He, she, it
they
They also take the place of nouns that
follow a linking verb, in which case they
are known as predicate pronouns.
Objective Case Pronouns
Objective case pronouns take the place of
Singular
Plural
nouns that are direct or indirect objects
of a sentence. They may also take the
First Person:
Me
Us
place of nouns that are the object of
You
prepositions, which are words such as for, Second Person You
at, to, between, with, in, or toward.
Third Person: Him, her, it
them
Possessive pronouns show ownership.
Some are used before nouns, while some
Possessive Pronouns
are used alone.
An indefinite pronoun refers to a person, Used before Nouns
Used Alone
place, or thing without specifying which
My, our, your, his, her,
Mine, ours, yours, his,
particular one. Examples- another,
its, their
hers, its, theirs
anybody, each, either, someone,
something, both, few, many, several, all,
any, most, none, some
Who, Whom, Whose, and Who’s
 Who and whom are used as interrogative pronouns, which ask a question, or as
relative pronouns, which introduce a subordinate clause.
 Who is a nominative case pronoun. Use who whenever the pronoun he can be
substituted for it.
 Who ate the last of the pie?
He ate the last of the pie.
 Jason Randall, who is in 8th grade, is the winner of the essay contest. (who is in 8th grade
he is in 8th grade)
 Whom is an objective case pronoun. Use whom whenever you can turn the question
into a statement and substitute the pronoun him for whom.
 Whom have you called today?
 With whom are you online?
You have called him today.
You are online with him.
 Whose is a possessive pronoun showing ownership. Who’s is a contraction for who is.
To check if you are using who’s or whose correctly, break the contraction apart and see
if the sentence makes sense.
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Incorrect: Who’s coat is that (who is that coat is that?)
Correct: Whose coat is that?
Incorrect: Whose there?
Correct: Who’s there? (Who is there?)
Negative Words and Double Negatives
 A negative word is a word that means “no” or
“not.” Contractions that are formed with “not”
are negative words.
 Using more than one negative in a sentence is
incorrect. This is called a double negative.
 Examples:
 Incorrect: We don’t have no gym today.
 Correct: We don’t have gym today.
 Correct: We have no gym today.
 Incorrect: We never see no deer during our hikes.
 Correct: We never see any deer during our hikes.
 Correct: We see no deer during our hikes.
 Incorrect: Josh doesn’t have no brothers.
 Correct: Josh doesn’t have any brothers.
 Correct: Josh has no brothers.
Common Negative Words
No
Isn’t
Doesn’t
Not
Aren’t
Didn’t
None
Won’t
Don’t
Nobody
Can’t
Nothing
Couldn’t
hasn’t
No one
mustn’t
hadn’t
never
shouldn’t
wouldn’t
can’t
haven’t
Friendly Letter Model
A friendly letter is a letter sent to a friend or relative. Its purpose is to tell the
reader about something. Here is a sample.
123 Fairfield Street
West Valley, NJ 00112
March 15, 2002
Dear Uncle George,
(Heading)
(Greeting)
Thank you very much for the fishing pole you sent for my birthday.
With trout season opening next week, I’m sure I’ll be able to put it to good
use. Mom says that you’ll be visiting in a few weeks. We’ll have to go fishing.
I found a great spot behind Wilson’s Bridge. Thanks again.
Sincerely,
Carl
(Body)
(Closing)
(Signature)
Business Letter Model
A business letter is a letter sent to a company or organization. It has a slightly different
form than a friendly letter. (example: semi-block format). Block format has no
indentions-heading, inside address, greeting, closing, signature, and name all start at the
left margin-there are also no indentions for paragraphs.
123 Fairfield Street
West Valley, NJ 00112
March 15, 2002
(Heading)
L.J. Print Company
578 River Road
Summer’s Port, DE 77653
Dear Sir or Madam:
(Greeting)
I would like to order your Mountain Mist poster, catalog number
MM-8943123. I have enclosed $9.95 for the cost of the poster and for the
Shipping. Thank you.
(body)
Yours truly,
Tara Jones
Tara Jones
(Closing)
(Signature)
(Name)
Using Capitalization and Punctuation
Correctly I
 1. Saras family goes out for chinese food every friday night.
 2. Centerville’s Historical society meets every Tuesday
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Evening in the library at 7,30.
3. Although she loved her little brother Maria found his high
energy level to be exasperating?
4. Last Summer our family, visited Yellowstone National park
during our vacation.
5. Exam week tired everyone out; especially Callie
6. One of my favorite books is “The Sword in The Stone” by
T.h. White.
