Download THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYN`s "ODIN DEN

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THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYN's
"ODIN DEN' ••• "
**
Perelmuter
THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYNla
"ODIN DENI IVANA DENISOVICA"
A Thesis
Pl'esented to
the Faculty of
Graduate Studies and Research
McGill University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements
for the Degree of
Master of Arts
(in Russian)
by
Joanna Perelmuter
August, 1967
@)
Joanna Perelmuter
1968
ABSTRACT
Joanna Perelmuter
THE LANGUAGE OF SOLZENICYN 1 s
"ODIN DENI IVANA DENISOVICA"
Department of Russian
Master of Arts
Def1nition of Scope --
The purpose of this study is to
catalogue the 1inguistic pecu1iarities of Sol!en1cyn l s tale
and to discuss their structure, semantic and stylistic values.
Methods of'Procedure -- The phonetic, morphological, and
semantic aspects constitute the three main headings under which
words are c1assified.
Under the semantic heading words are
subdivided according to their stylistic meaning.
Assembled in
such subdivisions are: dia1ect, co1loquia1, vulgar and jargonistic words, as we1l as Soviet neo1ogisms.
lexical ana1ysis of Solrenicynls language
In addition to
one chapter is whol1y
devoted to the syntactic and phraseologica1 peculiarities.
Sources
to
dete~ine
The fo11owing dictionaries were consulted in order
whether the word qualifies for inclusion in the
analysis of Solzenicyn's lexical peculiarities:
V. I. Dal l , To1kovyj slovar' ~ivogo velikorusskogo jazyka;
Slovar' sovremennogo russkogo 1iteraturnogo jazyka in 17 vols.;
D. N. U§akov, Tolkovyj slovar t russkogo jazyka;
s. I. Olegov, Slovar' russkogo jazyka.
Conclusions --
The resu1ts of the investigation show that the
spoken co1loquia1 e1ement is the Most distinctive factor of
Sollenicyn' s language, one which marks "both the lexical and
syntactic aspects of the author's usage.
11
TABLE
AC KNOWLEDGEMENT
OF CONTENTS
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
LIST OF ACCEPTED ABBREVIATIONS
TABLE OF TRANSLITERATION
CHAPTER
I:
1. Purpose
II:
•••••••••••••••••••••••
v
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
vi
Introduction
o~
the Dissertation
2. Methodology
CHAPTER
iv
••••••••••••••••••••
1
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
3
!2.B!!, Adjective, Adverb
1. Noun
2. Adjective
Ca) Phonetic Peculiarities
• • • • 4t • • • • •
7
Cb) Morphological Aspects:
Declension -- Suf~ixation
Prefixation-suffixation -Dea~fixation -- Compounds
•••••••
9
(c) Semantic Features:
Dialect -- Colloquialisms
Vulgarisms -- Thie~' B Cant and
Camp Slang -- Soviet Neolog1sms
-- Word and Context •••••••••••••
25
(a) Phonetic Peculiarities
••••••••••
76
Dialect -- Colloquialisms
Vulgarisms -- Thief' B Cant and
Camp Slang -- Soviet Neologisms ••
77
(b) Semantic Features:
3. Adverb
(a) Semantic Features
•••••••••••••••
85
iii
CHAPTER
III:
Verb
1. Verb
••••••••••
98
Conjugation -- Prefixation
Suffixation -- Suffixation
-prefixation ••••••••••••••••••••
99
(a) Phonetic Pecu1iarities
(b) Morpho1ogical Aspects:
(c) Semantic Features:
Dia1ect -- Co11oquialisms
Vulgarisms
Thief' s Cant and
Camp Slang -- Word and Context ••• 103
CHAPTER
IV:
Syntax and Phraseo1ogy
1. Syntactic Pecu1iarities ••••••.••••••••••••••••••• 122
2. Proverbs
(a) Pos1ovica
•••••••••••••••••••••••
148
(b) Pogovorka
•••••••••••••••••••••••
149
3. Abusive Expressions
CHAP TER V:
Conclusions
INDEX OF RUSSIAN WORDS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 150
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 154
............................. . 163
~
~
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 168
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
l am deeply indebted to Professor
John G. Nicholson, the director of this
thesis, for his invaluable assistance,
patience, encouragement and kind advice.
l would also like to expresls m.;thanks to Prof'essors Nicolas Per'lTushin,
Rostislav Pletnev and Gleb Zekul:Ln for
providing me with available material
and many help:rul suggestions.
v
LIST OF ACCEPTED ABBREVIATIONS
A. N.
Akademi j a Nauk
ibid.
ibidem
("in the same place")
id est
("that is")
L.
LeningI'ad
loc. cit. --
loco citato
M.
Moskva
M.-L.
Moskva-LeningI'ad
P.,
page(s)
s.
Pp.
Pb.
("in the passage citedn )
st. PeteI'sbUl'g
s.v.
sub voce
vol., vols.--
volume(s)
("undeI' the heading")
vi
TABLE
".
OF
TRANSLITERATION
a
a
P
r
6
b
c
S
B
V
':r
t
1"
g
Y
u
II.
d
tP
-
f
e
e
x
-
x
ë
@
u
-
:IR
Z
'q
3
Z
li
-
S
H
i
IU
-
sc
H
j
'D
R
k
DI
-
JI
1
b
-
M
m
3
li
n
ID
ju
0
0
fI
ja
TI
p
C
1/'
C
v'V
"
-
Y
e
CHAPTER
l
Introduction
1. Purpose of the Dissertation
Sol!enicyn's
1
story "Odin den' Ivana Denisovica"
appeared in the November 1962 issue of the major Soviet
literary journal
Noyzj~.
Its publication marked the
beginning of a series of lengthy and turbulent discussions.
Both in the Soviet Union
L~d
in the West the tale was
receiveà as a startling novelty, perhaps the beginning
of a new "thaw" in Soviet literature.
Such prominent
Russian newspapers as Izvestija and Literaturnaja gazeta
printed reviews of the story just hours after its
publication. 2 The two articles did not end the storm
the s'tory had caused.
Almost every newspaper and serious
journal commented on the new work.
To the Soviet reader
its appearance in print was an unprecedented event.
Solzenicyn's story for the first time gave a faithful
account of life in a forced labour camp.
In the beginning,
therefore, the attention of the press and critics wes
centred on the subject-matter of the tale.
When the first storm quieted down the tale began to
draw more attention from literary critics.
A new fiery
2
discussion
a~ose;
this time the
tale were questioned.
t~adition
of the
Many called Soltenicyn's story a
written in the best humanist and
liter~y maste~piece
realistic
lite~~y me~its
of Russian classical literature.
Both Western and Soviet cri tics compared the story with
Dostoevskij's "Zapiski iz mertvogo doma"3
with Tolstoj
and Cexov, Nekrasov and S!ed~in, Grigo~ovi~ and Turgenev. 4
Solzenicyn, indeed, was nominated by Novyi
~
candidate
in Literature
fo~
the much coveted Lenin
Awa~d
for 1963, although he failed to receive it.
the story
~~s
a
bet~ayal
as a
To others
of sociclist realism, a calumny
directed against Sov:i.et society.5
Howeve~
one factor was absent in all the articles,
treatises, and reviews of "Odin den' Ivana DenisovilSa."
The critics, no matter whether praising or condemning
the tale, never concerned themselves' with the language
of SOlzenicyn's work.
Whether the story was
comp~ed
to
Dostoevskij and Kly~kov,6 or to Remizov and his schoo1 7
the language was barely touched upon.
The only exception to this lack of linguistic
interest is a short
~ticle
in Voprosy kul'tury ~e~i.8
st~ong
written by Tatjana
Vinoku~
It was directed against the
objections of the Soviet public to the author's
use of camp slang and COnmlon Russian obscenities.
This lack of interest in the linguistic values of
"Odin den' ••• " evoked a
particula~
curiosi ty about the
subject and stimulated the present linguistic study.
3
The purpose of this work is therefore to catalogue the
linguistic peculiarities of SOlzenicyn's tale nOdin den'
Ivana
Denisovi~an
and to discuss their structure, semantic
and stylistic values.
The airo of this dissertation is
strictly linguistic.
It undertakes an investigation of
Sol~enicyn's
language not as a literary-artistic function,
but as facts of Russian speech.
2.
Methodology
The Russian language possesses a lexicon of hundreds
of thousands of words and provides the writer with a great
variety of forms to choose from. 9 In selec ting words ,.~
author takes into account not only their Inherent meaning,
but the stylistic emotional overtones of each word.
On the pages that follow, a wide selection of words
will be presented.
Each of them has a particular distinct-
ive quality that will justify the treatment it will receive.
The word under discussion must be distinguished in one of
three ways: a) phoneticallYi b) in internaI structure, i.e.
morphology; c) in its semantic role.
The phonetic,
morphological and semantic aspects will constitute the three
main headings under which words will be classified.
Under
the semantic heading words will be subdivided according
to their stylistic meaning.
Assembled in such subdivisions
will be: dialect, colloquial, vulgar and jargonistic words,
as weIl as Soviet neologisms.
4
In
o~de~
to determine
whethe~
inclusion in the analysis of
the
wo~d
Sol~enicyn's
qualifies
lexical
fo~
peculi~­
ities the following dictionaries were consulted:
V. I. DaI': To1kovyj
slova~'
zivogo ve1ikorusskogo jazyka,
3rd ed., S. Pb., 1903-1909;
"
.
1ite~at~.go
1950-1965;
Slova~'
sovremennogo russkogo
jazyka, Academy of Sciences, 17vols., Moscow,
D. N. U§akov: To1kovyj slovar'
4 vols., Moscow, 1935-1940;
S. I. O!egov:
~usskogo
Slova~'
jazYka,
russkogo
jazyka, 4th ed., Moscow, 1960.
In addition, other
so~ces
were
as: Orfograficeskij slovar'
Rncklaufiges
W6~terbuchJ
f~equent1y ~eferred
~usskogo
to such
jazyka, Russisches
Slovar' sokrascenij russkogo jazyka,
and Kratkij slovar' sovremennogo russkogo
~a~gona.
(See
Bib1iography.)
The majority of words to be discussed in the proposed
study of
Sol~enicyn's
language are absent from the diction-
aries of standard Russian.
A number of words were located
as dialect and substandard in the dictionaries of DaI' and
U§akov.
Some were found in the dictionary of Russian slang
compiled by the Krestinskys.
unregistered.
However, a good Many remain
Here belong on the one hand words coined by
the author himse1f: neuladka, neumelec, etc., which show
that the
w~iter
forms new words according to the princip1es
of word-formation governing the standard language.
othe~
On the
hand, some of the words discussed can be exp1ained
as Most recent lexical innovations and are not catalogued
as yet by the lexicographers.
5
The proposed study of the language of SOllenicyn's
"Odin den, ••• n will be divided into five chapters.
The
first chapter, including this section, states the methods
adopted and the actual purpose of the work.
Then follow
two chapters consisting of a thorough discussion of
particular aspects of
Sol~enicyn's
vocabulary.
Chapter II
will deal with nouns, adjectives and adverbs, while the
next chapter will be devoted to verbal peculiarities only.
Syntax and phraseology will constitute the whole of
Chapter IV.
The final chapter will state the general con-
clusions, giving at the sarne time a brief summary of the
tendencies that have been mentioned in previous chapters.
Within each chapter
special care is taken to arrange
the material in an organized manner.
Thus, Chapters II
and III will be subdivided into three sections dealing
with phonetic, morphological, and semantic features
respectively.
Two of these three subdivisions will be
further divided.
The morphological subdivision will
deal with inflection and word-formation, while the
semantic section will discuss dialect, cOlloquial,
vulgar, jargonistic and Soviet neologistic tendencies.
The fourth chapter (on syntax and phraseology) will
~l'sQ·:,mclude
proverbial and abusive expressions.
6
NOTES TO CHAPTER l
1
This Russian name, thus trans1iterated in scho1ar1y
publications directed to 1inguists and 1iterary
sCho1ars, is norma11y printed as Solzhenitsyn in
Eng1ish publications aimed at an audience broader
than one of specia1ists.
2 K. Simonov, "0 pros1om vo imja budus~ego," Izvestija,
Nov. 18, 1962.
G. Baklanov, ItCtob eto nikogda ne povtori1os',n
Literaturnaja gazeta, Nov. 22, 1962.
3 V.
Zava1i~in, "Povest' 0 mertvyx domax i sovetskom
krest'janstve,1t Grani, No. 5ft (1963), pp. 133-150.
N. Gubko, "ae1ovek pObe!daet,' Zvezda, No. 3 (1963),
pp. 214-215.
4 v.
Lak~in, "Ivan Denisovic, ego druz'ja i nedrugi,"
Novyj ~, No. 1 (1964), pp.
G1eb Zeku1in, "So1zhenitsyn's Four Stories," Soviet
Studies, .XVI (July 1964), 45-62.
5
N. Sergovancev, "Tragedija odinocestva i 'sp1o§noj
byt'," Oktjabr', No. 4 (1963), pp. 199-200.
6
V.
Zava1i~in,
npovest' ••• ,n p. 136.
7 Roman GuI', liA. Sol~euicyn -- socrealism i sko1a
Remizova," Novyj ~urna1, No. 71 (1963), p. 65.
8
Tatjana Vinokur, "0 jazyke i sti1e povesti Solzenicyna
'Odin den' Ivana Denisovi~a'," Voprosy kul'tury ~,
No. 6 (1965), pp. 16-32.
9 Da1's dictionary a10ne contains more than 200,000
words.
7
CHAPTER II
Noun, Adjective, Adverb
Part 1: Noun
(a) Phonetic Peculiarities
Solzenicyn' s tale "Odin den' Ivana Denisovièa1t does
not comprise very many phonetic peculiarities.
However,
the following are interesting enough to be discussed
separately.
i)
ii)
The interchange of consonants:
s" -
s
The form ~alag~, which is listeà in Dalls
dictionary, is modified to salaga
by
Sol!enicyn.
s -
s
Standard Russian skvalyga is changed to
skvalyga in Solzenicynls usage.
The change from velar x to velar
Dalls bedolaxa
iii) The change from
bedolaga
~
to
~:
in Solzenicyn's usage.
~:
The neologistic word staxanovec, which is derived from
the Russian surname Staxanov, is given the form
~
stakanovec.
(Presumably under the influence of
Latvian in the speaker.)
iv)
Vowel substitution:
o -
a
~
The form ballon, which is given in
Jakovlev's glossary of camp terms,
is changed to balane
Diale~tal Russian mtga has been changed to
magara.
8
Dialectal xolobGda is changed by Solzenicyn
to the form xalabûda.
o
u
Dialectal zavaroxa and Solzenicyn's form
zavaruxa.
i
e
Dal'a bicevka against Sol!enicy.n's
form
be~evo~ka.
v)
Palatalization:
The vulgar noun dermo wi th a hard .!: is changed to
der'mo by Solzenicyn.
vi)
Substitution of the regular phoneme by fuj-
which
bears a resemblance to the original word, but the
vulgar meaning is thus hinted at in a covert way.
pod'
'~mnik
fuSmnik
fujaslice
maslice
The influence of the
emo~ional
interjection fuj is
clearly visible.
vii) Abbreviations:
la.
consisting of initiaIs pronounced as separate
letters
lb.
KVC" (ka-ve-<!e)
ppe (pe-pe-ce)
CTZ (ce-te-ze)
z/k (ze-ka)
consisting of initiaIs pronounced as spelt
BUR (bur)
GpLAG (gulag )
TEC (tèc)
These initial abbreviations form new nouns which are
often homonymous with the previously existing
non-abbreviations.
~,
2. consisting of part of a word (or words)
A!!, oper,
kondej, komvzvod,
soblag, pombrig,
kavtoran~,
medsanbat, na8kar,
pomna8kar, prorab.
3. consisting of part of a word and a complete
zavstolovoj
zarplata
kompolka
mexzavod
word
polpajka
polkarcer
pombrigadir
prodsklad
prodstol
saninstruktor
sangast'
Socgorodok
(mexzavodec is a derivative of mexzavod.)
AlI these words are Soviet neologisms, although
there were some abbreviations before 1917 such as the
names of firms or products, the names of political
parties and their members, and military terms.
(b)
2
Morphological Aspects
Declensional anomalies are not very abundant, for
although they are present in the speech of the common
v
men, especially the protagonist Ivan Denisovic Suxov,
they are absent from the author's narrative.
The irregularities in the declension of substantives
are especially evident in
Sol~enicyn's
masculine genitive singular.
preferred by
Sol~enicyn
The ending
-u/-~
-u/-~
is often
to the more corumon masculine
genitive singular ending -.!/-j!.
ending
use of the
The genitive singular
.~.
is an alternative en ding for this case and
has been formed through the influence of the Old Russian
u-stem masculine nouns:
~, ~, ~,
etc.
10
A1though the forms in
-Bl-~
were much more common in
the past, they are present1y emp10yed exc1usive1y in the
fo110wing
circ~tances:
1) to express a:!)partitive idea, when a modifier is
not present;
stakan
~aj~
(but stakan
xoro~ego caj~
-- a modifying adjective)
2) as a sty1istic alternative, with a co110quia1
nuance, to the normal genitive from abstract nouns;
sumu
(sum~)
xo10du
(xo10da)
vetru
(vetra)
- - --
3) after the prepositions bez, iz, s, ot;
bez
otdyx~
(bez
otdyx~)
iz 1esu
(iz 1esa)
so straxu
(so straxa)
ot vetru
(ot vetra)
In aIl three cases the genitive in
-]f-~
is not ob1igatory,
but a possible alternative fürm.
The genitive in -]j-ju is often used exc1usive1y in
fixed expressions; .it is often preferredwith the negative
partic1e ~ or negative predicators ~t or ~.3
Solzenicyn emp10ys such alternative forms:
ca.i;a, tabak,B, rastvor,B, samosadB'
vetr~,
nastojas~ego
1ed~,
dymu,
snegu,
xOdu, proxodu, -nosu,
~asu, narodu,
= svetu,
_ xo10du,
= --==
0:
---=
_
net pokoj~, ot1ezE net, net upor~, iz do~, bez otr~,
bez obogrevu, bez to1ku, bez pereryvu, ot kraju, ni razu,
=
razgovoru.
=
-
-
Il
However in two cases, when the genitive forro in
-~
might
be expected, he gives the forro in -a:
-
1) after the particle ni
ni ukryva, ni greva (p.12)
2) with the negative predicator
~
~
tomu otzyva
(p.17).
The influence of the genitive forro in
-~/-~
goes
as far in Solzenicyn's usage that a genitive forro rangu
is employed.
However, the word rang ("ramk") is neither
an abstract noun nor is a partitive idea expressed.
Solzenicyn uses the correct forro ranga in his own narrative
(kapitan vtorogo ranga -- p.
4)
but, when describing the
thoughts of the protagonist Suxov, the author gives the
forro in
-~
(kapitan vtorogo rangu -- p.20).
An irregularity in the forro of the genitive plural
for masculine nouns is also present in Solzenicyn's
usage.
Nouns designating pairs should have irregular
zero-endings (nulevoe okoncanie) for the genitive plural
instead of the normal ending
-ov. 4 The forro botinkov,
pI'esent in Suxov's 'narrative, is, therefore, incorrect.
The correct form for the genitive plural is botinok.
The zero-ending formrepresents the persistance of the
Old-Russian genitive plural peculiar to the Q-stem
masculine nouns.
Another morphological anomaly found in SOllenicyn's
1
tale "Odin den' ••• " is the accusative plural forro sroka
12
The noun
~
is used exclusively in the singular.
It
belongs to the category of abstract nouns with the
alternative genitive singular
-]/-~.
These abstract
nouns, together with collective nouna and those denoting
a material, do not have a plural form. 5
The form srok~
is not in the author's narrative, but in the dialogue.
It is the uneducated brigade leader who makes up this
non-standard plural forme
Still another oddity is the use of the noun put'.
This noun is the last remnant of the i-stem masculine
declension.
Since it is of masculine gender
it is
often mistaken in the colloquial language for a regular
soft masculine.
It is employed as such in the narrative
of the brigade leader Andrej Prokof'ic Tjurin.
Instead
/
of the correct form na puti, the form na pute ia used.
The declension of Christian name and patronymic as
one word is characteristic of colloquial speech. 6
Solzenicyn employs this device for stylistic effects.
Instead of the standard dative Ivanu
Denisy~u,
author uses the colloquial form Ivan
Denisy~u
33).
the
(pp.24 and
The colloquial genitive form Andrej Prokof'evica
(p.IB), and the instrumental case Andrej
(p.42) are also employed.
Prokof'evi~em
The Christian name is not de-
clined, for it is considered to be a part of the whole
name.
This morphological alternative: serves as another
example of the colloquial aspects of Solzenicyn's
~.
13
In addition to declension, morphology is also
concerned with word-formation.
Sol~enicyn' s
Words selected from
tale "Odin den' ••• " seldom appear in
standard Russian dictionaries.
They are chiefly
colloquial, dialectal, vulgar or neologistic in
character.
Their structure is determined by affixation
or deaffixation; words are seldom created from roots
non-existent in the language.
Thus it is necessary to
examine the structure of nouns chosen from the tale in
order to see the peculiarities of Solzenicyn's lexicon.
There are three varieties of affixation:
1)
prefixation,
2)
suffixation,
3)
prefixation-suffixation.
Since prefixation is scantily represented in the list of
selected nouns, it will not be dealt with separately.7
Prefixes will be discussed when the combination of prefixes and suffixes is illustrated.
Suffixation
The suffix -ka is best represented.
This is a very
productive suffix in the creation of diminutives of
masculine and feminine gender.
The colloquial language
takes advantage of this highly productive process:
a
large number of colloquial words has been formed in such
8
a manner.
14
Here belong nouns denoting:
linejka, dezurka,
place
kapt~rka,
posudomojka,
xleborezka;
objects
pajka, polpajka, becevoéka, vagonka;
pers ons
popka, snaroska,
~,
sesterka,
cu~ka.
Emotionally coloured deverbal nouns also belong to this
category: dumka, sidka, smefuecka, spajka.
A large variety of diminutives with colloquial nuance
belong here as weIl: garantijka, (dvuxsot-) (trexsot-)
grammovka, katuska, procentovka, povremenka.
The suffix
-!E!!
added to nouns of both masculine
and feminine gender gives rise to feminine nouns
ing single objects.
des~gnat­
These nouns have a diminutive meaning.
According to the Academy Grammar this is a productive type
q
of word-formation. Here belong the following nouns of
Solzenicyn's "Odin den' ••• ~:
kartosinka, mjasinka, and
tabacinka.
The suffix
-~
can also be added to adjectival roots.
The nouns produced in such a way are also feminine
diminutives.
However, this type is weatly productive
in present-day Russian. lO Two nounsbelong to this
group: krasninka, sedinka.
The suffix -lka is the colloquial equivalent of the
mildly productive suffix -l'nja: razdevalka (razdeval'nja.
15
It indicates implement:
su~ilka,(rastvoro)me~alka,
nosilki;
or location: instrumentalka, susilka.
The suffix -~ is colloquial and dialect in origin. ll
Although this is an unproductive suffix in standard
Russian, it is often used for various stylistic purposes,
especially to add a tinge of familiarity or irony.
The
nouns zavaruxa, zituxa and pokazuxa belong in this
category.
The suffix
-~,
which according to Efimov was
strictly colloquial and dialectal in the 19th century,
occurs in literary usage at present. 12 It is a productive augmentativâ suffix according to Dennis Ward. l )
The Academy Grammar considers this suffix to be only
mildly productive. 14 However, Ward's view is more
accurate.
The suffix
-~
ia very often employed in
present-day Russian for satirical purposes, as weIl as
to express derision.
For instance, in Majakovskij's
poetry neologisms with the suffix -in a can be found:
pasportina.
Solzenicyn's usage comprises the following
augmentatives of this kind: blevotina, bokovina, merzotina,
otkosina, provalina, and xrenovina.
The suffix -ica, when qdded to feminine nominal roots,
forms diminutive feminine nouns.
This type of word-
formation is unproductive in present-day Russian.
However,
popular speech includes numerous diminutives of this kind,
16
~or,
being fond
o~
endearing expressions, it always
seeks affectionate innovations.
Bere belong SOlzenicyn's
famil'ica and trjapica.
Masculine
su~fixes
represented in the list of
Solzenicyn's peculiaritiè8 are:
1)
-~
and i ts extension
-~.
They denote persons -- krasnoflotec, mexzavodec,
zagrebanec, staxanovec.
the prefix
dialecte
~-
The noun neumelec with
is introduced by Sollenicyn from
However, the noun umelec is now a standard
Russian word.
The word minonosec denotes both an
object and a person.
In Solzenicyn's usage it
designates an objecte
2)
-
-ik which is extended into -nik.
-
otli~nik,
brigadnik, (odno)brigadnik, desjatnik,
terpel'nik,
~kodnik.
AlI these nouns refer to
men: their occupations, actions, etc.
Such words as predzonnik, fu8mnik, napuznik,
narnordnik designate objects.
(See s.v.
Pre~ixation­
suffixa tion. )
Another extension of
-~
is the suffix
can be subdivided into two categories
-ovs~ik,
-§~ik,
-l'~ëik
which
and
both referring to occupations: instrumental'-
scik, normirovscik.
Colloquial in origin suffix -s~ik
tends to limit the productivity of the suffix
-E!! in
the designations of persons. 15
To the sarne group of
-1!
suffixes belongs the
su~fix
17
-~ik:
avtomat~ik,
pulemetcik.
narjadcik, otkazëik, (strelok-)
AIl these nouns designate trade,
particular skill or a psychological trait of the
person.
Besides forming professional designations,
the suffix -cik is a productive element in the
formation of diminutives.
This is especially true
when the nominal root ends with
-n,
-~,
-1,
-~.
Here belongs Solzenicyn's materjal'cik
3)
-a~
This suffix is traditionally attached to names of
tradesmen and craftsmen: trubaè, tolmac, tkac, vrac,
etc.
Majakovskij introduced the linguistic innovat-
ion stixac ("poet").
smexa~.16
Xlebnikov coined the neologism
The two nouns of this kind registered in
SOl!enicyn's usage are the Soviet neologisms: tolkac
and stukac.
The suffix
-!i,
which can be very
productive in Bulgarian and POlish, is waakly
productive in Russian. 17
Nevertheless, words with
this suffix are coined at the present time.
4)
-ak/-jak
Nouns with the suffix -ak/-jak, when formed from
. ° 1 qua lOt
18 Here
1 y.
ad j ec t 1ves h ave a co Il oqu1a
o
belong dezurnjak, osobnjak.
5)
-un/-jun
The suffix
-~
has a very low degree of productivity,
if anY at aIl, according to Ward.
However, according
18
to Efimov it ia presently employed in scientific and
technical vocabulary: ~atun, pOlzun. 19 Sol~enicyn's
gorjun represents this suffixe
The epicene suffix -aga/-1!s! has a very low degree
of productivity, though it has recently been used to
form stiljaga. 20 It ia characteristic of colloquial speech
and serves to form worda expressive of pit Y and contempt:
bedolaga, doxodjaga, rabotjaga, salaga.
AIl words with
this suffix except brodjaga and bednjaga are colloquial. 2l
The previously dialectal suffix -lE! has become
widespread in colloquial speech.
It serves stylistic
purposes similar to those of the suffix -aga/-jaga, which
expresses derisi.on mainly.
Solzenicyn' s skvalyga is a
dialectal variation of the colloquial skvalyga.
Two diminutive suffixes remain to be discussed.
One is illustrated in the noun donce, a diminutive of
dno (neuter).
·
22
pro d uc t ~ve.
rarely used. 23
The suffix
-ce/-~
like
-ice/-~
is
However, the particular noun donce is
Other diminutives of this kind: rybce,
baraxol'ce, derevce, korytce, maslice-fujaslice,
odejal'ce, voskresen'ice.
The final diminutive suffix to be considered --
-1!/-~nys
-- has very little productivity, according to the Academy
Grammar. 24 This is confirmed by Dennis Ward in his book
The Russian Language TOday.25
~le noun cert@ny§ is a
f
i9
diminutive of
~~rt.
~ert~nok or ~ertik.
and
~ertovik
~ert~nys
The normal
dimin~tive
form is
In Russian dialects 6ertenj'
are also present.
Sol~enicyn's
form
must have been influenced by det~nys,
a
common designation for aIl young.
Suffixation-prefixation
Suffixation-prefixation is not necessarily a
simultaeously occurring process.
Prefixation can
take place in previously suffixed words and vice
versa (suffixation of already prefixed
stem~.
Simultaneous suffixation-prefixation is not a productive
process.
However, "coalescence" (è.::.-term used by D. Ward)
is often regarded as a special type of suffixationprefixation, and it makes
suffi~ation-prefixation
more
productive.
The nouns selected from
Sol~enicyn's
tale "Odin
den' ••• " are, for the most part, examples of nonsimultaneous prefixation-suffixation, quite a normal
fact when the weak productivity of the process is
taken into consideration.
These nouns exist in the
Russian language without one of the affixes.
Usually
the prefix is the superfluous element.
bezopaska
obogrevalka
peresidka
nedQbI~nik
neume ec
neuladka
opaska
grevalka
sidka
doby&nik
umelec
uladka
(coll.)
(dial.)
(coll.)
(dial. )
(now standard literary)
(dial. )
20
The addition of the prefix makes the word more slangy.
Many of these suffixation-prefixation forms have probably
been coined by Solzenicyn himself.
Such nouns as: doboltka, namordnik, napuznik,
nedokurok, predzonnik, pridurok are examples of
simultaneous prefixation-suffixation.
Such forma
as: boltka, mordnik, puznik, dokurok, zonnik, durok
do not exist in the language.
Deaffixation
Deaffixation is present in nouns only.
Actually the
process should be called desuffixation, since the nouns
are formed: 1) from prefixed verbs by removing the infinitive suffix
or 2) from adjectives by removing the
adjective ending (suffix) and softening the final consonant.
The first procesa of de suffixation remains
potentially productive, although it has been exploited
for centuries to such an extent that new words are
seldom "new."
They have been in the language before
and have only acquired a new semantic meaning.
From the list of suffixIess nouns under the first
category fall: grev, obogrev, ugrev, poval and the
compound lesopoval, otlez, ukryv, xleborez.
With the exception of grev and rez aIl of these nouna
have been formed from prefixed verbs.
(xIeborez, being
a compound noun has a substantive and a connecting vowel
21
-o·- inste:ad of the prefix.)
grev
obogrev
gbogrevat'
ugrev
ugrevat'
poval
povalit l
otlez
otle~atl
. ukryv
ukryvat 1
was formed on'-;:analogy to ugrev
in various
dialects of Rus sian.'
To the second 'category belong such nouns as:
glu~',
Ijut', slast'.
They were ultimately derived
from adjectives: gluxoj, Ijutyj, sladkij.
These
suffixless soft-stem feminine nouns have been
unproductive for generations.
They are mainly
cultivated in "poetic" and "folksy" language.
Neologisms of this type were very popular with the
Symbolists and Futurists (Severjanin, Majakovskij),
an d suc h peasan t poe t as Esenin. 26
Compounds
Numerous nouns selected from SOlzenicyn's tale
"Odin den' ••• " have a composite structure.
They are
mainly recent formations: either so called Soviet
neologisms, or colloquiallisms of the Soviet periode
An examination of their structure is necessary to
22
establish their characteristics.
The derivation of nouns by compounding has always
been highly productive in Russian, but since the
Revolution it has become the most important means of
word-coinage.
Compound nouns may be classified into several
categories according to their structure.
Whole-
compounds and stump-compounds constitute the two
main types of compound nouns.
Whole-compounds can be
formed with a connecting vowel ole or may be linked
directly.
Whole-compounds formed without the connecting vowel ole
can be:
1) in imitation of the folk style hyphenated, i.e.
linked, orthographically, by a hyphen.
Both elements
of such a compound retain their grammatical identity
and decline.
Almost always the appositional element
follows the basic element.
In
Sol~enicyn's
tale the following compounds of this
kind were registered:
strelok-pulemet~ik,
invalid, maslice-fujaslice,
fitil'-
verevo~ka-opojaska,
Gopcik-xloPcik, Fetjukov-sakal, Aleska-baptist,
brat-~stonec.
2) abutted.
formation.
This is a very productive type of wordThe first element delimits the second.
Here belong such neologisms as: brevnotaska and
23
strojmaterial.
3) formed with a numeral element.
By linking a numeral
to a substantive a compound noun can be formed.
Any
numeral other than odin, tysjaca, million, and billion
can enter into the formation.
Except for
!!2
and
devjanosto the numerals are in the genitive case.
The numeral element dvux- and
~-
is tending to
oust dvu- and tre-, and is far more productive.
The forms dvuxsotgrammovka, trexsotgrammovka occur
in SOlzenicyn's usage.
Compounds with first element
in colloquial language.
E2!-
are very common
The modern Russian polovina
has been shortened to pol on analogy with the Old
Russian pol' , ("half").
Compounds wi th pol- are
formed either with the numeral element in the
nominative case and the substantivaI element in the
genitive case or else with the numeral in the
genitive and the substantive in the nominative.
However, it is interesting to note the following
compound formations in Solzenicyn's usage: polpajka,
polporcija, polkarcer.
The three examples are formed
of two elements in the nominative case.
polpajka is not an example of the
fi~st
The form
type, since
the substantivaI element does not stem from the
standard
pa~k,
but from a term used by the forced
labour camp inmates -- pa.jka ("bread-ration").
Whole-compounds for.med with a connecting vowel ole as one
element May be grouped according to the nature of the
final part.
1) If the last element out of three is a substantive the
first element can be a substantive, an adjective, a
pronoun or one of the numerals
or billion.
~,
tysjaëa, million
Here belong the following compounds in
Solzenicyn's usage: odnobrigadnik, posudomojka,
rastvoromesalka, torforazrabotki, trudoden',
celovekovyxod,
~lakoblok,
èlektrorabota,
~nergopoezd.
2) If the third and final element is deverbal the first
element is a noun, which delimits the deverbal element.
Sol~enicyn's
krovosos, lesopoval, posudomoj,
and xleborez belong herein.
occupational designations.
silod~r
Such compounds are usually
Sometimes they designate
actions.
3) If the compounds consist of four elements, the
connecting vowel constitutes the second and a suffix
the four th 'element.
If the third element of such a
four-element compound is derived from a substantive,
then the first is adjectival: krasnoflotec (krasn-oflot-ec).
If the third element stems from a verb,
then the first is substantivaI: minonosec (min-onos-ec), xleborezka (xleb-o-rez-ka).
Stump-compounds can be divided into four categories:
1) consisting of parts of words.
In Solzenicyn's usage
25
the following can be found: kondej, medsanbat,
Osoblag, pombrig,
pomna~kar,
na~kar,
prorab.
2) consisting of a part of a word linked to a complete noun.
The following Soviet neologisms of this kind are used by
Solzenicyn: zavstolovoj, zarplata, kavtorang, komvzvod,27
kompolka, mexzavod, mexzavodec, pombrigadir, prodsklad,
prodstol, saninstruktor, sancast l
,
Socbytgorodok,
Socgorodok.
3) consisting of initiaIs.
4)
Solzenicyn utilizes the following:
z/k, BUR, Kvë, ppë, T~C, CTZ.
----consisting of initiaIs linked to part of a word.
To this
mixed type belongs the compound GULAG.
(c) Semantic Features
Outside the borders of what is called the standard
language, spoken and written by the educated classes,
there are various other styles of speech in existence.
These include the special jargons of various trades and
occupations, the rich vocabularies of slang and
Imprecation, the numerous colloquialisms, and the local
dialects which still persist in almost aIl parts of
Russia.
Exact definitions and classifications of aIl
these forms of popular speech are hardly possible, so
mixed are they, and so imperceptibly do they shade one
into another.
They may, however, aIl be grouped
together, in contrast to the standard language, under
26
the name of popular speech.
Solfenicyn's language in his tale "Odin den' ••• "
is very rich in various forms of popular speech.
Although, frequently, a word cannot be classified with
certainty in a particular branch of popular speech, an
attempt will be made to group words in separate subdivisions according to their characteristics.
This part of the the sis is essentially a lexicographical study and as such is best treated alphabetically,
much in the sarne mrunler as a lexicon.
Approximately four
hundred words are treated in this study, so that clearly
the notes on each word must be brief.
In the interest
of brevity the major conclusions will be reserved for
the last chapter (V).
Dialect
Dialect is a language peculiar to a locality.
For
purposes of humour, irony, emphasis, etc., a writer may
find dialect valuable as a supplement to standard diction.
He may employ dialect words and expressions which May
later become a part of the standard literary language.
In the course of literary development numerous dialect
words were adopted by standard Russian.
However, the
"road through literature rt is not the only factor to
introduce locally-coloured rustic dialects to the standard
27
language.
Dialect forma find their way intoj;he standard
literary language in communication between
urban dwellers.
~al
and
Cer'tain dialect oddities of speech may,
therefore, be adopted by the vernacular before
enter the Russian literary language.
~hey
Certainly, some
dialect words and phrases become a part of colloquial
speech without ever
e~ring
the l!terary language.
Exploitation of dialect speech in literature can
be twofold: either in the language of dramatispersonae
to colour and differentiate speech, or in the
language of the author -- for stylistic effects.
Aleksander Solzenicyn employs both methods.
Dialect
forms can be found in the speech of the peasant
protagonist as well as in the author's narrative.
Rere is a crosssection of the most interesting and
representative dialectal nouns found in Sollenicyn's
tale "Odin dent Ivana Deniaovica. 1I
glus 1 -- This noun ia known in literary Ruasian as
"desolate place,lI"desert," "solitude."
tale
glu~1
In Sol!enicynls
is employed in the sense of deafness which
in Russian takes the form gluxota. (cf. ljut ' )
gorjun -gorjunja --
These are dlalect words which have found
their way into literabure and which are presently
listed in the Academy Dictionary.
Olegov, however,
28
does not register the word, while Usakov considers it
strictly dialectal, suitable for
exploitation.
goremyka.
grev
ugrev
folY~ore
and poetic
The colloquial Russian has an equivalent
In certain localities gorjuxa is also heard.
Both grev and ugrev stem from the verb gret'.
Forms grevo and ugrevo are also found in certain
locelities.
Dalts dictionary is the only source
where the words can be found.
Meaning: flwarmth, fi
fl oven heat."
zavaruxa -- The suffix
is characteristic of dialect
28
speech and unproductive in literary Russian.
-~
However, a certain number of words with this suffix
entered the literary language (zolotuxa, vesnuxa, etc.)
and our word zavaruxa can also be found in literaturej
as weIl as in colloquial speech.
zavaruxa means turmoil.
In dialect speech zavaruxa can be found in the Tver'
region -- it stands for "brawl,1I "quarrel. 1I In the
Eastern parts of Russia
of zavaruxa.
zavaroxa is pronounced instead
It has a similar meaning -- "fear,tI
tfconfusion,u "wrangle," Itspat." (See DaI'.)
zavtrevo -- The adverb zavtra ("tomorrow") served to form
in certain Russian dialects a noun of neuter gender
zavtrevo.
The noun zavtrevo is registered by DaI'.
zagrebanec -- The verb zagrebit'sja
(~grebittsja),
29
conveying in various Eastern Iocalities the meaning
"to become anxious, apprehensive, uneasy," etc.,
produced the noun zagrebanec.
Zagrebanec, Iike the
word mentioned by DaI' zagrebala, means therefore
a greedy, grasping person.
U~akov
cites the colloquial
form zagrebistyj -- "greedy," aager for gain."
zakra~k
-- "edge."
Besides the noun zakra8k, forms
zakraj and zakraina are also present in dialect
speech.
dialecte
They are Iisted in
U~akov's
dictionary as
The noun zakra8k is mentioned by DaI'.
zaplot -- According to DaI' this word is used in Siberia
instead of standard Russian zabor ("fence," lia barrier
of wooden posts").
It is interesting to note the
similarity of zaplot to standard Polish plot ("fence").
zatgmok -- "dark corner," "nook."
Except for Dal's
dictionary the word is nowhere to be found.
a cognate of Standard Russian
~
It is
and temnota
("darkness") •
zatirka -- Forms .zatirka and zatiruxa can be met aIl
over RUBsia.
They imply a particular kind of food:
either a broth made of coarsely cracked wheat or
oats, dough (in the Kursk region), or boiled wheat
paste (around Rjazan').
A dish called zacierka
sort of macaroni served with miIk, is known to
Polish peasants.
30
zaxrjastok -- This is a derivative of the verb
zaxrjastnut ' , which is listed in Usakov's dictionary
with the annotation "dialect."
Ozegov lists a
similar momentary verb -- x.rjastnut ' ("to hit hard").
He annotates it as substandard.
The noun zaxrjastka
(lia bow on the head") is recorded by DaI' and Usakov.
Sollenicyn's zaxrjastok is a synonym of dialectal
zaxrjastka.
z,iablyj -- Although the verb zjabnut' ("to feel chilly,"
"be cold") is used by standard speakers of Russian,
the noun zjablyj (-( adj.) Can only be found in certain
areas.
In literary Russian zjabkij is used instead.
DaI' interprets z,iablyj as "a chilly, shiveriilg, frostbi t ten man or animal."
ljut' -- This word is not entered in any of the dictionaries.
Even Dal's dictionary does not classify it.
Sol~enicyn's
usage, however, indicates a meaning
similar to the words ljutost' and ljutyj moroz.
However, the word ljut' is present in Ukrainian.
It meanS "bitter cold."
Therefore, the standard
Ukrainian ljut' must have crossed into Russian
territory •
./
magara .-- The word magara is explained in the tale as
a kind of grass which, when boiled, makes a dish
similar to gruel.
The preparation of this dish was
31
learnt from the
C~inese.
Were it not for Russisches Rnckl!ufiges
W~rterbuch
{which lists magara'} we would not have any confirmation for the existence of this form of the word.
According to DaI', in Siberia moga is the name for
dried mushrooms exported to China.
Clearly, the
word moga came to Siberia from Kalmuk mSg, mBgB
("mushroom") •
The Kalmuk wO:i"d is of Chinese origine
(See Vasmer's Russisches Etymologisches WBrterbuch.)
Kratkij ènciklopediéeskij slovar' mentions a word
mogar.
"'"
It is defined in the following words: "grass-
like vegetable belonging to the corn family."
./
clear mogar and magara is the same vegetable.
It is
Both
a phonetic and a morphological change are responsible
for the two variant forma.
nedobycnik -- The word is not registered by any of the
dictionaries consulted.
lists the word
doby~nik.
However, Dal's dictionary
In the Tver' region
doby~nik
means a stingy, greedy person.
doby~noj
in the Orel district stands for sensible,
clever, ev en shrewd.
is added to
doby~nik
The adjective
Therefore, when the prefix
~-
the word attains the meaning
ill-fated, ill-omened person, a hoodoo.
neuladka -- This noun is absent from aIl dictionaries.
It is employed in the tale in the sense of adversity.
32
Dal' mentions a dialect word uladka.
Quite cleartr
the verb uladit' (Ilto arrange,"order") gave rise to
the formation of uladka.
The suffix
istie of colloquial language.
~- Sol~enieyn
-!!
is charaeter-
By adding the prefix
created an antonym to uladka (II good
fortune"). (cf. nepoladki)
neumelee -- This is another example of the author's
addition of a prefix
forme
to the already existing
Some time dialectal and obsolete umelee 29
~-
is at present standard literary Russian. (See
O~egov.)
However, to this very day, the adjective neumelyj
and nouns neumelka (Dal') and neumexa 30 exist in the
dialects only.
otkosina -- This is a derivative from the noun otkos
("prop , Il "support") which was i tself a dialec t word
at one time.
In the twentieth century otkos has
beeome a specifie terme
Ozegov.
It is annotated as such by
In Usakov's dictionary, however, both the
dialectal and specifie meanings are stressed.
Dal'
gives the form otkos beside otkoska and notes that
the origin of both words is the verb otkosit'.
We
,
noted earlier that the augmentative suffix -in a was
dialectal and informal in the nineteenth century.3 l
Now it is often found in standard literary words.
But the noun otkosina has not become an accepted
standard forme
It has not been classified by the
lexicographers.
ot1ei -- nre1ief,n"rest. n , The word stems from thè verb
otle!at'.
Except for Dal's dictionary it is not
'r'egistered.
The formation of the noun ot1e! has'·
already been explained in the section dea1ing 'iii·th
deaffixation.
(See above, p. 20.)
pova1 -- Simi1ar1y; the origin of pova1 is exp1ained in
the discussion on deaffixation.
In addition, to,peval
Dal' recorded such nouns as povalka and pova1.'nja'in
the Pskov and Tver 1 regions •
.;
stupnja -- Althoughinstandard Russian the word is a
synonym for the lower part of the sole -- stopa, in
certain dialects stupnja designates the who1e part
of the 1eg, from the ankle to the sole. (See Da1 1 . )
Solzenicyn employs the word with the dialectal
connotation.
terpellnik -- CEeated from the verb terpet' ("suffer")
by adding a suffix, this dialect word is registered
in Dalls dictionary only and defined as follows: a
martyr, who suffers great pain, misery and persecutions,
especially because of his faith.
•
ukryv -- It is another example of deaffixation.
In
standard Russian the noun ukrytie is used instead.
Ukryv conve,.s the meaning "refuge," tt shelter," ttcovert."
'"
. .
.
.
xalabuda -- Like ljut' the noun xalabuda is a Ukrainian
adaptation.
Although, most probably, it waa not pre·sent
in the Russian dialecta in the last century, for it was
not recorded by DaI', it presently lives in the speech
ofpeasants from the Kursk and Voronez regions. 32
It
ia often pronounced xolobuda (in the dialectsof the
north) •
~kvalI8a -- The cOlloquiaJ. skvalysa ("miser," "acrew")
has a dialectal for.m skavalyga.
Such form is heard
around Novgorod, Tambov, and Olonec. 33
The form
rkvalyga, although not registered by the dictionaries,
is clearly another dialectal differentiation of the
word.
skodn!! -- A loan-word !rom the Polish szkodnik "
azkoda, it was taken in turn from the Old High
German scado. (cf. German: Schaden)
The noun
akodnik (" evildoer n ) conveys in some localities
the meaning "epender," "squanderer."
Colloguialisms
A colloquialism is an expression common in speech
but not in writing.
In modern prose, the distinction
is much Iess rigorous than a few decades ago.
There
has, indeed, been a conscious colloquializing of
written prose for over a hundred years.
35
The difference between colloquial and dialectal
words lies mai nI y in the fact that while a colloquialism
is present in the speech of aIl regions, a dialect word
is employed by speakers of one or more localities, but
never exists in aIl dialects.
avral -- The Dutch expression overal was adopted by the
Russian seamen.in the times of Peter l.
This narrow
naval sense of the word (" the work carried out by·
the whole crew," "aIl hands on deck") gave rise to
a colloquial expression in the twenties of the
present century.
The noun avral in the colloquial
usage stands for a pressing, urgent task, an outcdme
of bad planning.
baraxol'ce -- This is a diminutive affectionate form of
the noun baraxlo.
At present it belongs to the subr
standard Russian vocabulary. (See Ozegov.)
considered it to be a dialectal word.
DaI'
It was
registered by him in the Arxangel'sk, Siberian and
Orenburg regions.
The word baraxlo has two meanings:
1) goods, chattels; 2) trash, old clothes.
In
Solzenicyn's tale the first meaning is exploited.
~axmatov asserted that the noun baraxlo was relat~d
to dialectal boroMen' (ntravel equipment, Il
" goods and chattels ll ).34
Il
stock, Il
Recentlya similar view was
expressed by T. B. Sanskaja. 35
However, the&ssttnl0D-
that baraxlo is a cognate of borosen' (Church Slavonic:
bra~1no),
and that they both stem .trom the verb brat
has been disproved by Ju. V. OtkupNëikov. 36
'
He gives
numerous proves
wo~d
baraxl0.
:fo~,~he,Mongol
origin of the
,
Ace ording to him the word stems from the
Mongol baraa xool ("all
t~belongings
of a nomadic
Mongol when he migrates from one place to another"):
baraa (n goods n ) +
~
(fi food") •
bedolaga -- With the exception of
word is not listed.
O~egov1s
dictionary this
Dal 1s dictionary, howe.ver,
includes the word bedolaxa, which is not a dialectal
deviation
on this
but a Ukrainism.
wor~
A. S. L 1vov commented
in the fourth issue of Voprosy kul 1tury
~.37 According to L~vov, the word came into u~e
in the forties.
It is, there fore , quite clear why
the word is not lis1;ed by USakov, but is in O!egov's
dictionary.