Using Capitalization and Punctuation
Correctly II
 7. Tina, Valeries Cousin lives in Scranton Pennsylvania.
 8. “Let’s plan on going to a movie on Saturday.” Said Brian
 9. Sheila thought about all she had to do on Saturday go to
soccer practice go shopping with her mom watch her
younger sister do homework, and go to Erin’s party.
 10. What is the weather report for tomorrow,” asked Randy.
 11. Of course, Jess never saw, a puppy, she didn’t love.
 12. “Watch out,” Cheryll cried and she pulled Beth out of the
way of the speeding car!
Using Capitalization and Punctuation
Correctly III
 13. Lisa is a gifted Athlete and excels at field hockey, and
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softball.
14. Jan asked, whats for dinner tonight?
15. “If we want to see the start of the game”, Jerry said,
“We’d better leave now.”
16. Tom’s grandfather served under general Patton during
world War II.
17. According to a popular Theory a giant asteroid impact
caused, the extinction of the dinosaurs
18. manuel accepted the compromise Conor would not.
Using Capitalization and Punctuation
Correctly IV
 19. My father, reads “The Wall Street Journal” every morning.
 20. Amys favorite poem is, “Mushrooms” by Sylvia Plath.
 21. Indira plans to try out for her schools field hockey team
 22. If we start now, said Angela, “we should be finished with
project by six.”
 23. “What time does the concert star,” asked Will?
 24. The coach told the team that they should play hard try
their best and remember that, the game isn’t over until the
final whistle.
Singular and Plural Nouns
 Make two separate columns and list both the singular (12) and plural (11)
nouns.
 Although most people think of computers as being an invention of the 20th
century, historians trace the roots of the modern computer back about 170
years. That was when two British mathematicians, Charles Babbage and
Augusta Ada Byron, conceived a number of machines designed to handle
complex mathematical problems. One of their conceptions, called an
analytical engine, had a store for saving information, a mill for mathematical
operations, and a primitive printer that produced a record of results.
Finding Verbs and Verb Phrases I
 1. The student council sponsored a spring dance at the end of
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March.
2. Marla slipped into her seat moments before the late bell.
3. It had been raining all day.
4. Over the past three days Vinnie had studied several hours for his
history exam.
5.Tiago always had been fascinated with how mechanical devices
operated.
6. Sandy gently scolded her puppy for ruining her slipper.
Finding Verbs and Verb Phrases II
 7. The eagle soared majestically across the sky.
 8. The math test was scheduled for Tuesday.
 9. The storm caused power outages across the county.
 10. The continent of Antarctica is one of the most inhospitable places
on Earth.
 11.After watching the movie until 2 a.m. last night, Sean was tired in
the morning.
 12. For our family’s vacation this year, we will be sailing to the
Bahamas.
Understanding Irregular Verbs I
 1. The weight of the ice from the freezing rain had______ several
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branches on the tree. (break)
2.The temperature __________ into the twenties last night. (fall)
3. The kitten _________ stealthily up to the toy mouse. (creep)
4. Marissa and Kelly have ________ each other just about all their
lives . (know)
5.The puppies were _________ in the spring. (bear)
6. The refugees ________ the war-torn country. (flee)
Understanding Irregular Verbs II
 7. Becky was nervous as the plane taxied down the runway because
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she had never _________ before. (fly)
8. Having not _________ since breakfast, Tom was famished by
dinner time. (eat)
9. Marissa had _______ the table for dinner before any of her guests
arrived. (set)
10. The hornet ___________ Same on his arm. (sting)
11. Mia was certain she had _________ her best paper of the entire
year. (write)
12. After doing his own wash, Jay realized all of his jeans had
_____________. (shrink)
Understanding Irregular Verbs III
 13.The brave prince __________ the horrifying dragon. (slay)
 14. While on vacation, they had _________ every day in the hotel’s
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pool. (swim)
15. Mrs. Adams ________ eighth grade for 30 years. (teach)
16. The early sun’s rays first _________ on the mountains, then
warmed the valley. (shine)
17. While playing catch, the boy accidentally _________ the ball
through the neighbor’s window. (throw)
18. The winter wind ________ icily across the field. (blow)
Understanding Irregular Verbs IV
 19. Chad _________ the stone, skipping it over the pond. (fling)
 20. Antonio’s grandparents _________ from Florida to visit for the
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holidays. (come)
21. On their last fishing trip, Lisa and her father _________ several
bass. (catch)
22. Vanessa had ________ the movie three times, but she always
enjoyed it. (see)
23. The chorus has __________ at every school concert this year.
(sing)
24. The grasshopper _________ out of reach of the curious puppy.
(spring)
Using Contractions I
 Write the contractions for the underlined words.