The noun bedolaga has a similar standard
Russian synonym bedn.1aga ("miser").
L'vov insists
that bedolaga is not of Russian origine
It was
adopted from the Ukrainian language in which there
are such:forms as: bidolaxa, bidolâ"x, bidolaska,
bidol(~nij.
The Ukrainian dialects possess such
words as: bidoltga, bidol{!nij, bidol(jéik.
Standard Ukrainian bidolaxa stems from bidolaga.
The change from
-~
to,-!! is considered by L'vov
a normal phenomenon, since the suffix -!! is very
productive in Ukrainian (znaxa, komaxa, neudaxa,
37
nevstaxa, udaxa).
L'vov gives a semantic explanation of the noun
bidolaga.
~
+
~
It is a compound consisting of morphemes
+ 1ag
the roots
+~.
~-
Whem the suffix is taken away,
and lag-
are 1eft.
The root lag-
is a frequentative form of the root 1eg-/10g-.
Therefore, bidolaga is a person who has been
aff1icted by misfortune for long time.
The Russian
language adopted this dialectal Ukrainian word and
its semantic meaning.
bezopaska -- The colloquia1 opaska ("care," "caution")
gave rise to even more co11oquial bezopaska.
noun bezopasnost'
The
("safety,rr "security") is the
standard 1iterary form of the word and a synonym of
bezopaska.
The adjective bezopasnyj produced the
1iterary form bezopasnost'.
-
The suffix -ka is
co11oquia1 but productive; thus, it is often exploited
in everyday popular speech.
The noun bezopaska,
a1though not registered by dictionaries, was coined
in complete accordance with the ru1es of Russian
word-formation.
brevnotaska -- rr10g-carrying"
Simi1ar1y the noun taska, for.med from the verb
taskat r , is an example of the productive type of
substantives of feminine gender, designating an
action or procedure$ produced by means of adding
the colloquial suffix
stantive
~~
-!!
to verb-roots.
38
The
sub~
must have been in use in the thirties
for it is listed in Usakovts dictionary.
It is not
mentioned by Ozegov.
brevnotaska is a compound noun.
The compounds of
brevno included in Orfograficeskij slovar t are:
brevnomer, brevnospusk, brevnoukladcik.
gar~tijka -- The colloquial and even slangy word
garantijka is a diminutive form of gar~tija with
an emotional colouring.
Although not registered by
the dictionaries, it lives in the speech of workers,
for their earnings are dependent on it and, thus
garantijka is very important to them.
1
(cf. teorijka
-- a standard Russian word; see Orfograficeskij
slovar t )
dvuxsot-, trexsotgrammovka -- "bread ration of 200 or
300 gramsll
Like procentovka (see below) the compounds of grammovka
can be attributed to the colloquial language on the
basia of their formation by means of a colloquial
suffix
de~urka
-~.
-- The Academy Grammar mentions the noun
de~urka
as one of the colloquial nouna of feminine gender denoting an object which in standard usage is designated
by a combination of an adjective and a substantive
39
Although used in popula~
(delurnaja komnata).39
speech,
ary.
dezu~ka
is not yet listed in Ozegov's diction-
Howeve~, dezu~ka
is listed in the Academy
as a colloquialism.
Dictiona~y
"gua~d," "sent~y"
dezurn.jak --
It is not listed in the
howeve~,
dictiona~ies.
it is a synonym of
-- "to watch,"
"gua~d").
the literary language.
(cf.
de!~it~
The nouns with the ending
f~om
-!!/-jak, when formed
dezu~nyj
Clea~ly,
adjectives, can belong to
Such substantives as bednjak
«bednyjl, bosjak«bosoj), xolostjak«xolostoj)
a~e
standa~d
literary Russian words.
Howeve~,
othe~s
are clearly characteristic of colloquial language:
tolstjak~(tolstyj),
~(dobryj).
zdorov.jak<:(zdorovyj),
dob~jak
The noun dezurnjak is certainly a colloquial
designation, a counterpart of standard Russian de!urnyj.
doboltka -- The root of the colloquial verb boltat' (Ilto
s tir") wi th a pre.fix
~-
colloquial noun doboltka.
dictionary.
and a suffix -lf!... produced a
The noun is listed in Dal's
However, doboltka is used by Sol!enicyn
not in the sense given by DaI' (action from the verb
boltat', i.e. "stirring"), but in the sense of
'tresidue."
donce -- This diminutive form of dno ("bottom") is
rarely used.
Another diminutive
dony~ko
is much
40
ie
more common.
While donce is absent from Olegov's
dictionary, Usakov enters the form donce with a
remark "rare."
The productive
suffix-~/-ice
was
also exploited by Solzenicyn to forro diminutives
odejal'ce, maslice, fujaslice, voskresen'ice.
instrumentalka -- Ha storeroom for tools"
According to the Academy Grammar the suffix
colloquial.
-l!! i8
It is usually used in colloquial
language instead of the standard suffix -l'nja
(razdevalka -- razdeval'nja).
Although not yet
registered by dictionaries instrumentalka has entered
popular speech, perhaps under the influence of other
such nouns: umyvalka,
~italka,
etc.
instrumental'scik -- The dictionaries define the word
as: "maker of tools, instruments," etc.
Solzenicyn's usage
instrumental's~ik
However, in
has a colloquial
informaI meaning: "manager of storehouse for toolS,"
lIin charge of instruments."
This meaning is not yet
registered by the dictionaries.
It is clearly
derived from the colloquial noun instrumentalka, for
instrumental's~ik
is in reality manager of instrument-
~.
karto~inka
speech.
-- The forro kartoska is known in popular
It has been listed by Usakov.
The noun
kartosinka, however, is not listed in any sources.
Although diminutive no uns with the singulative
41
suffix
-!E!!
are attributed to popular speech, they
are seldom separate1y recorded in dictionaries.
However, the suffix
-!B!!
hints at the fact that the
noun designates one single object and that it has an
affectionate quality.
p. 14.)
(Bee above sub voce
DaI' lists the noun
Pskov area form kartofina.
to SOlzenicyn's forme
karto~ina
~uffixation
and also the
These are similar nouns
However, the affectionate
overtone is not present.
The auffix
-~
occurs in
the standard kartofelina, meaning na potato."
~
-- "brick work"
This noun is used instead of the normal word kladka.
The noun klad in standard Russian denotes only
"treasure," both in the figurative and non-figurative
senses.
krasninka -- Nouns with the suffix
-~,
when derived
from an adjective, also have a diminutive quality.
However, adjectival derivatives are weakly productive
in contrast to the very productive nouns formed by
meanS of adding the suffix
-~
to a nominal root.
Adjectival derivatives do not designate single objecta
but serve as a means of expressing certain characteristics attributed to the adjective as weIl.
The form krasninka i3 such an adjectival derivative.
It is not recorded in the dictionaries.
However, a
42
very similar word has been classified by DaI'.
Dal's
noun krasnina ("red light") is deprived yet of the
warmth embodied in
lopux
Sol~enicyn's
expression.
Usakov's dictionary lists the adjective lopuxij.
It is a colloquial epithet, a synonym for foolish.
The noun lopux is therefore a colloquial designation
for "simpleton."
Found in
Sol~enicyn's
tale the form
lopux is not given by the dictionaries, except as a
name for a plant ("burdock").
mjasinka -- The noun mjasinka is an example of a singulative
diminutive feminine noun.
Although mjasinka ("small
piece of meat") is not registered by the dictionaries,
a similar form mjasovinka is given by DaI'.
nedokurok -- The forro olrurok is a more common designation
for "cigarette-end."
The colloquial noun nedokurok
is registered in the Academy Dictionary.
nosilki -- The noun nosilki, which in standard Russian
has the meaning "stretcher," "litter,"
is used by
Solzenicyn in its colloquial sense, instead of the noun
noska ("carrying").
obalduj
"" -- Of Turkish origin (Turk. baldak), this
colloquial designation for a fool has numerous
,
variants in colloquial speech: oboltus, obolduj,
/
oboldoxa.
The forro obalduj is interpreted both by
43
DaI' and U!akov as a colloquial, vulgar expression
for blockhead.
(Bee
O~egov,
s.v. obaldet'.)
obogrevalka -- This substantive resembles in form and in
meaning the previously discussed instrumentalka.
The
colloquial suffix -lka, which can either indicate an
implement or a location, is in this case an illustration of the second usage.
heater.
aries.
It signifies a place with a
The form obogrevalka is not given by dictionSuch substantives as grelka and its dialectal
counterpart grevalka (lia device for heating romns or
beds") are, however, registered by DaI', for instance.
otkazcik -- The noun otkaz!ik (lia person who rejects,
declines everything, or denies oneself everything")
is entered as colloquial both by DaI' and by
U~akov.
peresidka -- The verb peresidet'/peresizivat' ("to sit
somewhere longer than intended," "to tarry"), which
is cOllo,quial and characteristic of informaI speech,
produced by means of adding a suffix -ka a colloquial
noun which is especially associated with sitting a
long time in prison.
The noun peresidka is registered
in DaI' s dictionary only.
povremMnka -- According to
ism.
(See below s.v. sidka.)
U~akov
this is a new colloquial-
Similarly to the noun dezurka (i.e. dezurnaja
komnata) this i8 also a colloquial equivalent of the
adjective + rioun combination (povremennaja oplata).
44
pokazuxa -- The
no~
pokazuxa ("show offll ) entered
everyday substandard language not long ago.
It was
utilized in writing for the first time in 1960, when
v.
P. Ardov entitled his article in a Russian newspaper Li teratura i ~izn l "pokazuxa.,,4 0
The noun pokazuxa is recorded in the dictionary of
slang compiled by the Krestinskys.
The dialectal
verb pokazatlsja (Ilto present oneself favourably"),
which is listed in
U~akovls
dictionary, exerted influ-
ence on the formation of this noun.
procentovka -- The substantive procentovka expresses an
emotional, affectionate quality.
The suffix -ovka
-
points out the colloquial nature of the word.
The endearing charac ter of' the word procentovka (Urate
of' paylf) is evident, for the earnings depend on the
fulfillment of the established percantage.
If the fixed
requirements are not met a loss of pay is the outcome.
1
puzo -- "belly"
It is registered by aIl dictionaries as a colloquial
counterpart of' brjuxo. A dialect form puzdrJ is known
in certain districts. 4l
rastvorome§alka -- "cement mixing machine"
This is a compound noun.
The substantive
me~alka
(lfstirrer," "agitator lf ) is known in colloquial
language and has already entered Usakov's as weIl as
45
O!egov's dictionaries.
Similarly to Instrumentalka
and obogrevalka it consists of the colloquial suffix
-!!!.
The suffix is employed here to form a noun
designating implement not location.
sedinka -- This is still another diminutive form which
can be attributed to popular substandard speech.
It
is a colloquial designation for a single grey haire
The noun sedina is a standard Russian word from which
the colloquialism sedinka was fbrmed.
sidka -- The substantive sidka (lfimprisonment lf ) slh:emsffDI!JDl
the verb sidet' ("to sit").
According to Usakov the
substantive refers to the action from the verb sidet'
which takes a special meaning: "to sit in detention,
confinement, prison."
Constructed by means of adding
a colloquial suffix -ka to a verbal root, the noun is
a typical colloquialism.
slast' -- Formerly chiefly known as a sweet dish served
as a dessert although it also had a secondary figurative
meaning -- "delight,U "pleasure.,,42 Now, the noun
slast' is in colloquial language a synonym for
nasla~denie
("delight U ).
Therefore, it was the
figurative meaning that affected the colloquial
language.
smoréok -- still in the last century smor60k was the name
46
<.-
for discharge, ejection from the nose. 43
It stems
from the verb smorkat' ("to blow one's nose").
However, the figurative meaning of smorcok was
registered already by DaI'.
In the figurative sense
smoréok stands for a decrepit, shrunken person, a
shrimp.
This contemptuous meaning of the word is
ascribed to the colloquial language.
(See
U~akov
and Olegov.)
snaroska -- This is a word which is absent from the
dictionaries.
Obviously, it can be regarded as
belonging to the colloquial language, for it ends
with the suffix
-2.
The suffix
can forro nouns
-~
of common gender from verbal (lakomka<lakomit',
poprosajka (poprosajni~at') and adjectival roots
(ne~enka <ne~nyj, nevidimka<nevidimyj). 44
Since A.
Sol~enicyn
himself defined the noun snaro§ka
as a simulated, feigned spy,
one can infer that the
.1
,-
noun was forroed from the adjective narocnyj (Itmessenger,1t
"courier").
Therefore the epicene noun snaroska was
forroed according to the basic rules of Russian wordformation by means of using the adjectival root and
adding the suffix -ka.
difficult to explain.
expression
s
The prefix
~-
is more
The word May originate from the
naro~nym.
spa.ika -- Originally known only in the sense of soldering,
welding, etc. (the verb spa,iat' = "to weld, Il
If
to solder"),
47
Iater the substantive spajka acquired a figurative meaning: "union," "friendship."
The standard Russian spa-
jannost' ("cohesion," "unity") is a counterpart of the
colloquial spajka.
The nouh spajka is listed in
O~egov's
dictionary, and given the definition: "friendship,"
"uni ty.1I
su~ilka
"drying-roomlt
Here is another example of the colloquial suffix
-l!!
forming a substantive by adding it to a verbal root.
The standard Russian form
beside such forms as
su~il'nja
su~ilo
just the forms susil'nja and
was Iisted by DaI'
and su!nja.
su~iIka
At present
existe
although colloquial is more often used.
The latter
It can also
Mean an implement or apparatus: "dryer."
tabacinka -- This affectionate diminutive form of tabak
is the designation for one small tobacco leaf.
certl!nys -- "little devil"
This form is not catalogued by Iexicographers.
It is
a parallel form of the standard noun detl!nys, a common
designation for aIl young creatures.
Since it is a
diminutive it can be grouped with other common substandard nouns, especially so since it has not been
registered by DaI' in the dialects.
48
salman
Except for the Academy Dictionary this colloquial-
ism is nowhere to be found.
The dictionary defines the
word as a rather inferior tavern, a pub.
The word ia
of Turkish origin (see the stress) and an obsolete
colloquialism.
sest8rka -- The dictionaries give Just one meaning of
sest8rka
a group of six people, a combination of
six units.
However, the Academy Dictionary lists the
obsolete and long forgotten colloquialism sest8rka
and defines it as a servant in a tavern or restaurant,
a waiter.
(See below the verb sesterit'.)
obsolete meaning the noun
~est8rka
In this
is employed by
Solzenicyn.
Vulgarisms
Coarse, obscene and vulgar words and expressions of
the colloquial language are given a common designation
vulgarisms.
Vulgarisms are employed in literature for special
stylistic effects.
Vulgarization of the Russian
vocabulary and speech has especially been exploited by
the satiri3ts.
Solzenicyn makes use of vulgarisms to
make the speech of his protagonists more expressive of
their humble origins and worthless existence.
The MOSt
effective and forceful of the vulgarisms have been
selected from the tale.
The nouns are discussed herein.
49
blevotina -- The verb blevetat' is a dialectal equivalent
of standard Russian mjamlit' ("to mumble").45
In the
last century blevotina did not have a vulgar connotation.
The word was associated with a physiological
fUnction; blevotina was the contents of the stomach
ejected through vomiting.
In the twentieth century
the noun blevotina has taken a figurative meaning.
This meaning has been registered by U§akov, who
defines blevotina as gadost', merzost' ("abomination").
In
U~akov's
dictionary the word is labeled as a
vulgarisme
The word blevotina ends with an augmentative
-lB!
which normally expresses derision.
su~fix
Apart from
the semantic meaning of the verbal root the suffixal
function is to make the word vulgar. (See below under
merzotina. )
gad -- In addition to the primary meaning ("reptile"),
the noun gad has taken a secondary personified
meaning -- a vile person, skunk.
This secondary mean-
ing must be quite recent, for Dal's dictionary has no
mention of it.
However, Usakov as weIl as Ozegov
devotes a" few lines to it.
O~egov
gives a synonym
gadin a which he classifies as contfuptuous.
Sollenicyn
also employs a collective noun gadstvo.
derunok -- This dialectal noun is not listed in any
50
sources except for Dal's dictionary.
it as something pungent or strong.
DaI' interprets
He gives the
following sentence as an illustration of the usage:
Taba~ek jarunok, pertik derunok.
der'mo -- This vulgar word is listed by DaI'.
word has a hard or soft
~,
Dal's
whereas Solzenicyn's
protagonist pronounces it with a soft
~
only, i.e.
der'mo.
zaraza -- DaI' interpreted this word as a synonym of
~uma.
It was used until the present century only
in the meaning "epidemic. fI
Usakov, besides giving
the primary meaning of this word, lists a colloquial
vulgar epithet zaraza.
This epithet is given to an
abominable person, a trouble-maker.
krovosos -- The word krovosos is in its primary sense a
synonym of varnpir ("vampire").
In the popular sub-
standard speech it has acquired a figurative meaning:
a person who extorts from others as much as he can,
a leech.
merzotina -- The augmentative merzotina is not mentioned
by dictionaries.
However, it is clear that merzotina
stems from merzost' and is a pejorative form of the
latter due to the augmentative suffix -ina.
The forro
merzost' (flabomination," "aversionff ) stems from the
dialect verb merzit 1 (Ilto i'ill with disgust ff ) . (See DaI'.)
51
morda -- "mug"
This is a vulgar expression for "face," tfcountenance. 1t
The primary meaning of the word is the snout of an
animal.
mordovorot -- The noun mordovorot was not registered by
Dal'
who did however record similar dialect vulgar-
isms such as mordoxlest and mordofonja.
However,
Usakov defines mordovorot as: person with repulsive
appearance.
padal' -- In addition to the primary meaning carrion,
the word padal' can be used in abusive and
contemptuous language as an epithet for a despicable
person.
padlo -- The noun padlo was a dialect expression
registered by DaI' in the district of Tver'.
Pskov region Dal' recorded a variant padla.
In the
Both
forms are listed in his dictionary and interpreted as
podlec (ltscoundrel," "raseal").
padlo was introdueed into
The dialect word
literatv~e
by Leskov.
it is Iisted in the Academy Dictionary.
Thus
U§akov and
O!egov do not mention the word for it is too dialectal
in character.
However, the noun padlo is listed in
the Krestinskys' dictionary.
It is interpreted there
as "scum" and classified as a vulgarism.
52
paskuda -- This is a dialect
many
~egionsof
southe~n
Vladimi~,
and
Russia.
DaI'
weste~n pa~ts
and Olonec
which can be
wo~d
~egiste~ed
hea~d
paskuda in
as weIl as in the
In Dal's
~egions.
in
Tve~',
diction~y
paskuda has two definitions: 1)
nave~sion,rt
"loathing," and
In the sense of a fouI
mean
pe~son
the
2) "villain."
wo~d
paskuda
ente~ed
the colloquial
language and is mentioned as such by Usakov with a
label
vulga~.
paséenok -- Evidently pascenok is related to scenok
("puppy") •
In colloquial Russian pascenok is a
name for an unfledged youth, a lad.
dictionary classifies
gives a synonym
contempt.
pas~enok
pa~~enok
mal'~iska
U~akov's
as a vulgarism and
which also expresses
In this derisive sense the substantive
was introduced to literature by Dostoevskij.
polkan -- It has nothing to do wi th polukon' (l'centaur'')
as has been maintained by some etymologists.
It is
a dog's name employed in abusive language as an
expression of contempt for the loathed person. 46
salaga -- According to DaI' the sheepskin of a dead sheep
is called in Lower Russia salaga.
This word can be
employed in colloquial abusive language for vilifying
purposes.
SOllenicyn's salaga is a variant of §alaga.
(See above under Phonetic Peculiarities, p. 7.)
53
svolo~'
-- The word acquired a vulgar meaning in the
nin~teenth
century.
In the times of Peter l it
connoted a motley group of people, for it was derived
f.l'om the verb svolol!'/svolakivat, ("to drag lt ) .
The
original meaning: scattered objects or people gathered
together was lost and an abusive word was
its place.
~ormed
in
In modern Russian usage svoloc' can be a
collective designation for villains and aIl sorts of
disreput$lble people ("canaille") or an epithet applied
to a Mean person ("rotter").
The Krestinskys'
dictionary defines svoloc' as "scum."
smefue~ka
-- This is a contemtuous name for a colloquial
substantive smerka (rtmeasure").
The verb smerit', a
synonym of izmerit', produced this colloquialism.
By means of changing the suffix -ka to a dim1nutivepejorative suffix -cka and by inserting a vulgar
interjectional morpheme
-fuj-
to the verbal root
the vulgarism smefue~ka was coined.
(See below
ful!mnik and fu,1.)
sterva -- Previously a designation for the animal carcass
and a synonym of padal' in the primary sense of the
word (i.e. carrion), in the nineteenth century it
became a name given to a despicable, fouI person.
stervoza -- The variation stervoza is even more derogatory.
Such forms as stervec, stervjatnik, stervjatina
are
54
also known in coarse language.47
fu8mnik
The noun fu8mnik is a vulgarisme
pOd"8mnik
The noun
("lift," "hoist") in the coarse speech of
Solfenicyn's dramatis personae is transformed into
fu8mnik.
The change of the root illustrates the
attitude of prisoner-workers towards such implements
as hoists.
fuj --
This is a round-about expresslon for a similar
phonetic form which is a vulgar designation for the
male organ.
The substitution of
~
by f could have
been influenced by the emotional interjection
~J
-- see above under Phonetic Peculiarities, p. 8.
The normal vulgar form has been listed only in
Vasmer's Russisches etymologisches W8rterbuch
and
in Dalls dictionary.
xrenovina --
This is an augmentative from the noun
~
which in its primary meaning signifies horseradish.
However,
~
has become a common swear-word.
below under Abusive Expressions, p. 150.)
(Bee
How often
it is used in common speech can be seen by noting how
frequently it is used by Solzenicyn.
Both
~
and
xrenovina are vulgar epithets given to an old and
abominable person.
~uma
--
Originally the word was known as a designation
for an epidemic disease, specifically for the bubonic
55
plague.
In the late eighteenth century it acquired
an abusive connotation.
Krylov introduned it as such
into literature and is quoted by Usakov.
SUbsequently
it was exploited as an obscene word by other Russian
writers.
cuska -- Although defined as a pig, a swine or the snout
of this animal, the o/0rd cuska can signify a person
acting or looking as a pige
of the word
cu~ka
This personified meaning
is not given by Ozegov, although it
is a very common abusive expression.
DaI' lists a dialect
word cuska, known to the people of the Vologda district,
which represents a stupid person, a gawk.
~akal
-- "jackal lt
(in the Caucasus:
This is a 'ersian loan-word.
~akalka)
The beast of prey
Canis Aureus can personify a predatory person.
Although the dictionaries do not give the figurative
sense of the word, a person living by plunder can
obviously be vilified by such an epithet.
~u~era
-- This is a collective noun denoting rabble,
riff-raff, the dregs of society.
registered in Dal's dictionary.
This meaning is
The Academy Diction-
ary asserts that the word has both a collective and
non-collective meaning.
56
Thief' s Cant and Camp Slang
Thief's cant is a concealment language.
Professional
lawbreakers, beggars, tramps, hobos, paupers and other
representatives of Gorkij's "lower depths" have their own
language, which their fellow countrymen do not understand.
The forced-Iabour camps of the post revolutionary
era, besides being a place of
confine~9nt
for diverse
political prisoners, also included a large number of
professional lawbreakers whose manner of speech influenced
the vocabulary of the entire camp population.
The slangy
speech of the camp inmates is, therefore, studded with
words and expressions which stem from the thief's lexicon.
The camp slang also includes words invented or
modified to express various terms and concepts characteristic of the pursuits, institutions, occupations,
conditions, climate, etc., which prevail in the forcedlabour camps.
A number of such terms were invented and
restricted to one particular camp.
However, the majority
of expressions are common to camps aIl over the Soviet
Union, due to the fact that prisoners were not confined
to one particular camp but transferred from one to
another depending on the needs of the Soviet economy and
the condition of the prisoner's health.
The lexicon of camp prisoners is mirrored in
Sol~enicyn's
descriptions and in the speech of the
dramatis personae.
On the following pages the nouns
57
belonging to this lexicon will be discussed.
balan -- According to Jakovlev4 8 ,
in whose glossary of
forced-labour camp terms the word is listed, this is
a camp synonym for brevno ("log").
A variant spelling
bollon is accepted.
Sol~enicyn's
meaning.
use of the word does not deviate from this
The author himself gives an explanation of
this slangy term: S balanami ••• S brevnami, znaéit.
Cp.
27)
balanda -- The Baltic equivalent of Russian lebeda
(Lithuanian: bal~da, Latvian: beluoda)49
was
adopted by the dialects of Rjazan' and Tambov.
The narrow meaning for the goose-foot plant was
changed in these Russian dialects to produce a
designation for soup made of the leaves of goose-foot
or other similar plants. 50 Sol~enicyn describes
balanda as a vegetable soup made of cabbage, carrot,
beets or even nettle leaves.
In the Krestinskys'
dictionary the word balanda is defined as a watery soup
given to prisoners.
~
-- According to Jakovlev
~
stands for illicit connexions. 5l
in the camp slang
The Krestinskys'
dictionary defines it as protekcija, i.e. private
influence used for achieving a purpose.
Both Usakov
and Ozegov list the word in their dictionaries.
AlI
58
three dictionaries register the phrase po blatu ("in
unlawful manner") which is also exploited by Sollenicyn.
The etymology of the word
~
is problematical.
v
V. Zirmunskij traces the word to the German jargonistic
term platte
Ju. Margolin, the author of the book
Putesestvie ~ stranu z~-ka, deduces the word
B!!1
the Yiddish b'laat, which is of Hebrew origine
language of the Bible b'laat meant
from
In the
"secretly.1I52
blatnoj -- This substantivized adjective is a synonym for
.!2!: (ffthieflt ) .
Adopted from the thief's cant it was
modified by the camp prisoners to signify any criminal
offendet'.53
~
-- This is an abbreviation for
R(elima).54
B(arak) U(silennogo)
The description of ~ in Solzenicyn's
tale corresponds to that of Gustav Herling, who
depicts
~
as a prison within the camp.
For various
offenses prisoners are taken to this prison and
placed in solitary confinement for a period of 10 to
15 days.
Such a prison is a stone construction, with
no windows and unheated.
AlI warro clothing is taken
away from the prisoner and he is kept without warm
food for a period of two or three days.
Confinement
in such prison is a forro of extra punishment for
misconduct. 55
bytovoj -- This is a substantivized adjective, a short
59
rorm or bytovoj lager', i.e. an antonym of Osoblag.
(See below.)
vagonka -- The word vagonka is not registered by any of
the dictionaries.
However, judging by its usage
vagonka is an equivalent of the standard Russian
ko,jka ("berth").
Vagonka, a shelf-like bunk extending
from the wall, serves the prisoner for a bed.
Since
it is not classified by the dictionaries, it must be .
a recent neologism.
The suffix -ka indicates that the
word was coined according to the colloquial pattern.
The use of the term is at present restricted to
forced-labour camps only.
However, it is quite
possible that the word might spread and become a
general term
thanks to its simple structure and
ramiliar sound pattern.
vertuxaj -- This camp expression is a name for a prison
guard.
ary.
It is listed only in the Krestinskys' dictionIts structure indicates it is a slangy term re-
stricted to the camp and prison environment.
GULAG -- This is a shortened designation for G(lavnoe)
u(pravlenie) ispravitel'no-trudovyx lag(erej).56
It is classified in the Krestinskys' dictionary and
in the Jakovlev's glossary.
derevjannyj
bu~lat
-- Being a euphemism for coffin, it
60
is a favorite circumlocution of camp prisoners.
Solzenlcyn utilizes it in various circumstances four
times.
This eupbemism bears resemblance to another
synonymous Russian expression derevjannoe pal'to, a
loan-translation from the German h6lzerner Paletot. 57
desjat' sutok --
This is a camp euphemism for a penknife.
The possession of any sort of a sbarp object is
punishable by ten days of soli tary confinement.
doxodjaga --
This ia a name for a prisoner who has lost
bis strength and has become emaciated trom starvation
and bard working conditions.
This slangy term bears
resemblance to other dialect and colloquial words
with the suffix -aga/-1!8!.
and Krestinskys'
~
works.
It ia listed in Jakovlev's
(cf. doxodit')
-- According to the Krestinskys this is a deslgnation
for a one meter
~ong
rod, used by the camp authorities
as a measure as weIl as a whipping stick.
~ituxa
--
The dialectal word lituxa
(Dal~
word in the Penza and Vladimir regions)
located the
an
affectionate name for an untrammeled and free life,
was exploited by the thieves.
In their language it
was also used as an endearing synonym for life.
word zituxa
"Murka, "
The
was used in the criminals' song called
which became very popular all over RUBsia
61
\ and even spread to other countries.
z~k or z/~ -- It is an abbreviation for zak1juéennyj
("prisoner").
This abbreviation i.s shown in Jakovlev's
glossary and the Krestinskys' dictionary.
The term
has become known in the West through the intervention
of Ju. Margolin's book fute!estvie y stranu ze-ka.
(The definition of this term is given by Margolin on
page 20.)
kapt~r
-- The word is not listed by the explanatory diction-
aries.
However, its presence in the
Orfografi~eskij
slovar' russkogo jazyka proves that the word is used
in the Soviet Union.
Jerzy Gliksman defines this ter.m
as: "chief of the clothing warehouse.,,58
"Zapiski iz
m~rtvogo
In Dostoevskij's
doma" an official performing the
same functions is given the name of kaptenarmus. 59
Kaptenarmus, a French loan-word
(~capitaine
was first established in military usage.
d'armes),
When the
word entered the prisons and camps, it must have been
shortened to
kapt~r.
The stress shift from the first syllable to the second
.,/
(lrâÉtens.rIl1us -- kapt~r) is analogous to the change of
/
stress undergone in such words as ~axter -- saxt~r,
and vaxter -- vaxt~r. 60
kaptMrka -- Certainly this word derives frOID
is a camp designation for storeroom.
kapt~r.
It
Although kaptgr
is listed in the Orfografiéeskij slovar', the derivation
kaptërka has not reached the desired stage of accept-
62
~bility.to
be classified in a dictionary.
karcer -- This Latin loan-word is a long accepted slangy
expression for solitary confinement.
polkarcer -- However, polkarcer is a recent neologism
for partial solitary confinement.
prisoner is driven out to work.
solitary cell in the evening.
Each morning the
He returns to his
Although he is
compelled to work, this kind of punishment is less
weakening, for he is allowed normal food rations and
has a chance to straighten his limbs and warm up
while working.
The forro of the neologism offers the best proof for
the slangy character of the word.
It ia formed
against the rules of Russian word-formation.
(See
under Compounds, p. 23.)
katuska -- A. and T. Fesenko define this word as a
euphèmism for a ten year terro of imprisonment. 61
However, the Krestinskys' interpret the word as a
long term of imprisonment, the specifie number of
years not being given.
kondej -- This is another camp expression for Itsolitary,lt
a recent synonym for karcer.
The explanatory
dictionaries have no mention of this word.
The only
proof for its existence is its classification in
Russisches
unclear.
Rnckl~ufiges
WBrterbuch.
The etymology is
kum -- This is a camp designation for the authorities.
The normal meaning is " god-father lt or "friend,"
unless the word is an abbreviation.
linejka -- The explanatory dictionaries interpret the word
as
If
a path wi thin a camp .'1
listed in Dalls dictionary.
Enciklopedi~eskij
The word has already been
Usakov and the Kratkij
.slovar l classify it as a military
terme
materjal'~ik ~-
In the slang of the camp prisoners this
is an affectionate synonym for sneg (U snow").
Osoblag -- An abbreviation for Osob(yj) lagCer'), i.e.
a penitentiary camp \1ith hard labour imposed on the
prisoners.
pa,ika -- The standard Russian designation for a bread -"
ration -- paMk, a masculine noun, was changed to
pa,ika by the prisoners.
The feminine suffix
-~,
so
popular in the colloquial language, was also preferred
by the camp inmates.
polpajka -- this is a designation for a half of the bread
ration.
para~a
-- In the prerevolutionary era
euphemism for the toilet.
para~a
was a prison
This round-about expression
prevails in the speech of prisoners to this very day.
It was introduced into literature by Gor'kij.
The
64·
etymology is unclear, although parala is a feminine
name, a diminutive of Praskov'ja.
pont -- The slangy expression vzjat' na pont means
according to the Krestinskys' perexitrit' ("to outwit").
The noun pont thus stands for deception or pretense.
It has this significance in Solzenicyn's usage.
popka -- The colloquialism popka, listed in
U~akov's
dictionary and interpreted as "simpleton," is the
source of this derisive name given by the prisoners
to the camp sentries.
This camp term is listed by
the Krestinskys.
predzonnik -- This noun could not be located in the available sources.
Its meaning, however, can be deduced
both from the context and the structure of the word.
The term designates the ground before the camp zone.
pridurnja, pridurok -- The colloquial noun pridur'
(Usilliness rt ) and its derivatives pridurnik and
pridurkovatyj influenced the formation of a camp
term pridurok (colletive: pridurnja).
According to
Jakovlev and the Krestinskys, pridurok is either a
prisoner performing administrative functions or else
one, who by assisting the authorities, hopes to
receive some sort of compensation.
rabotjaga
~his
colloquial word has been in use for
65
more than a century.
Dictionary of 1852.
changed.
It was listed in the Academy
62 However, its meaning has
Formerly a name for a hard working,
diligent person -- in this sense it is still being
used in colloquial Russian, it attained a derisive
overtone in the forced-labour camp usage.
In camp
slang rabotjaga stands for a prisoner who has to
perform the hardest tasks.
The Krestinskys add to
their definition the fact that a criminal prisoner
seldom works harde
Hard work is normally performed
by political prisoners; thus the term rabotjaga is
actually reserved to them.
stukaé -- This is a camp term for informer.
to Jakovlev a
stuka~
According
is recruited from among bhe
prisoners themselves.
~
-- This is a word adopted by the camp prisoners
from the thief's lexicon.
a criminal.
It is a designation for
The term is defined both by Jakovlev
and the Krestinskys.
It is also included in Russisches
RftcklKufiges W8rterbuch.
fitil' -- The Russian word fitil' corresponds to the
English "wick. ft
However, its slangy homonym is a
name given to a young prisoner who has lost aIl his
strength in the camp.
The word fitil' is, therefore,
almost synonymous with doxodjaga.
Jakovlev adds to
66
this definition that the term is usually restricted
to a young criminal prisoner.
CTZ -- The abbreviation for Celjabinskij traktornyj zavod
became a slangy designation for boots worn by prisoners,
for they were made out of old tractor tires. 63
Jmon -- According to Vasmer ~ is a vagabond.
of dialect origine
It is
DaI' located the verb ~monit'
in Siberia; there it signifies aimless wandering,
rambling, etc.
It is problematic whether this form
influenced the homonymous term used by the camp
prisoners.
Itsearch."
The camp expression
~mon
signifies
This definition is given by the Krestinskys;
it accords with
Sol~enicyn's
spana -- In Siberia the word
brodjaga, i.e. "tramp."
use of the word.
~pana
is a synonym of
In thief's cant this is
a collective designation for rogues, rascals,
scoundrels and other criminals.
This meaning was
adopted in the colloquial language.
is of dialect origin is doubtful.
Whether
~pana
It seems more
probable that this noun derives from spanskij, i.e.
Spanish.
At present the noun spana is almost a literary word.
It was introduced into literature by Andreev.
Academy dictionary.)
(See
67
Soviet Neologisms
The new social, political and technical concepts,
processes and institutions which sprung up after 1917
were reflected in Russian speech.
Numerous new terms
were coined and incorporated in the Russian language.
The linguistic innovations representing new phenomena of
the postrevolutionary period are here given the common
designation of "Soviet neologisms."
Any writer describing the life of the Soviet Union
must make use of these neologisms for the simple reason
that any description of contemporary Russia would be
superficial without them.
Such words as kolxoz, sovet,
komsomol, etc., have become as much a part of the
Russian language as the very old words doroga, gorod or
celovek.
Therefore, account of a day in the life of a
Soviet citizen is given in terms of the contemporary
Russian language, rich in initial words and stumpcompounds, the typical Soviet linguistic innovations.
The Soviet neologisms utilized by Solzenicyn are
for the MOst part generally accepted terms.
them carry a colloquial overtone.
Some of
Although Soviet
neologisms are not very numerous, frequent repetition
of some of these words (kavtorang, for instance, is
repeated 22 times) produces an impression that their
use is an important stylistic device.
68
brigadnik -- According to Usakov this is a new term for
a brigade member.
Ozegov's dictionary has no mention
of it.
odnobrigadnik -- is not listed anywhere except for
Russisches Rftckl§ufiges WBrterbuch.
!!! -- i.e.
zaveduju~c!ij
("manager").
This colloquial
abbreviation was used by Majakovskij.
zavstolovoj -- zaveduju§c!ij stolovoj (fl mess manager").
zarplata -- This stump-compound is formed from an
abbreviated adjective and a complete noun: zarabotnaja
plata ("wages").
kavtorang -- In the beginning this stum-compound was
used by seamen alone.
Gradually, through the medium
of the press, it was assimilated into the general
language and became a standard 1iterary term. 64
KVC -- i.e. k(u1'turno)-v(ospitate1'naja) c(ast').
komvzvod
short for komandir vzvoda
It is neither registered by U§akov nor by Olegov.
However, Slovar'
does the
sokra~~enij
O~fograficeskij
inc1udes the word. So
slovar'.
kompo1ka -- i.e. kom(andir) polka.
A1though 1isted by
Usakov and annotated as new as far back as 1934, it
has not been registered by Ozegov.
69
l'
"\"
.\
krasnoflotec -- i.e. Boec Krasnogo Voesno Morskogo
Flota.
This naval neologism has now become a
generally used terme
lesopoval -- A whole series of compound nouns has been
produced with
~-:
lesorazrabotki, lesoposadki,
lesomaterial, lesozavod.
The noun lesopoval, although
not recorded in the dictionaries, is a similar compound.
medsanbat -- i.e. med(iko) san(itarnyj) bat(al'on).
mexzavod -- i.e.
mexani~eskij
zavod.
mexzavodec -- This is a derivative of mexzavod.
minonosec -- Originally this compound noun designated
a boat, specifically a torpedo-boat.
Later its usage
was extended and the word attained a new colloquial
meaning: any crew member
na~kar
o~
the torpedo-boat.
-- i.e. naëal'nik karaula (" commander of the
guard").
pomnackar --
pomos~nikt na~al 'nika
karaula
(ft a.Ss:llS tant
commander of the guard").
normirovlëik -- This is a designa.t1an for a person who
sets rates or norms of production, i.e. "rate-setter."
obogrev -- According to Olegov this is a new specifie term
for heating.
70
oper -- i.e. operativny.1
agent lt ).
otli~nik
upolnomo~ennyj
(rtauthorized
-- Originally this was a humorous name for a
pupil who has distinguished himself in school.
Then
it acquired a derisive overtone as it began to signify
a favorite pupil.
Gradually this appellation was
transferred to any favorite.
otli~nik
In the twenties the word
acquired still another meaning: a distinguished
worker.
pombrig -- i.e. pomos~nik brig(adir~) (ltassistant brigadeleader").
pombrigadir
i.e.
pom(o~~nik)
brigadir(a)
PP~ -- i.e. Planovo-proizvodstvenna,ia ~ast' ("planning
and produc tion sec tion" ) •
prorab -- i.e. proizvoditel' rabot (ltwork supervisor lt ).
i.e. prodovol'stvenny.i sklad (ltfood supply
prodsklad
store U )
•
prodstol -- i.e. prodovolfstvennyj stol (tlprovisions
department").
saninstruktor -- i.e. sanitarny.i instruktor ("sanitary
supervisor").
san~ast f -- i. e. sani tarnaja ~ast '
(If sani tary
sec tion") •
71
ataxanovec -- The Donbass miner Aleksej Staxanov
distinguished himself at work and gave his name to
a Maas movement of workers and collective farmers
trying to exceed the set quota of production.
The word s taxanovec gradually bec rune synonymous
with socialist worker.
strelok-pulemetcik
w_
This compound means: an infantryman
skilled in machine gun firing.
stro.1materialy -- i.e. stroitel'nye materialy ("building
materials").
tolkac -- According to DaI' tolkac ia a dialect word
s ynonymoua wi th durak (If fool " ) •
also signifies a ruffian.
Around fl a kov i t
In the twenties the word
tolka6 acquired a colloquial meaning.
It became a
designation for a person trying to accelerate the
fulfillment of the plan by resorting to various tricks
and illicit methods.
torforazrabotki -- i.e. torfjanye razrabotki ("peat
explOitation").
trudoden'
According to
U~akov
this ia a new term for
a unit of work on collective far.ms.
records this neologism.
Ozegov also
The Krestinskys interpret
the term as rabo~ij den', without specifying its i~
connexion with collective farms.
72
,
,
TEe -- i.e. teplova.ia elektroeentral' ("thermal eleetrie
power station~'.
xleborez -- Usakov defines this word as an appellation
for a person who cuts bread in a public dining place.
xleborezka -- Smlzenicyn uses xleborezka in two meanings:
1) as an implement for the cutting of breadj
2) as a room where bread is being eut. (p. Il)
The second meaning, however, is not eonfirmed by
dictionaries.
celovekovyxod -- It is used as a synonym for celovekoden'
("man-daylf), i.e. unit of work.
~~akoblok
-- This is a compound similar to
~lakobeton.
However, being a new building material, it is not yet
in the dictionaries.
.,
Slakoblok is a substance made
from sand, cement, gravel and slag and molded into
oblong blocks.
Word and .Context
The discussion of semantics should not omit the
impact of context upon word-meaning.
Words are almost
always found embedded in specifie contexts.
stand entirely by themselves.
Sol~enicyn's
They seldom
Therefore, an analysis of
use of nouns cannot limit itself to a lexical
compilation of vocables only.
To make the picture of
73
Solzenicyn's semantic usage more complete a fewexamples
of contextual influence on word-meaning will also be
cited here.
Polysemy is a characteristic feature of human speech.
The Russian language ls
110
exception.
Numerous words
have more than one meaning, and this May, on occasion,
create a misunderstanding.
Most ambiguities, however,
are clarified by the contexte
One may, therefore, examine some of Solzenicynls
nouns outside their contexte
may serve as an example.
First, the noun otli~nik
A search in the dictionaries
shows three distinctive meanings of the term: 1)
excellent student; 2)
3)
an
a favorite of the authorities;
a person who has distinguished himself in his work.
These three meanings are actually three different shades
of one terme
The primary sense of the word has been
shifted from "an excellent student" to fla favorite of
the teachers"
then to any favorite person, and finally
to lia distinguished worker. 1t
Through use in various
situations the gap between these three shades of the term
has widened to create three nearly distinct words.
Only
when the term otlicnik occurs in a specifie context its
meaning, therefore, can be established.
otli~nik
boevoj i
politi~eskij
The phrase
Cp. 34) hints at the third
Soviet sense of the terme
Another example:
in three senses.
the noun xrenovina can be applied
1) as an appellation for an old woman
74
--
~
being an old man; (This meaning is synonymous
with a cognate xrenovka and another epithet xry~ovka
~xry~.)
2) as a designation for a large root of
horseradish;
3) in its new twentieth century connotation
as a vulgar epithet expressing contempt.
Only the context clarifies the meaning of the ward.
In
the sentence Dvadcat' pjat' s polovinoj, xrenovina. (p. 6),
the examined word is used in its third sense.
The noun popka, a camp-slang term meaning a guard,
is a different example of polysemy.
restricted social milieu.
It has arisen in a
The other common colloquial
use of this term is in the sense of simpleton.
The
context clearly shows that the word is used in its slangy
restrictive connotation:
U popok tol'ko ta zabota, ~tob z~ki ne razbezalis' •••
••• na vsex lesti
vy~kax
(p. 23)
ponki sidjat. (p. 19)
Polysemy can also arise as a result of the figurative
use of the word: a human being can be likened to an
inexhaustible variety of animaIs.
Sol~enicyn
exploits
this device quite frequently:
Ty xot' vidal kogda, kak tvoja baba polI mlla,
No on ne bll
~akal
daze posle vos 'mi let
~u~ka?
obs~ix
(p. 7)
rabot.
(p. 60)
In these sentences there is no doubt that the figurative
meaning is intended.
The role of context is even more essential in case
of homonyms.
In Russian the spelling of homonymous words
75
rarely differs.
It is true that Russian, unlike English,
possesses far more polysyllabic than monosyllabic words,
and homonyms are especially abundant in languages rich
in monosyllabic forms.
Nevertheless, homonymous
formations are frequently produced in Russian:
l!!!, moj,
~,
doroga,
~,
zamok, etc.
three examples the stress differs.
~, ~,
(In the 1ast
However, these words
when written and not spoken can lead to semantic confusion.)
The twentieth century, especia11y, due to the rapid increase
in abbreviations, has seen a considerable extension in the
creation of homonyms in Russian: for example,
~,
!!"
~,
.È!1"
~,
~, ~,
mE, .Q!Q., etaI. Even the
abbreviations themselves often posses various meanings:
avto- -- 1) avtomaticeskij, or 2) avtomobi1'nyj;
-BAN
--
1) Belorusskaja Akademija nauk, or 2) biblioteka akademii
nauk.
In Sollenicyn's usage various terms are apt to
produce homonymie clashes.
The abbreviation
~
(barak
usilennogo retima) wou1d have caused a misunderstanding,
were it not for the contexte
Normal1y
the word bur is
either taken as a designation for an imp1ement -- auger,
or the name of South African settler -- Boer.
However,
by studying the use of Solzenicyn's word the meaning
becomes c1ear:
vkru
CP. 5)
Tut ~e
)
l odin stuka8 sam k na~a1'stvu v Bur ubezal, tam
ego v tjur'me kamennoj i sprjata1i. (p. 28)
76
The word
~
can also produce a misunderstanding.
Normally this is a designation tor.godfather.
However,
the two instances of SOlzenicyn's use of the noun point
to the tact that the meaning is quite different.
the context the meaning of the noun
~
From
can easily be
asc8btained:
kto k kumu xodit stucat'
(p. 3)
i naëal'nika
Solzenicyn's noun designates a camp authority.
Many other noun examples could be given to illustrate
the important
~ole
of context in determining the meaning
of a terme
Part 2: Adjective
The adjective shows far less variety in morphology
than the noun.
There is in fact one basic system of ad-
jectival declension, with two variants -- hard and soft.
This is the reason why no particular morphological
irregularities can be discovered in SOllenicyn's usage.
The ralatively simple morphological structure of adjectives offers few possibilities of deviation from the rules
of Russian word-formation.
(a) Phonetic Peculiarities
The adjectival phonetic system displays less
77
complexities as welle
For instance, there are no stress
shifts in the declension of long for.ms.
The only adjectival peculiarity unfolded in the tale
of Solzenicyn ia the palatalized consonant n'in the
standard adjective derevenskij.
fo~
is: dereven'skij.
Sol~enicyn's
adjectival
This peculiarity might be due to
the fact that the noun derevnja belongs to the group of
few Russian nouns (3 in number) with the suffix -nja
which have the genitive plural zero-ending with the soft
consonant
~'retained.
No~ally,
the soft consonant
is displaced by a hard consonant n:
pesnja (pesen).
~'
basnja (basen).
The soft n' is retained in two other
nouns: bary~nja (barysen').
kuxnja (kuxon').
(b) Semantic Features
Dialect
gr~banyj
--
The dialect verb srebovat', which is used in
Kaluga. Tambov, Orel, and Pskov districts aa a aynonym
of brezgat' ("to be squeamiah," "to disdain lt ) ia clearly
a cognate of Solzenicyn's adjective used in the sense of
malicious.
Although, besides the verb,
adjectival forms grebovatyj,
grebtlivyj (south),
DaI' lists
greblivyj (Kaluga),
which are synonymous with
Solzenicyn's word, the actual adjectival forro is neither
given by DaI' nor by Preobrazenskij in whose etymologiëal
dictionary the dialect verb grebovat' is also listed.
78
gunjavyj -- In Tula and Rjazan l areas the adjective
gunjavyj means bare, bald. (See Dal l .)
U~akov
According to
the word implies a lack of hair, the after-
effect of an illness.
It can also mean unhealthy.
In this sense it ls used by Soltenlcyn.
The word gunjavyj is often confused with the adjectives
gugnivyj and gugnjavyj.