 1. He is planning to attend medical school next year.
 2. Jenna could not recall Trish’s email address.
 3. According to the weather forecast, it will probably rain tomorrow.
 4. “What is for lunch?” Martha asked.
 5. They had expected to arrive by six in the evening.
 6. She must not forget to hand the paper in by Friday.
Using Contractions II
 Write the words that make up each contraction
 7. The soccer team’s going to the state championship.
 8. They would’ve preferred to go to the concert instead of
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visiting their relatives.
9. Since he left earlier than usual, James shouldn’t be late for
class.
10. Ashley left her science book at school and didn’t finish
her homework.
11. They’ve gone to California to visit their aunt.
12. The boys won’t go camping if the forecast calls for snow.
Subject/Verb Agreement I
 1. Every rainstorm ________ the hill further. (erode, erodes)
 2. The groups ________ as they try to find a solution to the
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problem. ( interact, interacts)
3. Rebecca and her sister ________ soccer, but they are on
different teams. (play, plays)
4. Mr. Samuels _______ his students to always do their best.
(encourage, encourages)
5. That flight of stairs ________ up to the balcony. (lead, leads)
6. In some countries, the government _________information if
does not want its citizens to know. (suppress, suppresses)
Subject/Verb Agreement II
 7. The hinges on the old door _________ when the old door opens.
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(creak, creaks)
8. Reporters often ________ eyewitnesses in their stories. (quote,
quotes)
9. Most doctors __________ antibiotics when they suspect
infections caused by bacteria. (prescribe, prescribes)
10. Halley’s Comet _________ at intervals that average about 76
years. ( return, returns)
11. Tom and Jason _____ playing video games in their spare time.
(enjoy, enjoys)
12. Neither Kim nor Amy ________ to give the first speech. (want,
wants)
Correcting Fragments
 Correct each fragment by writing it as a complete sentence.
 1.the towering mountains.
 2. the thrills of white-water rafting.
 3. Janet’s Uncle Mike.
 4. at the museum.
 5. the launch of the spacecraft.
 6. lost child in the park.
Correcting Run-ons
 Rewrite and correct the run-on sentence.
 1.Blue whales are the largest animals on Earth, they can grow to be
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over 100 feet long and weigh up to 150 tons.
2. Jennifer had never seen such a big mall, she decided she could
spend days shopping here.
3. Rick’s favorite sport is baseball, his father’s favorite sport is
football.
4. Dan has never flown before, he looked forward to takeoff.
5. Maria enjoys ice-skating, she doesn’t like roller-skating.
6. Kara could watch a movie, she could listen to music.
Correcting Double Negatives I
 1. Because of the snowstorm, there wasn’t no school today.
 2. None of the kids had no ideas for which music to play at the party.
 3. They did not have enough snow to build no snowman.
 4. There won’t be no homework over the long weekend.
 5. With computers down, no one in the school could send no email.
 6. Susan couldn’t find her keys nowhere.
Correcting Double Negatives II
 7. Despite having searched all day, the investigators hadn’t found no
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clues.
8. None of the sources they checked provided no information.
9. In some areas of the river, no fish can’t live because of the
pollution.
10.No progress wasn’t made until the group decided on an
interesting topic.
11. After practicing her gymnastics routine for three hours, Liz
couldn’t practice no more.
12. Tom doesn’t believe there’s no career more important than being
a doctor.
Using Quotations Marks and
Underlining (Italics) Correctly I
 1. I received five phone calls from her today, said Jimmy.
 2. His favorite book is “Something Wicked This Way Comes” by Ray




Bradbury.
3. “We got lost, said Monica, and by the time we finally found her
house, the party was half over.”
4. “Did you get caught in the storm? asked Mr. Taylor.”
5. Kate loved the poem The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost.
6. Meg’s father reads the New York Times every morning at breakfast.
Using Quotations Marks and
Underlining (Italics) Correctly II
 7. Pat titled her article How to Take Care of Your Puppy.
 8. What do you want to do Friday night? Tyler asked.
 9. Many readers find “The Diary of Anne Frank” to be one of the most
memorable books they have ever read.
 10. The coach said, “Do your best”.
 11. It’s already dinner time,” said Tanya into the phone to her friend
and I still haven't started my homework.”
 12. One of my mother’s favorite magazines is Good Housekeeping.