The two are substandard
colloquial and dialectal adjectives, respectively,
referring to burring, guttural pronunciation.
ixij -- This dialect derivative of the pronoun
~
is,
according to Dal ' , characteristic of the eastern parts
of Russia.
udovolennyj -- This dialect word can be found in Dalls
dictionary.
It is a synonym of dovol'nyj ('Isatisfied ll ).
It appears to be a past passive participle from a dialect
verb udovolit l
("to satisfyll).
Colloguialisms
bezlirnyj -- The standard Russian adjective nezirnyj
(Ilnon-fatty") is the equi valent of Solzenicyn 1 s adjec tive, formed by means of substituting
the prefix
prefix
~-
for
~-.
burovaten1kij -- This is a diminutive adjective of endearment.
The endearine meaning is due to the suffix
-ovaten r k-i.1, a derivative of -ovat-yj. G.'
This diminut-
79
ive is not registered by the lexicographers.
It ia
usually used in informaI every-day language.
ixnij -- In the last century the adjective ixnij, a
derivative of ix, was a dialect word.
It was used
in the northern dialects. (See DaI'.)
Although a
similar derivative ixij remains a dialect word, the
adjective ixnij spread out in aIl directions to
become a "common colloquial word.
nemyten'kij -- This is an example of a diminutive
adjective expressing affection and characteristic of
emotionally coloured colloquial speech.
"unwashed. Il
Its meaning:
Formations in -en' kij from past participles
passive are very unusual.
novgxon' kij -- This is a diminutive of novy.1 ("new n ).
The affectionate quality is intensified in this for.m.
The suffix
-Uxonlkij/~senlki.1
characterizes popular style.
beside novUlen ' ki.1.
stresses endearment and
U!akov lists this for.m
He annotates both as substandard.
radyj -- This long form is non-existent in standard
Russian.
The word rad
(lI
gl ad ll ) is one of the three
Russian adjectives lacking a long form: the other two
being gorazd and nadoben. 65
The attributive adjective
rados tny.1 (" joyous lt ) is used in standard Russian.
However, its meaning diverges from the primary word
80
!!à. In dialect and colloquial speech there is a
tendency to replace the predicate by a long forme
Only the most frequent adjectives occur in the
66
predicative form in informaI langUage.
Therefore,
by supplanting the short form ~ by radyj,Sollenicyn
has produced a non-standard stylistic effect.
rybkin -- Short-form possessive adjectives ending in
-~
derived from animal names of feminine gender ending
in
-~/-1!
are extremely rare.
The Academy Grammar
lists the following: belkin ((belka), indejkin
(indejka),
ko~kin (ko~ka), kuku~kin «kuku~ka),
kuropatkin ({kuropatka), perepelkin «perepelka).67
The form rybkin has no mention there.
The adjective
rybkin is a derivative of the diminutive noun rybka.
The formaI word for fish is ryba.
AlI other predicat-
ive adjectives of this kind listed in the Academy Grammar
were derived from formaI animal appellations.
The
adjective rybkin, although coined from a feminine
adjective with the
-~
ending, differs from the others
in its emotional value.
As a diminutive it belongs
to the informaI emotionally coloured speech.
Vulgarisms
e
gadskij -- This adjective stems from the noun gad
(II rep tile").
-sk-ij
However, adjectives with the suffix
cannot be derived from animate noun which
do not refer to human beings.
The two
exceptions
81
are: konakij, and avinakij.
68 Therefore, it ia clear
why thia form is not regiatered in Standard Ruasian
dictionariea.
From the noun gad the following adject-
ives are know.n: gadkij, gadostnyj, gadlivyj.
The
qualitative adjective gadskij is, according to DaI', a
~ünahl1
Slavonie forme
Solzenicyn uses this adjective
as a derisive vulgar epithet.
puzatyj -- This is a derivative of the informaI colloquial
noun puzo (Ilbellytr).
The vulgar appellation puzatyj
refers to a big-bellied person.
Adjectives with the suffix -ij when derived
from an animal appellation can express both a general
and a particular meaning.
The adjective
soba~ij
is used by Solzenicyn not in the primary sense of the
word, but in its figurative vulgar connotation
applying to a person with canine characteristics.
su~ij
-- Like the adjective sObacij this is a derisive
vulgar epithet.
The adjective stems from the noun
suka (Ilbi tch") •
svinjacij -- Similarly the adjective svinjacij ls used
in its figurative meaning in the vulgar colloquial
language.
82
Thiefl s Cant and Camp Slang
v
parasnyj
-- This adjective stems from the prison ter.m
parasa.
(See above under Noun.)
z~kovskij -- The camp slang designation for prisoner
zàk is the originator of the adjectival forme
(See
above under Noun.)
Soviet Neologisms
avtoremontnye -- Substantivalized adjectives of feminine
gender can serve as designations for various establishments, rooms or buildings.
the following forms:
The Academy Grammar lists
vannaja, detskaja, dispetcerskaJa,
dusevaja, zakuso~naja, kostjumernaja, kotel1naja,
kubovaja, operacionnaja, pivnaja, pri8mnaja, stolovaja,
uCitellskaja, ~ajnaja.69
The plural form avtoremontnye
is such a substantivalized adjective.
A two-word
designation remontnaja masterskaja ('trepair shop") is
the standard counterpart of the more recent Solzenicynls
compound, consisting of the abbreviation !!!2 (
avto-
mobiltnyj) and the complete adjective.
Although in the sense of an adjective the word is
listed in the dictionaries, the substantivalized form
is not mentioned by the explanatory dictionaries.
Another peculiarity of this word is its plurality.
Normally, such designations are singular feminine
adjectives.
-e
]{~
-- This is an initial abbreviation for byysij
v upotreblenii •
.,
derevoobdelocnyj -- This new Soviet word is normally
used as a aubstantivalized adjective inatead of the
aimilar nominal innovation
worker").
derevoobdelo~nik
("wood-
However, SOllenicyn employa the term aa a
deaignation not for a person but for a building
where woodwork is done.
In standard Ruasian feminine
substantivalized adjectives are used to deaignate
premisea.
The masculine adjective derevoobdelo~nyj
(ltwoodwork shopft) is presumably used becauae the
masculine noun
~
("workshoprt) is understood.
kavtorangov -- Thia is a derivative of the Soviet neologistic compound kavtorang.
(See above under Noun.)
By means of adding the suffix -ov thia possessive
adjective was formed.
animate nouns only.
This suffix can be added to
The short form adjective thus
formed refers to some particular characteristic.
There fore , in the phrasea kavtorangov dekret or
kavtorangovy vel~i, the adjective refers to kavtorang
Bujnovskij, and not to aIl "kavtorangs."
The suffix
-ov is utilized in colloquial speech, in belles-lettres
to render colloquial speech pattern or in certain
fixed expressions: adamovo jabloko, axillesova pjata,
etc. 70 Solzenicyn utilizes this suffix to forro
84
possessive adjectives from names: Kil'gasov, Cezarev.
levyj -- The standard dictionaries interpret this
adjective either in its primary sense or in the
figurative meaning "radical."
However, another
figurative sense of the adjective levyj has been
formed.
This to a certain extent slangy meaning
is "illegal."
This sense is attested to by A. and
T. Fesenko in their book Russkij jazyk pri sovetax.
mexzavodskij -- This is an adjective derived from the
noun mexzavod.
(See above under Noun.)
pombrigadirov -- This is a derivative adjective of the
compound noun pombrigadir.
(See above under Noun.)
Due to its structure it belongs to the informaI
colloquial Russian.
(Cf. recently discussed adjective
kavtorangov. )
t~covakij -- This adjective is derived from the abbreviat\.
ion TEC.
(See above under Noun.)
èlektromontalnyj -- This ia a compound adjective formed
by adding a suffix to the nominal Soviet neologiam
èlektromonta~ ("eleè:tric installing").
85
Part 3: Adverb
The adverb ia leas complex than either noun or
adjective.
The only grammatical category which ia found
in the adverb is comparison.
Therefore, it need occasion
no surprise that neither phonetic nor morphological
peculiarities have been noted in Sollenicynfs adverbial
usage.
The investigation of Soltenicyn's use of nouns
showed quite a number of phonetic and morphological
irregularities.
The noun, being the most complicated
part of speech -- with such grammatical categories as case,
number, and gender,
offers more alternatives and possible
anomalies than the relatively uncomplicated adjective,
or still simpler adverbe
Whereas phonetic, morphological,
and semantic peculiarities were considered in the use of
nouns, adjectival usage showed no particular morphological
points of interest and merely one phone tic deviation.
Adverbial anomalies are limited to semantics only.
However, the adverbial semantic peculiarities are
not as diverse as those of nouns or adjectives.
Virtually no more than two kinds of adverbial expressions
can be distinguished against five classifications
semantics of nouns and adjectives.
~~
the
Since differentiation
between dialect and common colloquial adverbs is not
easy, the two categories will hat receive a separate
treatment but will be grouped together under one single
86
heading -- semantic features.
Semantic Features
begma -- This form has not been registered in any sources.
Dal's dictionary lists the dialect form bezma.
The
form begma is used by Soltenicyn as a constituent of
the asyndetic compound begma begut.
Syntax and Phraseology.)
(See below, under
The verbal adverb begma
assumes the role of an intensifier.
vnatrusku -- This is a nominal adverb, formed by combining the preposition
~
with the accusative case of the
dialect noun natruska ("unit of measurement n ), listed
in Dal's dictionary.
This formation is the most
productive of the nominal adverbs.
In standard
Russian there are numerous adverbs with this preposition
and the accusative of a noun.
Among them there are such
similar forms as: vnakidku, and vnakladku.
vpolnotu -- This is another adverb of the kind discussed
in the preceding entry.
The standard equivalent of
this form is vpolne ("fully").
eled~n -- This dialect adverb is listed in Dalls diction-
ary beside the similar form eleden'.
The standard
Russian equivalent is etednevno (llevery day," Ifdailylf).
zamesto -- According to DaI' this adverb is characteristic
87
of the northern dialects.
In the Kursk region a
similar form zamest is used.
The standard equivalent
is vmesto ("instead tt ) .
zarane -- This apocopated comparative form of the adverb
is rare in the standard language, the formaI Russian
word being zaranee.
However, in the nineteenth
century the comparative degree could also be formed
by means of adding the suffix -e instead of -!!.
At present, the suffix -e is added in cases of alternation of consonants:
the suffix
-~
jarko) jarce.
Other forms with
are obsolete.
vpered{ -- This dialect form is an equivalent of the
standard vperedi ("in front ff ) , and is formed from the
noun perl!d.
gde-tos l
--
This is an informaI counterpart of gde-to
(If some\vhere lt ) ,
additive
wi th the not uncornmon colloquial
-~.
izdalja -- This adverb, formed by means of adding the
preposition iz- to the genitive singular of the noun
-dal'
(lfdistance lf ) , is a counterpart of the standard
Russian izdali ("from afar").
The alternative
informaI form is due to the confusion of the root
noun l s base forme
Instead of forming the genitive
form of the feminine noun dal' with the ending -i,
the substandard form probably consists of the noun
88
dale
(cf. adverb dalee/dale)
g~nitive
with a soft neuter
ending -j!.
1B2 -- This adverb is a dialectal counterpart of inogda
("sometimes") •
U~akov
navykate -- According to
used.
this adverb is rarely
The form navykat is more frequent.
Both
adverbs are only used in the expression glaza
navykat (e) (ltbulgy eyes").
nàkos' -- According to Usakov this is a dialect word.
The standard Russian vkos' and naiskos', formed by
adding the preposition
~
or
~
to the accusative
case of the noun, are parallel to this dialect
formation.
The meaning of the three adverbs:
"obliquely.1I
naotkryte -- This is another now substandard noun with
the preposition.!!!.
The adverbs otk;rtto and otkrovenno
substitute this informaI form in the standard language.
Naotkryte presumably contains an archaic short forro in
the prepositional singular masculine or neuter.
naprozgg -- In standard Russian the following forms are
used:
naprokat, naprol8t, naprolom.
napro~gg
The adverb
parallels the other three.
naskorjax -- This is a dialectal counterpart of the
adverb naskoro ("hastily").
In Dal's dictionary
another similar adverb naskore is listed.
Adverbs
89
such as vpopyxax are similar in formation.
natixuju -- This adverb, formed by adding the preposition
B! to the accusative case of the adjective tixaja, is
a synonym of potixon' ku (If sIOl-lly") •
nevdali -- Such form is not registered in the dictionaries.
Standard Russian possesses two similar adverbs:
nevdaleke, and nedaleko ("not far").
neprijutno -- This colloquial adverb is listed in the
Academy Dictionary alone.
It is synonymous with
neujutno (" uncqmfortably").
It may be formed directly
from prijut or else result partly from contamination
with neprijatno.
non~e
-- According to DaI' and Usakov this is a dialect
word.
Another dialect expression is
~
("now").
nudno -- This colloquial adverb is interpreted by both
Usakov and Olegov as a synonym of skuëno (llwearily").
nynée -- Nowa colloquial adverb, it is annotated as such
by Ozegov, the word
nyn~e
the late thirties.
(See UJakov.)
was still a dialect word in
obnevolju -- The standard adverb nevol'no is the substitute
of this dialect term meaning involuntarily.
90
odnovt -- According to the Academy Dictionary this is a
dialect word, a synonym of odnazdY ("once").
/
.
pOlubegom -- This adverb is not listed in any sources.
It consists of the adverb begom
and the shortened
forro of the noun polovina ("half").
The stress
pattern diverges from the standard.
In the literary
form the stress falls on the last syllable.
popervu -- This form is listed by DaI' and given the
interpretation: vpervye ("for the first time") and
napervo
also a colloquial word.
poplose -- In addition to the
~utfix -~,
which forms
the comparative degree, the prefix E2- is one of
the elements.
Due to the prefix the adverb has a
colloquial overtone.
DaI' lists a dialectal verb
poploset t ("to become worse," "to deteriorate"), a
derivative of the adverb
poplo~e.
ptpustja -- This is a dialectal adverbe
The colloquial
language knows such expressions as: popustu, and
popustomu ("in vain").
pospokojnej -- The addition of the prefix E2- to this
comparative adverb produces a colloquial overtone.
pomene -- Instead of the forro pomenee or pomen'se this
dialectal and archaic forro is exploited by Solzenicyn.
91
Still in the nineteenth century the comparative
~
(Illess") was used in literature, especially
in poetry.
prjam -- This form is known in Siberia as an equivalent
of prjarno in the sense of otkryto (tlopenly").
samodumkoj -- Tbis adverb is listed by DaI' only.
resembles the colloquial noun samodelka.
have been formed in the sarne manner.
It
Both words
The meaning of
samodumkoj is: "in one's own reasoning."
sered' -- This dialectal word, listed by both Usakov and
DaI', means: "in the midst of," "in the middle."
The
standard Russian equivalent: sredi.
spore.i -- The substandard adverb sporo ("profitably") has
a comparative forro sporej.
DaI' annotated the verb
sporit'sja and the adjective sporyj as dialecte
In
Usakov1s dictionary these are either dialect or
common colloquial words.
For Ozegov the verb
sporitlsja is colloquial, while the adjective sporyj
is substandard.
spotyélivo -- The verb spot(y)katlsja/spot(y)knutlsja
("to stumble") belongs to informaI every-day speech.
Usakov mentions a dialect adjective spotyklivyj.
adverb spotyClivo is a parallel dialect forme
The
92
syzdetstva -- This is an exemple of a colloquial adverb
formed with two prepositions
~
and!!.
This adverb
is normally rendered in standard Russian by the formaI
phrase s detstva.
Other adverbs of this kind:
syzmal'stva, syzmala, syzmalu, syznova, syzdavna.
~alisto
This is a derivative of the noun !ag (lfstep").
None of the dictionaries lists this forme
There are,
however, Many adjectives produced by means of adding
the suffix -ist-yj to the nominal root: bugristyj,
vetvistyj, volnistyj, skalistyj, etc.
sa~isto
The adverb
is a similar formation.
sibko -- This was originally a dialect word meaning
"very."
As dialectal it was annotated by DaI' and
U§akov.
However, Ozegov and the Academy Dictionary
label the word as common colloquial, not dialecte
Therefore, the adverb
~ibko
must have entered common
colloquial speech in the last twenty five years.
,
estol'ko -- This is an informaI equivalent of the
standard vot skol'ko.
Usakov lists the adverb
in addition to the other common colloquial word
(One may compare the relation of ètot to tot.)
~stol'ko
èsto~'.
93
NOTES
TO
CHAPTER
II
1
See index at end for page references to Russian words.
2
See Dennis Ward,
1965), p. 156.
3
Grarnmatika russkogo jazyka (M., 1952-1954), l, 141-143.
4
~
Russian Language Today (London,
Ibid., p. 150.
For the particu1ar form botinok see a1so D. E. Rozental',
Modern Russian Usage (Oxford, 1963), p. 32.
5 Grarnmatika russkogo jazyka, l, 113-116.
6 A. N. Gvozdev, Ocerki E2 sti1istike russkogo jazyka
(M., 1955), p. 141.
7 Word-formation by means of prefixation a10ne is weak1y
productive in present-day Russian. See Dennis Ward,
p. 120.
8
As far back as the first ha1f of the nineteenth
century Russian 1inguist N. Gre~ -- Prostranna a
russkaja grammatika, S. Pb., 1827, p. 1 9 -- indicated
that diminutive forms prevai1 in the common and
co11oquia1 language as opposed to the literary style.
Grecls view was supported by other philologists.
Quoted after A. I. Efimov, Stilistika xudo~estvennoj
~ (M., 1957), p. 334.
9 Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 266.
10 loc. cit.
Il Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 247.
12 A. I. Efimov, Stilistika xudo~estvennoj re~i (M., 1957),
p. 320.
94
13
Dennis Ward, The Russian Language Today, p. 131.
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 270.
15
See V. S. Zolotova and E. A. Zaxarevi~, "K voprosu
ob èkspressivno okrasennyx nazvanijax lie v slavjanskix jazykax," in Iss1edovanija E2 èstetike slova i
sti1istike xudo!estvennoj literatury. (L. 1964), p.Ilq.
16
See Asya Humesky, Majakovskij and
(New York, 1964), p. 34.
17
See V. S. Zolotova and E. A.
18
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 211.
~
Neo1ogisms
Zaxarevi~,
p. 117.
19 Efimov, Stilistika, p. 327.
20
V. G. Kostomarov, ItOtkuda slovo 'stiljaga ' ?" Voprosy
kul'tury reci, No. 2, M., 1959, pp. 168-175.
21
Ibid., p. 168.
22
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 270.
23
See D. N. U~akov, Tolkovyj slovar ' russkogo jazyka,
l, M., 1935.
24
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 226.
25
D. Ward, p. 226.
26
A. Humesky, p. 30.
27
In Solzenicynls text this word occurs on1y once (p. 34)
in the genitive singu1ar as komvzvoda. D. I. Alekseev's
Slovar ' sokra~~enij cites komvzvod (masculine and
presumably declinable) and komvzvifda (masculine indec1inable). It is not, therefore, clear which base form
Sol~enicyn is using.
95
28
Grammatika russkoso jazyka, l, 241.
29
See L. P. Krysin, "Ume1ec," Vopros:y ku1'turi re~i,
No. 3 (M., 1961), pp. 201-210.
30
Ju. S. Sorokin, "Ob obêcUx zakonomemostjax razvi tija
slovarnogo sostava russkogo 1iteratumogo jazyka XIX
veka," Voprosy jazykoznanija, No. 3 (1961), p. 33.
31
See Efimov, Sti1istika, p. 320.
32
See Max Vasmer, Russisches etymo1ogisches W6rterbuch,
III (Heidelberg, 1960).
33
Ibid.
34
A. A. Saxmatov, "K istorii zvukov russkogo jazyka,"
Izvestija ORJaS, VII (1902), 352-354.
Quoted after Ju. V. Otkup~~ikov, "0 proisxotdenii
slova barax10," Etimo1ogiceskie iss1edovanija ~
russkomu jaz:yku, No. 5 (M., 1966), p. 73.
35 See N. M. Sanskij, v. V. Ivanov, and T. B. Sanskaja,
Kratki etimo1ogiéeskii slovar' ruaskogo jazyka
M., 1961). The artlc e on baraxlo was written by
anskaja.
36
See his article "0 proisxo~denii slova barax10," in
Etimo1ogiéeskie issledovanija E2 russkomu jaz:yku,
No. 5 (M., 1966), pp. 73-78.
37 A. S. L'vov, "Bedo1aga," vo~ros:y kul'tury reéi,
No. 4 (M., 1963), pp. 161-16 •
---38
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 26 O.
39 Ibid., p. 245.
40
This information was supplied by L. F. Rojzenzon's
article "Zametki po russkoj 1eksikografii," pUb1ished
in Etimologi~eskie issledovanija E2 russkomu jazyku,
No. 5 (M., 1966), p. lOS.
96
41
42
See A. Preobrazenskij, Etimologiceskij slovar'
russkogo jazyka, II (M., 1910-1916).
See V. DaI', Tolkovyj slovar' zivogo velikorusskogo
jazyka, 3rd ed., III (S. Pb., 1903-1909).
43
Ibid.
44
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l,
45
See V. G. Orlova, ed., Posobie-instrukcija dlja
podgotovki i sostavleniia regional'nyx slovarej
russkogo jazyka, A. N. M., 1960), p. 63.
46
See Vasmer, Russisches Etymologisches W8rterbuch.
47
48
228.
See L. Borovoj's article on the subject in his book
Put' slova (M., 1960), pp. 349-354.
B. Jakovlev and A. von Burtsov, Koncentracionnye
lageri SSSR (Munich, 1951).
49
See Vasmer, Russisches Etymologisches W8rterbuch.
50
See DaI', Tolkovyj slovar'
jazyka, I.
51
See Jakovlev, Koncentracionnye lageri
52
~ivogo
velikorusskogo
~.
A. and T. Fesenko, Russkij jazyk pri sovetax (New York,
1955), p. 47.
53
See M. M. and B. P. Krestinsky, Kratkij slovar'
sovremennogo russkogo ~argona (Frankfurt/Main, 1965).
54
See D. I. Alekseev, I. G. Gozman and G. V. Saxarov,
eds., Slovar' sokra§cenij russkogo jazyka (M., 1963).
97
S5 Bee Gustav Herling,
!
World Apart (London, 1951).
56
See D. I. Alekseev, et al., Slovar' sokrascenij.
57
See Egon von Bahder, "Die russischen Neuw8rter,"
Ost-Europa, No. 3 (1952), pp. 181-187.
58
See Jerzy G1iksman,
59
F. Dostoevskij, "Zapiski iz mertvogo doma," in
Sobranie so~inenij, III (M., 1956), 684.
60
See V. L. Voroncova, "Vaxter ili vaxt8r?" Voprosy
kul'tury re~i, No. 2 (M., 1959), pp. 222-224.
61
A. and T. Fesenko, p. 50.
62
See Usakov, Tolkovyj slovar', III.
63
6~
65
66
67
68
~
the West (New York, 1948).
A. and T. Fesenko, p. 49.
Ibid., p. 22.
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 287.
A. N. Gvozdev,
O~erki,
p. 165•
Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 327.
Ibid., p. 339.
69
Ibid., p. 311.
70
Ibid., p. 299.
98
CHAPTER
III
-
Verb
(a) Phonetic Peculiarities
The following'verbal phonetic peculiarities occur
in
Sol~enicyn's
tale "Odin denl Ivana Denisovica:"
/
zasavZ!;at l
instead of
l
zasovl!;at
"
ii)
dBrzit
instead of
derzit
ill)
saxnut l
instead of
salmut l
gonu
instead of
gonju
i)
iv)
(Aspiration)
The hard pronunciation is characteristic of the
Ukrainian influence on the Russian for.m.
(The
Ukrainian from hnaty is zenu, zenes.)
v)
xoc-ca
instead of xoéetsja
When pronounèed rapidly the forro xoéetsja is thus
shortened.
Such rapid pronunciation is chara6teristic of colloquial style. l
vi)
okunumsi
The consonant
minstead
of v in this past gerund.
-
The past gerund has a suffix -.!, -vsi, or
-!.!.
The fOrIn -E!, occurs less frequently than -.! and
has a familiar colloquial overtone. 2 In the
dialects of the south and the southern parts of
northern dialects, the Vladimir region, the past
99
gerund usually ends with _msy.3
Therefore, this
phonetic peculiarity is actually a dialectal
phenomenon.
vii)
Verbs as weIl as nouns May show substitution of
a vulgar interjection for a more regular phoneme.
Thus, while the verb is still recognizable and
understood, it acquires a vulgar overtone.
This
stylistic device is exploited by Solzenicyn in the
formation of two verbs: tuganut' and fuimat'sja.
These two well-camouflaged vulgarisms replace the
infinitives pusanut'
and pOdnimattsja.
The verb
puganut t is a colloquial perfective and semelfactive equivalent of the standard Russian verb pugat t •
(b) Morphological Aspects
Solzenicyn's tale "Odin den' ••• " shows relatively
few phonetic verbal peculiarities.
However, morphological
variants are more numerous.
Conjugation
Intlectional anomalies fr~uently occur in the speech
of the dramatis personae.
The use of incorrect verb-forms
is a simple device for capturing and reproducing the mood
of the common uneducated people's speech which is rich
in deviations from the standard.
The dialogue of "Odin
den' ••• " contains conjugational anomalies such as:
100
dolbajut
instead of
dolbjat
smogajut
instead of
sm0S!!t
dOSj1jadaet
n
ullbitsja
It
Il
ullbaetsja
xos l
n
Il
xoées l
"
dogljadit
The imperatives are often incorrect:
trog1te
instead of
n
Il
trogaJte
trogaj
The form trog with zero-ending and a velar consonant
at the end of the stem is characteristlc of certain
dialects of the Vladimir reglon.
The imperative trog
ls usually used in its negative for.m ne trog. 4
It is used with the negative predicator by SOllenicyn.
The language of the tale abounds a1so in present gerund
forms which are unused or highly unusual in the standard
language:
zdat l
,
zdja, E!j!, prol1ja.
E!!!,
gerunds.
and
~
The monosyllabic verbs
do not normally form present
5 The present gerund nosja is also very rare in
the standard language. 6 The present gerund okunaja
does not exist in standard Russian. 7 The present gerunds
sidja and stoja are used nowdays as adverbs only and are
very rare. 8
Except for buduci aIl other gerunds of this type are
either archaic or folkloric forms. 9 Solzenicyn uses the
form stoja~i.
The past passive participles nabratlj and
(ne) znato
101
characterize popular speech.
10
Prefixation
Prefixation is a highly productive process in the
verbe
The addition of a prefix to a verb usually results
in perfectivizationj
thus prefixation is an important
means of word-forroation.
A very common prefix in Solzenicyn's usage ia the
prefix
~-.
There are eight verbs of this type among
Solzenicyn's verbal variants.
Six of them express total
execution of an action: zakosit',
zana~it·,
zastojat', zalupat'sja, zaxaltyrivat'.
zatursit',
In the remaining
two verbs the prefix signifies commencement: zar'jat'sja,
zauljuljukat'.
The prefix pro- is also weIl represented in Sol!enicyn's usage.
It suggests fulfillment of an action:
proaxat', proburkotat', progarknut'sja, prosljunjavit',
pro~epeljavit'.
The prefix
~-
is exploited by Solzenicyn for
purposes of expressing the restrictive idea: pomatjugat'~, po~akalit',
which is normally rendered in English by
the addition of the phrase "a little."
The sarne prefix
E2- in SOlzenicyn's verbal formation pomenet·
implies
outcome, effect.
The colloquial forro otymat' consists of the prefix
~-
which conveys the idea of elimination, withdrawal.
102
The same prefix
in the verb otmaxnut'sja implies
~-
responsive action.
The verb
for.med with the prefix
~-
ot~tukaturit'
is also
which hints at fulfillment
of the action (in the meaning of "to eat").
Solzenicyn exploited Just one meaning of the very
productive prefix
~-.
AlI three verbal forms with this
1
prefix suggest that the action is nearing its completion:
dospevat', doxodit', doxrjastyvat l
The prefix pod-
•
is utilized in the formation of
the verbs pOdsosat'sja, podstrel1nut', podymat'sja
which display three distinctive meanings of the prefix.
The first suggests approach, the next implies a furtive
action, and the last upward movement.
The two verbal for.ms with the prefix
imply intensive action:
raz/ras-
razzjavit', rasstarat'sja.
Suffixation
A fruitful type of formation used by
the
-~
suffixation.
colloquial covnterpart
The suffix
-anut'
-~
Sol~enicyn
ia
and its
convey a humorous,
ironie or contemptuous attitude towards the subject.
Verbs with these momentary suffixes were often coined
by Russian satirists.
Majakovskij invented the verbs:
Il
kolokol'nut', uxa~nut', ornut', progolosnut'.
In
SOlzenicyn's usage this verbal formation is represented
by: gaxnut', progarknut'sja, kostyl'nut', maternut',
103
maxnut', umaxnut', otmaxnut'sja, pOdstrel'nut', sumnut l ,
saraxnut l
,
suranut', kosanut', tolkanut', fuganut'.
Su~fixation-Prefixation
Another device employed by Sol!enicyn is the
~.quent
~or.med
use of
re~exive
verbs.
These verbs are
by simultaneous prefixation and addition
the particle -sja:
o~
fuimat'sja, progarknut'sja,
zar'jat'sja, otmaxnut'sja, pOdymat'sja, rasstarat'sja,
rasstaryvat'sja, zalupat'sja, uxajdakat'sja, izgadit'sja, pomatjugat'sja, pOdsosat'sja.
(c) Semantic Features
Dialect
gaxnut' -- In the Xursk and Rjazan' regions the noun
gak and its verbal derivative gakat' stand for shriek,
bawl
and the action to hem or grunt respectively.
The verb gaxnut'
consonant
~
is a variant
o~
gaknut'.
The
has become aspirated and changed to
~.
gu~evat'sja -- This is a dialectal verb,a variant form
of Dal's gugat'sja ("to rock," "to sway")
and
probably cognate with ~.
dol bat , -- Although a colloquial form dolbit' ("repeat
104
over and over again") has become a general Russian
expression, the dialectal forro dolbat', used by
Sollenicyn in his tale, is a Novgorod feature.
zar'jat'sja -- This verb is not listed in the dictionaries.
Sol!enicyn uses it to express the idea of
a commencement (prefix !!-) of an intensive dashing
action.
This dialectal verb is a cognate of the
standard Russian adjective r'janyj ("zealous") -cf. jaryj ("ardent"), which goes back te the Old
Russian rijati, a forro parallel to the Church
Slavonie rjjati.
The verb rinut'sja ("te rush") originated from the
same oroot. 12
zastojat' -- This is a dialect synonym of zascitit',
zastupit', otstojat' ("to defend," "to protect").
According to DaI' the verb zastojat' and a cognate
noun zastoja ("defender") are dialect terms.
~
-- Although this verbal forro is frequently exploited
in literature and often heard in distant parts of
Russia, it is not sanctioned as a general Russian
word.
The standard Russian equivalent is kazetsja,
while the general substandard Russian worq ia ka!ia'.
The dictionaries of
the
forro~.
U~akov
and
O~egov
do not liat
It Is still dialectal as it was a
105
century ago, when it was annotated as such by Dal l
•
The traquent occurrence of this word is due to the
tact that it is present in such diverse localities
of central Russia as Vologda, Moscow, Rjazan ' , and
Tambov. (See DaI'.) These dialects have exerted
a great influence on spoken Russian.
pogrebovat l
--
DaI' registered the verb grebovat' in
the Kaluga, Orel, Tambov, and Pskov districts.
meaning is: IIto.be squeamish," "to disdain."
Its
This
is a perfective for.m ot Dal's verb, used by Sollenicyn in the sense given by the lexicographer.
(cf. grebanyj, p. 77)
progarknut'sja -- Although the verb garkat'/garknut l
("to ahout") ia a common Russian colloquialism and
has been approved as such by the dictionaries (see
Academy Dictionary, Usakov, O{egov), SOlzenicyn'a
verb progarknut'sJa does not belong to the colloquial
language.
It is used perfectively by the writer to
express the meaning usually conveyed in Ruasian by
the imperfective verb rugat'sja.
This meaning is
attributed to the verb garkat' in the
Tambov regions.
Vorone~,
and
(See DaI'.)
prolepeljavit' -- According to Usakov this is a dialect
word.
Although the imperfective sepelJavit' ("to lisp")
106
is known as a standard Russian verb, the perfective
aspect of the verb is known to cArtain regions only.
suranut' -- This verb is not listed in the dictionaries.
However, DaI' mentions a noun peculiar to the Tver'
v
dialect only which resembles the verb suranut'.
This noun
éuranec -- is a designation for a wooden
ball used in the Russian version of croquet.
Dal'.)
(See
It is quite possible that luranec is a
derivative of the verb suranut', which, however, has
not been registered by DaI'.
If such a verb ever
existed in the Tver' area, it would have meant
drive away."
verb
"to
This is also the meaning of Sollenicyn's
~uranut'.
surudit' -- This word is probably connected with the
dialectal
~urda-burda.
(See DaI'.)
The meaning of
the verb: to confuse, muddle, etc.
Colloguialisms
brexat' -- This once dialectal verb, characteristic of
the southern and western regions (see DaI')
present known aIl over Russia.
is at
Its meaning: to lie,
to tell lies.
burkotat'/proburkotat' -- Similarly, the verb burkotat'
was at the end of the last century known only to the
107
Russians of the south and west.
Now it is an
informaI colloquial verb synonymous with another
colloquialism -- burkat'/burlmut' ("to growl," "to
grumble.").
dospevat' -- This is a cOlloquial verb, a derivative of
standard Russian spet' ("to ripen").
Usakov mentions
this colloquialism in his dictionary.
doxrjastyvat' -- Both Utakoy and the Academy Dictionary
list the informaI cOlloquial verb xrjastat' ("to
pound," "to tbrash").
Ozegov lists the verb xrjast-
nut' (" to hi tif) as belonging to informaI speech.
The closest meaning to the one expressed by SOlzenicyn's
doxrjastxvat' is given in the four volume Academy
..
dictionary.
It ihterprets xrjastat' as: "to break
with a crackle."
zalupat'sja -- This is a synonym of the informaI
colloquial verb zadirat'sja ("to start a brairl") •.
This meaning is given by DaI'.
zauljuljukat' -- In Sollenicynls usage this verb signifies
the start of a jeering action.
This interpretation
is also given by Usakov.
kosanut' -- This is an equivalent of kosnut', the suffix
-anut' being an informaI expressive variant of the
108
s tand~d suffix
-~.
The wOl'd kosanut' i_ a
derivative of cOlloquial kosnit' ("to linger"), which
is listed by DaI'.
kostyl'nut' -- This
limp
substan~ard
verb besides meaning to
conveys the idea of beating, pounding.
This
meaning is given by DaI', Usakov, and the Academy
Dictionary.
maxnut ' /umaxnut ' -- In informaI colloquial Russian this
verb has the meaning to dash, rush, etc.
The perfect-
ive forro umaxnut' , which occurs in SOlzenicyn's usage
as weIl, is not registered by the dictionaries.
otmaxnut'sja -- This is not strictly speaking a derivative of the preceding verb, but of its homonym maxat'/
maxnut' ("to wave").
The meaning of otmaxnut'sja is:
"to drive away with a wave of the hand."
In Solzeni-
cyn's tale the verb otmaXnut'sja acquired another significance: "to answer with a swaying gesture."
otstukaturit'
This verb in Solzenicyn's tale, although
homonymous with the standard Russian
ot~tukaturit'
{(stukaturit') ("to parget"), conveys a totally dif:ferent meaning __ "to eat hurriedly."
It resembles another
colloquial verbal formation with the prefix
otbarabanit'.
~-,
namely
In standard Russian otbarabanit' is a
perfective form t'rom barabanit' ("to beat the drum").
109
In substB.ldud Russ1an, however, it means to do
something 1n a hurried manner.
otym.at' -- This 1s an equ1va1ent of the standard Russ1an
otnimat'.
According to DaI' otym.at' 1s heard 1n the
southern and eastern d1alects.
Usakov considers the
of otnimat ' ,
but nevertheless a general Russ1an word. Oiegov,
verb to be an obso1ete substandard
fo~
although he does not l1st the infinit1v otym.at l
,
mentions the informa1 conjugation otym.u, otymes l , etc.
in his comment on the standard verb otnimat l
(See
•
below podymat l s3a.)
pereminat' -- According to Usakov this verb means to
crumple in aIl direct10ns.
Sol~enicyn
uses the verb
1n the phrase pereminat' jazlkom, where the whole
expression acquires the meaning "to chew thoroughly."
podstre1 t nut' -- In standard Russian it means to wound
by a shot.
However, 1n Sol!enicyn l s tale this verb
is a synonym of vyprosit l ("to beg out"); (cf.
streljat' papirosl ("to cadge cigarettes").
The
phrase streljat l glazami (IIrun onels eyes over") could
have influenced this verbal formation.
podymat l s3a -- According to
U~akov
this is a substandard
equivalent of podnimat' sja (-"to rise").
pomenet l -- This ia a cognate of menlae ("less").
This
110
substandard verb, although not sanctioned by the
dictionaries, is easily understood because
simple structure:
~-!!E!-~.
o~
its
It consists of a
verbal prefix E2- expressing commencement of an
action + the root
~
+ the verbal suffix
-!!!.
The verb conveys the meaning to lessen, to diminish.
proaxat' -- This verb has diverse meanings in Russian.
It stema from the emotional interjection
~
and can
have various emotional mean1ngs.
In our case 1t 1s
a synonym of pronjuxat l (nto smell out n ).
razzjav1t' -- The 1nformal der1sive epithet razzjava
(ngawk"), which is a synonym of razinja, p01nts to
the fact that the verbal form razzjavit' is synonymous
with razinut' (nto open wide").
give another synonym
o~
The dictionaries also
razinut' -- razevat', clearly
a cognate of razzjavit'.
rasstarat'sja/rasstaryvatlsja -- Verbs with the verbal
prefix
~-/raz-
and the
suf~ix
-sja express a gradual
growth of intensification. 13
Such meaning is conveyed
by the verb rasstarat'sja (nto do onels utmost n ), a
form of starat's3a.
sovat' na lapu -- This is an informal expression, a synonym
of the standard Russian phrase dat' vzjatki (nto bribe n ).
111
~araxnut'
-- This verb is registered by every one of the
dictionaries and considered by the 1exicographers to
be a part of substandard language.
Its meaning: "to
deliver a heavy blow."
sesterit' -- This is a cognate of the obsolete tePom
~estUrka
("waiter").
(See above, p. 48.)
Therefore,
sesterit' means to wait, i.e. to serve food.
~ugat'
-- Dal' considered this word to be dialectal.
He registered it in the
and near Jaroslavl'.
southe~
parts of Russia
There he also came upon such
forms as !ugaj and sugalo (both for "scarecrow").
In Usakov augat' is no longer annotated as dialecte
It has become an accepted word aIl over Russia as an
informaI expression for driving away by frightening,
i.e. to scare.
sunmut'
This ls a momentary (odnokratnI3) form from
the verb sumet' (rrto make noise").
tolkanut' -- According to U§akov, Ozegov, et al., this
is a colloquial counterpart of the perfective momentary verb tollmut' ("to shove lf ).l4
utolakivat' -- The verb utoloé'
to
U~akov,
(perfective), according
belongs to substandard speech.
"to pound to the very end."
It means:
112
Vulgarisms
izgadittsja -- This derivation from the abusive epithet
gad (see above. p. 49)
expressions.
foul."
belongs to the vulgar popular
Usakov interprets the verb as "to become
O~egov
lists the form izgadit t only. without
any mention of the reflexive.
maternut t -- Usakov defines this verb as branittsja
materno. i.e. to swear by means of using the word
~
("mother") and making vulgar references to a
(Bee below. under Phraseology.)
persons ancestry.
matjugattsja/pomatjugattsja -- The verb mat.1ugat'sja is
a similar designation for the use of obscene abusive
language.
(Bee Dal'.)
Dal' a1so mentions another
verb which bears a very close resemb1ance to
Sol~eai­
cyn's: matjugkat t •
pOdsosat'sja
The meaning of this verb is as fol1ows:
"to cling to someone in a manner of a leech in order
to get sorne gain out of
him."
(See Dal'.>
Exactly
the sarne meaning is expressed by SOltenicyn's verbe
prosljun.1avit' -- This perfective verb means IIto say
something in a slobbery manner."
Its structure resembles
the structure of a dia1ect verb prosepeljavit'.
above, p. 105.)
(Bee
Like the latter verb the imperfective
aspect only is given and the prefixed perfective aspect
113
is not listed in the standard sources.
~d
Usakov,
su~lt'sja
(See Dal',
Ozegov.)
-- A derivative of
~
("bitch"), it is a
coarse word meaning to quarrel or to talk in a
barking manner.
(See Dal'.)
it has the first meaning.
In Sollenicyn' s usage
In a recent Russian
Academy of Sciences publication on regional words
an
a verb suait' is given
Interpretation "to scanda1l'ze. 1I15 The Krestinskys 1ist the verb su~it'.sja
which in thief's idiom means "to betray."
fUganut' -- This is a vulgarized form of the verb
puganut'
pugat l
•
The substituted phoneme!B-
stems from the emotional interjection fUI ("faughl").
-
(See above'J under
Phone tic Peculiarities.)
fUimat'sja -- Similarly the verb fUimat'sja. consists of
the same exclamation of disgust which replaces the
phoneme pod-.
(See ab ove under tu3mnik, p.
54.)
cuskat'sja -- The verb cuskat'sja is derived from the
vulgar appellation cuska.
(See above, p. 55.)
This
vulgar verb means "to go slow."
sakalit' -- The epithet sakal given to a predatory person
or "jackal" gave rise to this derivative verb, which
signifies an action that can be attributed to this beast
of prey.
114
Thiet"s Cant and Camp Slang
doxodit' -- The verb doxodit' normally means to approach
the end.
In camp slang i t is a euphemistic term t'or
nearing life's end, i.e. a slow gradual death.
(See
above, under doxodjaga, p. 60.)
zakosit' -- The primary significance of the verb: to
seize an adjoining field while scything (see U!akov)
has given rise to this
s~angy
figurative expression
for to rob, to steal.
zanaéit' -- In thief's cant the verb zanacit' means to
hide cunningly.
(See the Krestinskys.)
This meaning
of the verb has been adopted by the prisoners from
thief's jargon.
zatursit' -- In thief's cant this is still another synonym
of the verb sprJatat' ("to bide").
pajat' -- In standard Russian this verb is a counterpart
of the English verb to solder.
spajka, p. 46.)
(See above under
In Solzenicynts usage this ia a camp
idiom, a synonym of the standard Russian verb nakazy~
(Ilto puniah"}.
stuéat' -- The person who informa 'he authori tiaB wat.l
named by the camp inmates stukac and the cognate verb
stuéat' is thus the counterpart of the standard
Russian donosit' ("to informfl ) . (See ab ove under stuka~.)
115
ve~b
uxajdakat'sja -- The
uxojdakat t
(Tve~t),
uxondakat l ,
and uxajdakat t (Tambov and Rjazan t ) is used as a
synonym ot the
The
~etlexive
in the
ve~bs
torm ot this
~etlexive
oneselt").
dokonat', pogubit l
ve~b
,
ubit'.
is used by Solzenicyn
meaning: utomit'sja (Rto exhaust
In camp slang it has become a synonym ot
the wo~d to die. 16
~monjat'
-- Since the noun lmon is a synonym ot the
stand~d wo~d
~monjat'
obysk (see above, p. 66), the
exp~esses
In the dialects ot
ve~b
the action: to search.
Sibe~ia
the verb smonit' connotes
the idea of aimless wandering, roaming.
Word and Context
Having discussed the semantic peculiarities of
Sol~enicyn's verb-forms, it is useful again to conside~
the relation of context and
Solzenicyn introduces a
substand~d
wo~d,
l~ge
this time in the verbs.
number of colloquial
as well as slangy verbs.
They otten resemble
standard Russian verbal forma both in phone tics and
morphology.
trom the
However, their semantic implications
stand~d.
dive~ge
This phenomenon ia due to the fact
that the slangy or colloquial signiticance originated as
a shift of meaning to a reatricted
aphe~e
One May note that aIl of Solzenicyn'a
of application.
verb-fo~s
which
116
present any degree of semantic ambiguity belong either
to the substandard colloquial layer of speech or to the
slangy vocabulary of camp prisoners.
Other styles
present no cases of doubtfUl meaning.
Some
verb-fo~s
can produce great ambiguity when
removed trom their contexte
For example, the verb
maxnut l normally connotes the idea of a waving or
swaying action.
However, a new colloquial meaning is
attached to this word: to dash, to rush, to go off.
Which of the two senses did Solzenicyn have in mind
can only be ascertained after the word has been examined
in the context:
a takoe
a.
Ja!
It is clear trom the context that the waving action is
not implied.
A second example is the cognate verb otmaxnut'sja.
In its primary sense the verb suggests the driving away
with a wave of the hand.
Another standard but figurative
sense hints at the brushing aside of a question or affair,
the dismissing trom consideration.
Still another meaning
of the verb in its informaI connotation is to answer or
reply.
This third responsive action ia implied by
Sol~enicyn:
A nam stolby ne me~ajut,
Kil'gas i zasmejalsja. Cp. 22)
otmaxnulsja
117
The verb kostz1 1nut l ia known in the
language on1y.
actions:
crutches.
info~al
colloquia1
However, it is app1ied to two distinct
1) to beat, to pound;
2) to limp, to walk on
The context excludes any ambiguity.
The verb
is c1ear1y emp10yed to convey the idea of beating:
y
Kostl1'nul ego Suxov v spinu razok.
In the standard usage the verb
plaster, to parget.
(p. 38)
ot~tukaturit'
means to
However, when examined in the
sentence, the verb stands out in its different connotation:
to eat hurried1y.
The context shows tbat not the primary standard sense,
but the substandard col10quial meaning is imp1ied.
The verb proaxat' expresses diverse meanings.
Thanks to
the numerous emotional overtones in the interjection
~,
the derivative verb can mirror innumerab1e nuances.
To give Just a few: 1) to express surprise by exc1aiming;
2) to sigb; 3) to deliver a hard blow;
5)
4)
to make noise;
to spend the time sighing; 6) to 10se something.
However, none of these is expressed by the fo11owing
sentence~
Foll-to pro axaI djadja.
(p. 32)
Solzenicyn applies the verb in the sense of pronjuxat',
i.e. to sme11 out.
Only the examination of the word
within bbe context makes the understanding of the implied
action possible.
118
The forced-1abour camp terms present an ev en c1earer
picture of the importance of context or situation for the
understanding of prisoners' speech.
Such verbs as doxodit'
or stu~at' can on1y be understood correct1y when considered
Othe~ise
in the contexte
the end"
and "to knock,"
the primary sense -- "to approach
can on1y be perceived.
When the sentence is examined, it becomes c1ear that the
verbs refer to a different action:
Na glazax doxodit kapitan,
~~eki
vva1i1is' ••• (p. 16)
Ona v tridcat'
doxodi1a na ob
Kto k kumu xodit
Opjat' budet
stu~at'
stu~at'
(p. 3)
na kogo-to.
(p. 12)
On1y now, after the usage has been studied, the meaning
of these two camp expressions for "to die from exhaustion"
and "to inform" can be grasped.
This change of application can be sean in many
other verb-for.ms used by camp prisoners, since the great
majority of them were adopted from thief's cant which
aims at concea1ing the expressed idea from strangers.
The artificia1 language of concealment
cannot, however,
be created out of nothing and must consist of numerous
vocables existent in the standard
language, their
119
meaning only being modified: zakosit'
("to steal'? t'rom
standard "to seize a part of the field while scything."
Xot' zakosil miski !uxov -- a xozjain lm pombrigadir. (p. 31)
zakosit' b
••• v obed on zakosil ka su ••• (p. 68)
Thus, context plays an important role in the
interpretation of verb-forms.
Although homonymy occurs
not as frequently in verbs as in nouns, polysemy is just
as slgnificant a factor.
There fore , the study of context
is neceasary for the comprehension of many verba, the
meaning of which can only be confuaed in isolation.
120
NOTES
1
2
TO
CHAPTER
III
See Grammatika russkogo jazyka (M., 1952-1954), l,55.
Ibid., p. 527.
3 P. S. Kuznecov, Russkaja dialektologija, 3rd revised
ed. (M., 1960), p. lIS.
4
Ibid., p. 112.
5
Grammatika ruaskogo jazyka, l, 522.
6
loc. cit.
7 Grammatika russkogo jazyka, l, 562.
8 Ibid. , p. 524.
9 Ibid. , p. 522.
10 Ibid., pp. 510-514.
Il See Asya Humesky, Majakovskij !Eà
(New York, 1964), p. S1.
à!! Neo1ogisms
12 See N. M. Sanskij, V. V. Ivanov, T. B. Sanskaja,
Kratkij ètimo1ogi~eskij slovar' russkogo jazyka
(M. -L., 1961).
13 Grammatika rusakogo jazyka, l, 600.
121
14
For the significance of the suffix -anut r
Grammatika russkoso jazyka, l, S40.
see
16 A. and T. Fesenko, Russkij jazyk Fr! sovetax
York, 19S5>, p. 86.
(New
122
CHAPTER
Szntax
and
IV
Phraseolosy
1. Syntact1c Pecu11ar1t1es
This chapter will deal w1th the specifie syntact1c
aspect, of Solienicyn's language.
the syntax of
Sol~en1cy.n's
Both the lexicon and
"Od1n den' Ivana
Den1sov1~a"
have been influenced by 1nformal everyday speech.
This
study will, therefore, be particularly concerned with
the peculiar colloquial aspec~. of SOlzen1cyn's syntaxe
Obv1ously colloquial and dialectal speech affect
the informal spoken language to a much greater·extent
than the written-literary forme
This does not mean,'
however, that the spoken language can be equated with
the substandard colloquial speech (prostorecie).
But
while boundaries of standard speech can easily be
established in the fields of lex1cology and morphology,
in the sphere of syntax it is hardly possible to draw a
border l1ne between standard and substandard language,
for the basic structure of the substandard is very
s1milar to that of standard Russian.
Therefore, the
relevant syntactic peculiarities of spoken Russian will
be discussed in detail and, whenever possible, the
123
colloquial peculiarities will be i11ustrated.
It is occasionally
is "iree" and does not
This theory is untrue.
is imaginary.
asser~ed
~all
that spoken language
under any restrictions.
l
The "freedom" of spoken language
The spoken language is even more restricted
than the written forme
Spoken language operates in ter.ms .
of fixed expressions, for the speaker has no time to
evaluate and determdne which word will prove more
suitable.
Moreover, certain components such as particles,
interjections, combinations of both, etc., which prevail
in the spoken language cannot be substituted or omitted
without modifying the meaning
another restriction
o~
the sentence.
the spoken language. 2
o~
This is
The spoken language can be characterized by the
~ollowing ~eatures:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
elliptical sentences,
parenthetic clauses and phrases,
stereotyped phraseology,
idiomatic expressions which do not lend themselves to synchronie logical analysis,
v)
vi)
vii)
viii)
ix}
x}
repetition
o~
phrases used by the interlocutor,
archaic parallelism,
combinations of two verbs in the srume
~or.m,
repetitive compounds,
particles employed as syntactic
interjections which take the
~ormatives,
~ctions
of other
124
parts of speech. 3
i)
E11iptica1 sentences
E1lipsis means incomplete construction due to the
omission of certain constituents which are understood
in the contexte
a)
-
The omission of the verb is Most
ellipses abound in
Sol~enicyn's
co~on.
Such verbal
"Odin den' ••• ":
CP. 19)
vse·
CP. 23)
~~~::;;.o1,.-=--~,.;;.....;;;;~;...;:.c-.-.;:;;;~~=--~: Cp. 24)
p.
b)
The subject is not repeated if it was used pr~iously:
Iz tex ostolopovi segodnjasnij naèkar.
c)
The omission of both subject and
incentive, stimulatlvë sentences:
d)
34)
The elimination of the object:
~
1 Zdet. CP. 46)
prevai1s in
125
e)
The omission of a conjunction:
v Estoni!
odvesit'
- 1 ty v kondee. (p. 7)
ii)
Parenthetic clauses and phrases
A parenthetic clause is an explanatory annotation
placed within an already complete sentence.
Such
clauses are especially abundant in SOlzenicyn's tale
"Odin den' ••• "
Thus:
sapku s britoj golovy - kak ni
A
iii)
Stereotyped phraseology
Stereotypdd phraseology consists of fixed and
conventional expressions.
126
Fixed expressions seem to have the structure of a
compound sentence, whereas they are indivisible and
1exica1ly restricted.
A to ni to ni si.
(p.
4>
A conventional expression (or cliche) isan expression
that has lost its pristine meaning through frequent
repetition and has become tri te.
abound in cliches.
Conversations especial1y
The reason for this is that the
interlocutor has to fi1l the time during which he searches
for an answer with meaningless cliches.
- Net, baten'ka, - ••• ob"ektivnost' trebuet
priznat', 6to Eizen~tein genialen. CP. 32)
- Dozvol'te zametit' - Cp. 40)
Iv)
Idiomatic expressions which do not lend
themselves to synchronie logical analysis occur frequently
~
in Solzenicyn's tale:
.t. sleduet,
i po lagernoj privy6ke lezt' glazami kuda ne
ne mog ne zametit', 8to Nikolaj pisal
rovnymI-rovny.mi strockami ••• (p. 9)
- toze lm ne maslo slivocnoe v takoj moroz na
vytkax toptat'sja. (p. 10)
S nix 1agerja kak s gusja voda. (p. 18)
Zamerznet arestant v snegu - tak ~es ego es'. (p. 21)
Da ved' sutka skazat', bOl'ie pol asa vremeni
u pjatisot 8elovek otnjall (p. 46)
svobody zdes' ot puza. (p. 59)
Ostavit' zdes' - neroven cas, tjapnut, kto
s proverki pervyj v barak vbezit. CP. 63)
.t.
v)
Repetition of phrases used by the interlocutor
The repetition of individual words or phrases used
127
by the inter1ocutor is a device similar to the use of
id1.omatic expressions:
"- No slusajte iskusstvo èto ne eto, a kak.
- Net uz, k certovoj materi yale '!!k,' es1i
one dobryx ~uvstv vo mne ne probudit." (p. 33)
vi)
An archaic para1le1ism is the use of a para11e1
form instead of the subordination of one word to another.
These para1lel constructions serve to make the phrase
more precise and, therefore, more effective.
Bere are
Just a few examples of Solzenicyn's use of paral1el
structures:
A iz vaxty, iz truby, dym ne perestavaja, k1ubitsja.
(p. lB)
Na skame ke na kazdo letom selo by celovek
po pat', no •••
(p. 30)
U vas u samix netS
(p. 6B)
vii)
The combination of two verbs in the same form
is a feature peculiar to spoken language only.
two verbs one is dependent upon the other.
Of the
The verb
pojti is most frequently used as the subordinating
component.
However, other verbs can also be used for
this purpose: sidet', pytat'sja, pisat,.4
The basic
meaning of the construction is expressed by the subordinative verbe
In literary Russian a construction of
the subordinating verb with an infinitive or gerund
corresponds to a combination of two verbs in the same
forme
128
S~itaetsja invalid, lagkaja rabota, a nu-ka,
podi vynesi, na prol'jal
Cp. 4)
A san1nstrüktor i ~togoltme delaat: sidit smotrit.
CP. 28)
A zâ1u 1s i poprobui - sajcas prideratsja. CP. 52)
Idi s8 ta ne var §'?
Cp. 30)
Zato ieva 'net brov'ju ili pal'cem pokazet baSi, delaj. Cp. ~8)
Nu ladno, Ivan Danisyc, beSi, zanimaj.
CP. 50)
Poka na~al'stvo razbaresja - pritkn1s', gde
po tep le j, sjad', sidi, esce nalomae~1 spinu. Cp. 19)
1
r,
The comma in the last three examples is a textua1 device.
However, it causes ambiguity by suggesting enumeration.5
viii)
Repetitive compounds can be asyndetic
Ceither hyphenated or not), conjunctive
a connective partic1e:
se1-~el,
or formed with
sel i sel, idti tak idti.
They can be produced by reduplication of a word or by
combining different categories of a one-root word.
Asyndetic compounds ara very abundant in everyday
Russian.
Proverbial sayings aspecia11y disp1ay a great
variety of them.
Asyndetic compounds serve various
functions:
a)
A pro1onged action is axpressad by repeating a form
of an imperfective verbe
Bujnovskij ~osilsja-kosilsja na Fetjukova, da i
gavknu1.
(p. 20)
IIi ko1jaska po 1estnice katitsBa, katits~a. Cp. 46)
Sperva fi~icu odnu prjamo pil, 111. (p. 7)
Sypjat, sypjat v barak zèki.
p. 65)
<
A tip1e rapetition of an imperfective verb emphasizas
129
the prolongation of an action.
ste~', ste~',
stel'- - vot i dyrocku za pajkoj
sprjatannoj priivatil. CP. Il)
Povar vzjal zdorovyj ~erpacilce 1itra na tri
i 1m - v bake me~at', me~at', me!at'. CP. 56)
Asyndetic compounds expressing prolonged action can
a1so consist of fOrmB reinforced by the particle
1.
Teper'-to on, kak ptica vol 'naja, vyporxnul iz-pod
tamburnoj krysi - i po zone, i po zone. Cp. 53)
l v mat' ix, i v mat', podb~os~ikov i podnos~ikov.
(p. 41)
b)
A verb combination can a1so hint at an interrupted
action.
c)
Intensity can be expressed by nominal, adjectival,
and adverbial compounds;
Da palkoj, palkoj kogo-to po plecam, po spine, •••
(p.
Lopatu-toJ
55)
Lopatu-to on ne zrja prixvatil •••
Cp. 39)
- rastvor, rastvor pod ruku peretaskivajte, zivol
.,
(p. 38)
Suxov ne mog ne zametit', cto Nikolaj pisal
rovnymi-rovnymi strockami ••• (p. 9)
v
Potom gljadja na be1en'kij-be1en'kij cepcik Vdovuskina,
Suxov vspomnil medsanbat na reke Lovat' ••• Cp. 10)
Sneg pri burane melockiJ-meloëkij. (p. 21)
130
A pod potolkom lampo~ka slepen'kaja-slepen'kaja •••
.
(p. 53)
tuda-sjuda, tuda-sjuda posel eju stenu drait' •••
v
Cp. 37)
Togda dostal xlebusek v beloj trjapocke i, der~a
trjapocku v zapazu~ke, ctoby ni kro~ka mimo
toj trjapo6ki ne upala, stal pomalu-pomalu
otkusyvat' i ~evat'. Cp. 20)
l lopocut bIstro-bIstro, kto bol Ise slov ska!et. (p. 53)
skorei-SkOrej k krYl'cu ••• (p. 55)
l sej as !e, sei~as ego podrovnjat', bokom masterka
pOdblt ' , esl ne tak. (p. 38)
l
or by perfective verbs with the commencing prefix A!-:
Zakolyxalas l , sbilas' s rovnoj nogi, dernulas',
zagudela, zagudela - i vot uze xvostovye pjaterki
i aered l nix Suxov ne stali dogonjat' idusëix
vperedi ••• Cp. 48)
To medlenno tjanulis l k dverjam, a tut kak
zagustili, zagustili, da s verxnix koek
prygajut medvedjamI i prut vse v dveri
uzkie. CP. 63)
d)
Brevity of time can be conveyed by repetitive compounds
formed from perfective verbs with the prefix
~-.
The restrictive idea enclosed in the prefixis thus
intensified by the repetition.
Such repetitive
compound la usually followed by another verbe
pomal~uet, pomaljuet i v peréatku dy§it.
CP. 13)
Pokrl al pokri8al na~kar "sire sagl" - ponjal:
ne po j dut zèki byatrej.
e)
(p. 48)
Perfective verba forming repetitive compounds can
also convey the idea of intermittance and
i~ragular­
i ty of ac tion.
vernulis' k dverjam. (p. 67)
••• i s tex por poslo, poslo, 1 vse boll§e takix
maatakov - k ras i 1 e j nabiraetsja: Cp. 17)
Obo~li, obo~li,
131
1
The idea of irregularity can be intensified by
the particle
1:
Otorval, skrutil, podnjal ugolek, ••• - i potjanull
i potjanull (p. 34}
l p~gnai, 1 pognal naruznyj rjad k Sen'ke navstreëu.
(p. 38)
f)
By introducing the particle
~
into the repetitive
compound the contrasting idea ls intensified.
,
y
Szadl-to, szadi, eto verno, tQlkacl, no i perednie
ne 8Ibko soprotivljajutsja, dumajut v stolovuju
vletet'. (p. 55)
g)
In an adversative constructlon a repetitlve compound
with a negative predicator E! ia an indicator of
indifference.
Nravitsja tovar, ne nravitsja - a na skol'ko
zajavlenie na~al'niku napIsal, na stol l ko
i nakupaj. (p. 58)
••• ka~a ne kasa, a idet za ka~u. (p. 8)
V kOlonne, kogda potepIe j, vse razgovarivajut
- krici ne kri~i na nix. (p. 16)
Volen ne volen, a ska~i da prygaj, povoracivajsja.
(p.
Vypolnil, ne vypolnl1 - katis' v zonu.
h)
(p. 27)
24)
Hesitancy and uncertain negation can also be conveyed
by a repetitive compound with a negative predicator •
••• dumal, sflest l tut te, da naspex eda ne eda,
projdet darom, bez sytostl. (p.. Il)
A parikmaxeru, kotoryj ego s bumazkoj breet •••
- mnogo ne mnofo, a tri-~etyre sigaretki toze
dat'?
(p. 60
Emu ved' let, kavtorangu, sorok ne sorok, a okolo.
(p. 41)
132
Asyndetio oompQunds oan a1so oonsist of two different
oategories of one-root words.
Suoh are the compounds of a verb and an adverbial form
ending in -!!I-mja:
Vse ob"ekty begma begut ••• Cp. 44)
A Cezar' po4el, sebja ne ronjaja, razmerenno,
v druguju storonu, gde vokrug sto1ba uze
kismja kise10. CP. 51)
Another examp1e of an asyndetic compound consisting of
two different categories of a one-root word:
Brigadir si1a, no konvoj - si1a posi1 ' nej.
Cp. 42)
Two other examp1es with an adverbial form are:
Odni p1ity v formax 1ezat, drug1e stojmja nastav1enl.
(l'.
Cp. 42J
••• a va10m pova111 narod k vaxte.
19)
Conjunctive repet1t1ve compounds can be formed with
copulat1ve conjunctions:
junctions:
.!li, li;
1,
S!,~;
and conjunction
separat1ng con6
~.
Repetitive compounds with conjunction
!
express prolong-
ation and continuity of action:
A ~uxov 1e~a1 i 1eza1 na sprassovavsixsja opi1kax
Bvoego matrasika. CP. 4)
Sli oni dal'Ke i da1'~e i podosli k tomu mestu,
gde pod snegom by1i pogebeny l~1ty sbornyx
domov. CP. 22)
No oni ni na mig ne ostanav1iva1is' i gna11 k1adku
da1'~e i da1r~e.
Cp. 38)
133
. Conjunctive repetitive compounds consisting
~orms
(with the
~irst
o~
three
two being asyndetic) are rarely
used. 7 In SOllenicyn's tale l oame across one such
compound:
.
S nadziratelja na~inaja, kto posylku pOluéaet,
dol zen davat'« davat' i davat r • (p. 52)
Repetitive compounds with conjunction
convey the meaning
o~
!
can also
ordinariness •
••• trava i trava, tol'ko zeltaja, pod vid psena.
Cp.
8)
Intensity can also be conveyed by these compounds •
••• byla t'ma i t'ma, da popadalo v okno tri
zeltyx fonarja. (p. 3)
A na dvor vyjdja, srazu opjat' begom i begom
k sebe. Cp. 59)
••• men'(e i men'~e bylo emu povodov ••• CP. 52)
Prolongation and continuity
o~
action are also
transmitted by compounds formed with the conjunction
~.
l sidet' emu asée zimu-leto da zimu-leto.
Separating conjunctions serve to convey
indif~erence.
l srazu vsja brigada, dremala li. ne dremala,
vstala~ zazevala i p051a k vyxodu.
(p. 12)
A sly~al Buxov, ne znaet - pravda li, nepravda,
~to mexzavodcy •••
(p. 49)
Repetitive compounds with the conjunction
not occur in SOlzenicyn's usage.
-
kak,~did
134
The sole particle serving to form repetitive
compounds is the particle
!!!' which is always unstressed. 8
Compounds with this particle express inner agreement.
ix)
Particles employed as syntactic formatives:
The partdale itself is a short and Indeclinable part
of speech, with no lexical meaning of its own when
isolated, but meaningful in the sentence, where it serves
as a means to express delicate variations in tone.
The majority of constructions do not depend upon
the particle.
The removal of the particle does not
change the grammatical meaning of the whole structure.
However, there are structures which are determined by
the particle.
Its omission would have broken the whole,
for such structures are syntactically indivisible.
Since the spoken language exploits this particular
function of the particle to a much greater extent than
any other style,
the particlels role as a syntactic
rormative can certainly be coosidered a feature of
informaI speech.
Particles when used as syntactic formatives convey
various meanings:
a)
Concession and confident statement can be expressed
by sentences with the verbal particle i estl.
135
Bumaga - ona bumaga i est'.
Ona i est' sem'ja, b~igada.
Vot ~to ono i est' b~igada.
Vot ~to i est' b~igada.
U~ka on 1.. est' •
The
p~onoun
gelona/ono
gives a
CP. 25)
Cp. 33)
Cp. 35)
(p. 36)
CP. 63)
p~ticul~ st~ess
to
the statement.
Concession can also be
exp~essed
by the
pa~ticle
p~avda.
Nu,
p~avda, pitaetsja Ki~'gas no~mal'no, dve
poaylki v mesjac ••• (p. 22)
Po testjanomu delu inst~umenta, p~avda, net,
no est' molotocek slesa~nyj da topo~ik. CP. 24)
b)
Assumption can be enclosed in a sentence with the
following
p~ticles:
the conjunctive
pa~ticle ~azve
Da ~azve on bol en? Cp. 12)
TeplYj zjablogo ~azve kogda pojmet? Cp. 10)
Nu, ska~i, Vanja, es1i b na~al'stvo umnoe bylo ~azve postavilo by ljudej v takoj mo~oz ki~kami
zemlju dolbat'. (p. 22)
the p&.l'ttèile !!B -~, esli dnem esce ubeg -- d~ugoe delo ••• Cp.
the
pa~ticle
46)
neboa'
Uxajdakalsja by sam na kamennoj kladke -- nebos'
by tixo sidel. CP. 10)
A di~ekto~om byl - nebos' s "~abo~ix t~eboval. CP. 38)
Nep~ijutno emu nebos'.
(p. 40)
Vam nebos' to~e-,r-teplu xoc-ca... (p. 48)
••• nebos' nmogo on ob sebe dumaet. CP. 63)
136
the partiele podi -Vraei-to, podi, eace s postelej ne pody.malis l
e)
•
(p. 9) .
Uneertainty can be transmitted by sentences with
the tollowing partieles:
the particle eto-to
l baraka tto-to ne sli otpirat l • • •
Teper. '6to-to ne stal pletku nosit'
Oto-to vtoroj proverki net •••
(p. 3)
(p. 14)
(p. 67)
the partiele vrode -••• to vrode sovsem zabolel ••• (p. 3)
A prjamo na pol kosti plevat' - s~itaetsla
vrode by neakkuratno. (p. 7)
Ja vrode ~to ••• bol en ••• (p. 9)
Vrode otxo~ij promysel, ~to li? (p. 17)
l ot svoix dereven'skix otstavat' vrode obidno. (p. 18)
A vse ~ vrode stenka splosnaja stala. (p. 25)
S krasninkoj zaxodit i v tuman vrode by seden'kij.
(p. 41)
••• da~e i spat' vrode ne xocetsja. (p. 65)
Teper' vrode s obuv'ju pOdnaladilos'. (p. 6)
d)
Apprehension and misgiving are expressed by sentences
wi th the compound partieles nu-ka and neuz:
A nu-ka ube~it? (p. 21)
••• neuz on sebe na vole ni pecnoj rabot y ne
najdet ••• (p. 18)
Neuz i solnee ixim dekretam podéinjaetsja? Cp. 26)
e)
Astonishment ean be eontained in sentences with the
partiele .aB:
liB
eto vy, eto vy, rebjatal
(p. 40)
137
f)
Decision can be conveyed by sentences with the verbal
partie le davaj:
••• gret'sja im negde, otojti ne veljat, - davaj
opjat' za kirku. (p. 22)
••• davajego stojmja v obnimku voz'mem i pojdem.
"
.
(p. 23)
Esli nuzno bystrej - davajte bystrejl
(p. 39)
••• dava skoree loktjâmI tuda probivat'sja. Cp.
Dava
romoj esée dve brigadyl Cp. 55)
Nu, davaj, davaj, byatrejl
(p. 62)
55)
Such sentences with the verbal particle davaj are closely
related to the next group conveting incentive.
g)
Incentive and encouragement are intended in sentences
with such particles as
~,
and the reinforced nu-ka:
Nu, skazi Vanja ••• (p. 22)
mal'cy, nado nosilki koncat'. CP.
~nu-ka podi vynesi ne prol'ja.
(p.
A nu-ka, snimi pravyj valenokl
(p.
A nu-ka mesoeek vas dajte mne naverx.
iü,
h)
26)
4)
49)
(p. 67)
Emphasis is given to s'entences with such particles as:
the particle
~
(if it directly precedes the word
which ia being stressed) -V lagere !2! ~to pogibaet.
(p. 3)
Vot ètogo-to Suxovu ne ponjat' nikak.
Vot etoj minuty gorae net.
(p. 12)
the particle
~
CP. 17)
(tak tak) --
Tak on i ~dal. i vs,e zdal.i tek.
(p. 52)
By10 vremja, tak tak ètogo xleba boja1is'. CP. 14)
Tak tak inogda raz"jarjatsja - ne berut begleca
zi vym.
(p. 46)
138
the partle1e
~
--
~
ne xuze vasego, pr~bujte na ~dorov'e! Cp. 61)
Da ne prosto k narjadeikam v PPC, kak katdyj
- den' xodi t •••
CP.')
the partie1e
Solnee
.!
.! zakrajkom verxnlm za zemlju us10.
Cp. 42)
-
the partle1e ved' -Da ved' vsex 1x ne nakor.mis,. CP. 24)
Emu ved' let, kavtorangu, sorok ne sorok, a okolo.
CP. 41)
Ved' ja ne obmanu. (p. 34)
VëdT èto eto za sterva( gad, pada1', paskuda,
---Zagrebanec. Cp. 45)
Ved' na uzin kasi net. Cp. 53)
Ved' on kazdyj kusok tvoj a~itaet. Cp. 60)
-
the partic1e ut --
Uz kavtorang
rad by,
kry~a gori -
üi xot'
X-]! kto i spa1!
da net al1.
Cp. 41)
spe~it' ne nado.
(p. 8)
CP. 67)
-
the partic1e az -••• az poka v sto1ovuju devjatyj barak.
SuxoV-!! vzopre1.
Cp. 37)
CP.
4)
the partic1e 12 -Dver'-to pritjagivaj, ty, pad1o!
CP. 6)
Oni po-Utram-to ne 1jubjat v karcer brat'. CP. 15)
••• ètogo-to SUXovu ne ponjat' nikak.
(p. 17)
Da i zdes'~o ne by10.
CP. 28)
••• srok-12-Vse f koncaetaja, katuska-12 na razmote.
Cp. 27)
139
Masterka-to by zrja naverx ne taskal ••• Cp. 36)
!nur-to e~e ne natjanut.
Cp. 37)
Da i lëgo, pravda, k vorotam-to zmetes'? Cp. 47)
Nu, priznat'sja, i gor-!g samIX ja ne vidal. (p. 66)
i)
Evaluation can be given by sentences with the adverbial.
particle
~
~
attached to anotherparticle:
eto ono i est' brigada.
Cp. 35)
Evaluation can also be expressed by the particles
m!
Y'
and ,B!:
Nu, da ~to s gluxogol CP. 35)
zavaruxal
CP. 41)
Rto ~ ix ustav, starye arestanty znajut. CP. 46)
Nü,
j)
Irony can be conveyed by a sentence with an adverbial
part1cle !2! and another part1cle:
!2! etot-to nas m1g i est'.
Cp. 19)
or with the compound partic1e tak i:
Tak i vaja zizn' u z~ka, Suxov privyk.
k)
CP. 13)
Un1formity of action 1s often tranam1tted when the
adverbial partic1e vsS occurs in the sentence:
VaS ne xote1os', ~toby utro.
CP. 3)
s:nede1ju xodi1 kak imeninnik, vaS noven1kimi
kab1u~kami poatuk1va1.
(P:-6)
Duma arestantakaja - i ta neavobodnaja, vaS
k tomu ~ vozvrascaetaja, vsU anova voroBit. (p. 16)
K D~ru on vaS apinoj, budto ego i ne vidal. (p. 40)
l arazu te-S-~udakom v oCkax, koto~yj v oceredi
vaS gazetu ~ita1.
Cp. 53)
140
1)
Consequence ls expressed by sentences with such
particles as!!!
and vot i:
ste~',
stel', stel' - vot 1 dyrocku za pajkoj
sprjatannoj prlxvatil.
CP. Il)
~
A pecka vsja krasno naskvoz' svetilas', tak
raskali1i ido1y.
(p. 32)
--m)
Conclusion drawn from an action mentloned ear1ier
v
can be expressed by the particle znacit, which,
according to A. B. Sapiro, is not too widespread. 9
However,
Sol~enicyn's
of this partic1e.
usage contains Many examp1es
It is difficult-to accept the
v
view that the partic1e znacit is rare1y used in the
1ight of the frequency of sentences such as the
following:
Zna6it, de~url1 ne v otered' on 1 prokralsja tixo.
Cp. 4)
••• odnobrlgadnik ego CezaH~ kuri1, 1 kuril ne
trubku a sigaretu - znacit pOdstrel'nut' mozno.
(p. 13)
••• materja1'éiku byl materjal'éikul
Sne~ku,
znacit.
Cp. 21)
Eto opjat', znacit, na vtoroj etaz vse na sebe.
Cp. 23)
S babamil ••• S ba1anami, a ne s babami ••• S brevnaml, zna~it.
CP. 27)
Sove~anie, zna8it, u proraba.
CP. 32)
••• u~ es11 rasskazyvat' pustllsja - znacit, v
dobroj du~e. Cp. 33)
••• nel' zja pod" emnika naladi t' • Zna~it, isa~' J
Cp. 40)
Vse ob"ekty begma begut ••• ctob ran'se na ~mon i,
zna~lt, v 1ager' ran'se jurknut'.
Cp. 44)
Tak, zna~it, za kem ja?
Cp. 53)
l ve1eno emu by10 ruki vzjat' nazad i stojat' tut.
Zna~it, budut pajat' emu popytku k pobegu. CP. 55)
Xoro~o
prisli: odna brigada polu~aet, da odna
vsego v o~eredi, to!e pombrigadiry u okoska
stojat. Ostal'nye, znacit, za nami budut. Cp. 29)
l im, zna~it, ne povez~o, zader!ali toze.
Cp. 48)
A uiin vam prinesti? Èto zna~it - iz stolovoj
v barak, v kotelke.
Cp. 53}
••• pjat' misok vsego, zna~it - poslednij podnos
v brigade ••• CP. 56)
l poka vnizu kavtoranga net, znacit soru emu ne
nasype~' •••
CP. 61)
U guby krov' razmazana. Opjat', znaéit, pobili
ego tam za miski.
(p. 01)
••• i zavernuli oni àtu ~~epot' otdel'no v cigarku
- poprobovat', znaéit, eto za suxovskij taba~ok.
v
(p. 61)
Nu, a~jnovskij, znacit, vzjal u Cezarja nastojas~ego caju gorstku, brosil v kotelok da sbegal
v kipjatil'nik.
CP. 6l}
Some of the above-mentioned particles belong to
substandard colloquial speech: !f, nebos', znacit,
pravda. lO The last three are especially trequent in
the speech of Soltenicyn's protagonists.
x)
Interjections which take over the function of
other parts of speech:
Contemporary grammarians regard interjections as a
necessary element of the spoken language.
Such a
prominent Russian philologist, for instance, as V. V.
Vinogradov asserts that the study of interjections is
n
necessary for syntactic analysis of the spoken language. Il
Despite its etymology an interjection is not a word
loosely thrown into the sentence.
It is not without
grammatical connexion as has been asserted by some
linguists. 12
Nor is it a category isolated trom other
parts or speech:
the substantivization of interjections
points to a connexion between interjections and other
grammatical categories.
Like particles# interjections are indeclinable
parts of speech# with no lexical meaning of their own but
able to carry emotional nuances.
The difference between
interjections and particles lies in the fact that the
latter possess no individual emotive signiricance and
cannot be used independently.
Intonation plays a prominent role in interjectional
sentences.
It actually determines the meaning of the
sentence # for the majority of emotional interjections are
capable of expressing various meanings.
Intonation is
usually accompanied by gesture and racial expression.
The written language introduces explanatory descriptions
of gesture# mimicry and change of tone in order to
clarify the meaning of the sentence.
Emotional interjections seldom occur as isolated
sentences in present-day Russian.
However# imperative
interjections such as brys'l# tErul#
~J# ~l#
!!!21.
~l# ~l
frequently forro independent interjectional
sentences. 13
When used in a sentence# interjections do
not stand apart but participate in the whole structure.
The elimination of the interjections trom the sentence
decreases its degree of erootionality and conceals the
143
attitude
o~
The addition
the author towards the action depicted.
o~
of the sentence.
an interjection changes the structure
Certain components are discarded
since the interjection, by taking over the function of
other parts of the sentence, causes the deletion
supr~luous
element.
the sentence decreases.
to the spoken language.
I~
This is a
proverbs and
~acetious
o~ten
adopted
Most
~eature
peculiar
o~
dramatis
from popular
sayings.
In Solzenicyn's tale "Odin den' Ivana
such interjections as:
words in
met in literature, whether in
the authorls narrative or in the language
very
the
Interjections can a1so function
as other parts of the sentence.
personae, it is
o~
As a resu1t the number
o~
Denisovi~aft
, ,
!J, ~, and Ea are among the
~requent.
The Imperative interjection
attract someone's attention
Solzenicyn.
~
is ordinarily used to
and is thus employed by
For example:
,
fitili! - i zapustil v nix valenkom.
(p. 4)
ty, xaxlak, dver' zakryvajl
(p. 32)
§l, stakanovecl Ty s otvesikom ~pravljajsjal (p. 36)
~~, rebjatal ~tob rastvor v jaséikax ne merz
(p. 36)
, po dvoe stanem.
~, sto cetvertajal
(p. 43)
!J, ty, Xe - devjatlsot dvadcat'l
(p. 56)
~1 - kriknut' prislos', - ty, ryzijl
(p. 65>
!l,
!l,
The emotional interjection ~ can convey various meanings
depending on the intonation:
144
regret --
CP.
Èx, k peéeeke byJ..
20)
ËX, buranov davno net!
(p. 21)
ËX, rasstaralis l •
(p. 41)
ËX, vnatrusku klades l - pozalovalsja âuxov. CP. 59)
ESli b arestanty drug s drugom ne
su~ilisl
- è-èxl ••
(p:--Ji9)
irony -\
Ex, se je as kogo-to v lob ogrejul
ËX, - kricit - der1llla ne zalko!
(p. 42)
E!, da i povaliliz! povalili z~ki s kry1'ca! (p. 64)
va1ue-judgement
,
!!, glaz - vaterpasl
The interjection
Rovno!
Esée ruka ne staritsja.
(p. 43)
EB, in addition to its use as an incentive
word, can a1so express such diverse emotions as:
bitterness -Nu, proscajte bratcy •••
(p. 63)
koj-gde, mozet, i tonko, molno by i potol~ëe •••
!B,
(p.
4°)
reproach --
!2, ne udaj, bratcyJ -
~uxov klicet.
(p. 41)
threat -~J ~l - ry~al nadzirate1 1•
(p. 67)'
astonishment
Da BB?I - l suetsja Cezar' v tu ze gazetu.
irony -Nu, cego ne ponjat'!
teper' kto kogol
NU kak utrom, v obscem.
!B, a ne budet - mne 1ixo kakoe?
NU,
(p. 44)
(p. 48)
(p. 49)
(p. 49)
(p. 53)
145
Incentive is seen in the fo1lowing sentences:
Nu, podvodi mexzavodJ
ne gorjuj, rebjataJ
Am!, taml v uglul
NU,
CP. 51)
(p.
35)
Cp. 67)
Interjections can fUnction in the sentence as a
verb:
(p. 27)
Svoimi nogami - da na vol ju, !,?
(p. 27)
••• na tebe esce odnu.
Na, AIeskaJ - i pecen'e odno emu otda1. (p. 67)
l!!,
po~a1ujataJ
(p.
3°)
An interjectiona1 predicate ia al ways more expressive than
a verbal predicate.
Moreover, the repetition of the
interjection intensifies the expressive qua1ity of the
sentence:
Nu na, na'
(p.
ZapaIi1Ti' kak sobaki besenye, tol'ko
slysno xy-xi! xy-xyl
Cp.
A-a-al Petr M aly61
Cp.
Aj-aj-aj, prosto ne veritsja, ~to gde-to
eâae pekut batony.
Cp.
Su-~u - sredi rebjat.
CP.
l srazu su-~u-~u po brigade.
Cp.
59)
43)
53)
62)
33)
12)
Interjection can also act as an averbial modifier:
9~ ljut' tam segodnja budet.
X-ot vysek da1'nix vdol' zony xo-go
skol'ko topat'.
Ux, kak lico brigadirovo perekosi1o.
Bereg, solido1om umjagcal, botinki
novexon'kie, ~1
CP. 12)
Cp. 47)
(p. 39)
CP. 6)
146
Interjections can also occur in direct speech: .
..,
T'fuI prokljatyel - vyrugalsja Suxov.
(p.
Kon8ili l mat' tvoju za nogul - Sen'ka
(p.
~riéit. - Aidi1
(p.
A-a-al - zavop l zéki. - U-u-ul
(p.
U-u-ul - ljuljukaet tolpa ot vorot.
Xu-gu-ul •• kolonna tak i kliknet edinym
golosom.
(p.
Gejl - kri~it Pavlo sni~u.
(p.
§m, Bal - otka!ljalsja Suxov, stesnjajas'
prervat' obrazovannyj razgovor.
CP.
67)
43)
46)
46)
49)
37)
33)
Verbal interjections constitute a separate branch
of interjections.
They differ from emotional or
imperative interjections in that their function is
restricted to expressing modality.
significance.
They lack emotive
Solzenicyn depicts sudden unexpected act-
ion by means or a verbal interjection:
Kak vskipjatitsja, da dvumja rukami po
stolu - xlopl
(p. 34)
Da begom k svoej vagonke l da na podporku
nogu zakinul - sast'l i u! naverxu. CP. 67)
l esce rastvor masterkom razrovnjav slep tuda slakoblokl
(p. 38)
Sol!enicyn also uses interjéctional verb-forms.
Interjectional verb-forms, in contrast to verbal interjections, have not completely lost their lexical meaning.
They can be employed as syntactic formatives, for they
express modality.
Stez', ste~', ste~' - vot i dyrocku za
pajkoj sprjatannoj prixvatil.
(p. Il)
147
l
1 1.
za nim po snegu: top-top, Skri -Skri
.
p. 12
TOp-toï im !uxov, top-top.
CP. 41)
A vse : Zxrl_Zyrl, dovide1 kamen l •••
CP. 43)
Vidit Suxov - zameta1sja Cez~l, tIk-mlk,
da pozdno.
Cp. 63)
b~igada
The main purpose o:f this
chapte~
has been to
complete an accurate ana1ysis o:f the syntactic :features
o:f a new and
o:f
1nte~est
in the
vigo~ous autho~.
in these
matte~s
A
conside~ab1e
among
scho1~s
quickening
is
~e:f1ected
increased volume of publications on the
sp~ken language. 14 Two decades ago hard1y anything
g~eat1y
dea11ng with the syntax o:f spoken language existed.
Any analysis o:fthe syntactic
peculi~ities
of an author
exploiting the spoken language to such an extent as
Solzenicyn would have
theo~etical
these
(See
nature.
p~oblems
p~esented nume~ous
Howeve~,
problems o:f a
at least an
app~oach
can be :found in the new available
to
wo~k!.
bibliog~aphy.)
To complete the picture o:f Solzenicyn's usage a few
lines should be added on his
p~ove~bs
and abusive
p~aseology,
exp~essions
bis use o:f
especial1y.
2. Proverbs
The English word "proverb" cao be
Russian by two
wo~ds:
poslovica
o~
t~ans1ated
pogovo~ka.
int(\
Although there does exist a clear-cut ditterence between
the two, this dist1nct10n is not always observed in
linguist1c literature and trequently the two words are
used interchangeably.
def1n1t10n of both
a) poslovica
To avoid any ambiguity here
te~s
1s requ1red:
is a saying expressing a complete thought
in a full sentence;
b) pogovorka 1s an expressive and imaginative phrase
giving one element of a proverbial oPinion. l5
By the nature of its definition the pogovorka (incomplete
in form and content) can constitute a part of a poslovica.
For instance the saying cudesa v reNete (a pogovorka)
constitutes an element of the poslovica: ~udesa v re~ete:
dyr mnogo, a vylezt l nekuda. 16
Since English makea no distinction between the two
kinds ot proverbial expressions and has no aeparate
deaignations for them, the Rusaian nomenclature is here
retained.
Sol~enicynls
tale comprises the tollowing proverbial
expressions:
poalovic~
-- (most trequent)
Ispytok ne ubytok.
Rabota - ona kak palka, konca v nej dva.
V omut dremucij kame~ki kidat l •
Vtoroj raz popade§lsja - opjat l prigrebetsja.
ot rabot y losadi doxnut.
.
Teplyj zjablogo razve kogda pojmet.
Ni ukryva, ni greva.
(p. 4)
(p. 7)
(p. 7)
(p. 8)
Cp. 10)
(p. 10)
CP. 12)
éto~upalo, éto kasulo - tomu otzyva net.
(p. 17)
Za cto ne doplatis', togo ne donosi~l.
(p. 18)
Bitoj sobake tollko plet' poka~i.
(p. 24)
Zapaslivyj lu~le bogatogo.
(p. 24)
Kto kogo smozet, tot togo i glozet.
(p. 29)
Nu~dy svoej vpered na znaes'.
(p. 32)
Kto dva dela rukami znaet, tot es~e i desjat'
podxvatit.
(p. 39)
Smotrit, gde pjatyj ugol.
(p. 39)
Staryj mesjac bog na zvezdy krosit.
(p. 44)
Gretomu merzlogo ne ponjat'.
(p. 45)
Bystraja vo~ka vsegda pervaja pod grebe§ok popadet.(p. 62)
Gde zèk ugreetsja, tam i spit srazu.
(p. 64)
6to vysoko u ljudej, to merzost' pered bogom.
(p. 66)
V trube ugol'koj zapisat l •
(p. 67)
pogovorki (much less trequent)
CP. 29)
Oto po spine, eto po stene.
ZaJa~'ja radost'.
Dozd' v suxmen'.
(p. 49)
(p. 51)
Most of the proverbial expressions exploited by
Solzenicyn in his tale "Odin den l
of the past.
••• "
eonstitute a legacy
Folk tales, made and handed down among the
eommon people, are studded with vivid epithets and adages.
They serve the writer as a mine of practical wisdom as
weIl as a constant supply of fresh diction.
Solzenicyn employs proverbial expressions in bis own
narrative as weIl as in the speech of his protagonists.
Occasionally he substitutes wor&and changes their order,
making the poslovica more spontaneous:
poslovica
the common
nSytyj golodnogo ne razumeet, nl 7 he alters
twice -- nGretomu merzlogo ne ponjat'," and "Teplyj
zjablogo razve kogda pojmet."
150
The apt use or proverbial expressions illustrates
the inror.mal conversational character or Sollenicyn's
language.
3. Abusive expressions
Abusive expressions occur in common colloquial
language only.
Sollenicyn exploits this characteristic
or the inror.mal style to make the speech or camp
prisoners more expressive or their harsh conditions.
Their hopeless existence is the main reason ror the
constant use or coarse language.
From the medley or
vulgar expressions the rollowing three types can be set
apart:
a) obscene expressions rormed with the word
~,
which
have a common designation "mat" or "materscina;"
va~u takl
-Mat'
••• k ..,certovoj
l v mat' ix •••
Mat'~ju
Povernis',
.
mater~
••• 1
za nogul
•••
~
b) obscene expressions ror.med with the word
nedotyka ~ xrenoval
Tak kakogo ! vy xrena miski zanimaete.
Net u~, xren vam teper' - pobystrejl
Xren tebë-=""n§ire sag" ,
Xren tebe druz'ja posunutsjal
••• a tebe xren v rot •
••• xub xren.-
(p. 27)
(p. 33)
(p. 41)
(p. 43)
CP. 44)
~;
Cp.
Cp.
Cp.
Cp.
CP.
Cp.
Cp.
10)
30)
48)
48)
55)
61)
64)
151
c) vulgar expressions
fo~ed
with the word
k ~ertovoj materi •••
éert ego dernul
-
~.
(p. 33)
(p. 47)
The uttering of curses is quite frequent in the
tale.
Expressions, which do not fall into categories
previously considered, are listed separately here:
na fuja
pes ego e~'
su~'e vymjal
U, gadskaja krov'l
svinja~'ja mordal·
Drat' ego v lob 8 rastvoroml
Da drat' tebja v lob •••.
••• v lob tebja drat'I
golovy baran'i ••• 1
Da lapot' emu v rot ••• 1
••• nomera soba~'i •••
Tak !X, zverejl
(p. 7)
Cp. 21)
(p. 38)
CP. 38)
(p. ,39)
(p. 42)
Cp.
Cp.
Cp.
Cp.
48)
55)
55)
56)
(p. 62)
(p. 64)
Such is the list of abusive expressions utilized by
Solzenicyn in the tale "Odin den' Ivana
Denisovi~a.1t
Although this list is not numerous, it fUrther confirma
the author's preoccupation with common colloquial
language.
152
NOTES TO CHAPTER
1
IV
Hermann Wunderlich, Unsere Umgangsprache in der
Eigenart ihrer Satzrllsung (Weimar & Berlin, l'8'94) ,
p.
22.
2 See N. Ju. Svedova, O~erki ~ sintaksisu russkoj
razgovornoj reci, A. N. (M., 1960), pp. 6-8.
3 See A. N. Gvozdev, O~erki ~ stilistike russkogo
jazyka (M., 1955), pp. 274-286; and Svedova,
08erki, pp. 3-26.
4
See Gvozdev,
5
See Svedova, Og'erki, p. 43.
6
Ibid., p. 78.
O~erki ~
stilistike, p. 284.
7 loc. cit.
8 See Svedova,
O~erki,
p. 94.
9 A. B. Sapiro, O~erki It2. sintaksisu russkix narodnyx
govorov, A. N. (M., 1953~~ 288.
10 See Sapiro, Ocerki, pp. 278, 287, 288, 296.
Il V. V. Vinogradov, Russkij ~azik, U~pedgiz (M., 1947),
p. 760. His view ls reemp as zed byA. I. Germanovi~,
Mezdometija russkogo jazyka (Kiev, 1966), p. 6.
12 Thus, A. M. Pe1kovskij, Russkij sintaksis v nautnom
osves~enii, 7th ed. (M., 1956), p. 372.
13 A. 1. Germanovic, Mezdometija russkogo jazyka, p. 85.
153
14 v. A. Artemov, Ob intonacii (M., 1953);
A. l. Germanovil; Meldometlja russkogo jazyka
A. N. Gvozdev,
O~erki
(KIev, 1966).
E2 stilistike russkogo
jazyka, U~pedgiz (M., 1955).
A. B. ~apiro, oaerki ~ sintaksisu russkix
narodnf! govorov, X. N. (M., 1953).
N. Ju. ~vedova, 06erk ~ sintâksisu russkoj razgovor-
!ilil ~~
A. N. (M., 1960).
15 See M. A. Rybnikova, lzbrannye trudy (M., 1958), p. 515.
Quoted after A. Zigulev, Russkie narodnye poslovicy
! pogovorki (M., 1965), p. 340 •.
16 See Zigulev, p. 340.
17 Bee V. l. DaI', Pos1ovicy russkogo naroda (M., 1957),
P. 98.
.
154
CHAPTER
V
Conclusions
In the course of this linguistic analysis an
attempt has been made to show various aspects of
Solzenicyn1s usage.
Peculiarities of lexicon and
syntax have been categorized and examined.
Questions
concerning the classification of certain semantic
features have been raised.
The origins of many
unprecedented forms have been debated.
Chapters II-IV
are totally devoted to these inquiries.
However_ no
major
b~t
isolated conclusions were drawn in the main body
of the work.
Isolated conclusions must lack perspective
because of the incompleteness of inquiry.
Proper
evaluation can only be made when aIl material has been
considered and aIl efforts directed towards the
achievement of relative objectivity.
The first conclusion to be drawn is to the general
nature of Sollenicyn's language.
The most distinctive
factor, one which marks both the lexical and syntactic
aspects of Sol~enicyn's usage is the spoken colloquial
element.
The basic colloquial character
guage shows
itsel~
in the manner of
o~
Soltenicyn's lan-
throughout the tale, which is written
~,
introduced into more
that particular Russian prose-form
~ormal
Russian literature
~rom
by the eminent lexicographer and folklorist
~olklore
V. I. DaI'.
Skaz
...........
is a fusion of popular and folk1oric
expressions with the basic literary element.
This very
definition suggests that the popular colloquial element
must constitute an important factor in the language of
the ...........
skaz.
Therefore, the popular spoken language of
SOllenicyn's tale is in accordance with the principles
of this genre.
The syntax of SOI{enicyn's tale is marked by
in~ormal
characteristics.
AlI ten points used in
Chapter IV for the syntactic analysis are essential
factors in the spoken language.
The additional section
in Chapter IV dealing with proverbial and abusive expressions further illustrates Soltenicyn's informality of
style.
The proverbs used originated in popular speech
and, if found in literature or formaI language, they
perform a stylistic function.
With
re~erence
to the
abusive expressions, these are clearly outside the scope
of any debate, for coarse and obscene words can hardly
be exploited in formaI speech.
The lexical peculiarities present demonstrate even
more clearly the informaI conversational character
o~
156
e.
Soltenicyn 1 e language.
The grouping of peculiar words
according to their semantic values further aids the
conclusions~
camp
for dialect, colloquial, vulgar and slangy
express~.ons
can hardly be attributed to any other
but informaI style.
As for the Soviet neologisms, many
of them have not yet been sanctioned by the standard
dictionaries.
AIso, even the terms registered by
lexicographers are still much more exploited in common
speech than in formaI address.
Further, the phonetic
and morphological anomalies in Solzenicyn's usage can
only be considered popular in character, since their
appearance is due to the illiteracy and ignorance of the
speaker who constructs erroneous forma without any
awareness of the fact.
AlI these factors contributing to the informaI
character of Soltenicyn's narrative were considered in
detail in the main body of the thesis.
However, the
diminutive category, which constitutes a very clear
characteristic of popular Russian speech, has only been
touched on in the respective semantic subdivisions of
adjectival and nominal peculiarities.
Most of the
diminutives in SOltenicyn's tale were not discussed.
Only special cases with unusual meaning or structure
were dwelt upon.
Therefore. a general consideration is
now given to diminutives to help draw conclusions
concerning their nature.
157
It lies in the nature
diminutives.
o~
the Russian
t~
Not only the urban idiom
o~
employ
the petty
lower-class and the primitive vernacular of the peasants,
but the standard literary language of the intelligentsia
as well is studded with diminutive forms.
However, the
literary language employs diminutives only to a very
limited degree.
. sediment
It does not abuse them.
o~ a~~ectionate
diminutive
~o~
A thick
characterizes
popular speech and does not penetrate into literary
Russian.
Therefore, the existence
o~
at least one
diminutive in practically every sentence of the tale
gives fUrther evidence of the popular character
language of "Odin den' ••• Il
~rom
~or
o~
the
A few random quotations
the text containing diminutive
~orms
will suffice,
there is hardly a sentence with no diminutive
component:
Togda dostal xlebulek v beloj tr!apo~ke i,
derza trjapo~ku v zapazu~ke,toby ni kroska
mimo toj trjapo~ki n~ upala, stal pomalupomalu otkusyvat' i zevat'.
Cp. 20)
V janvare
solny~ko
korovke bok sogrelol
CP. 25>
Butlat u Dera lagernyj, no noven'kij, ~isten'ki~.
(p. 39
Eto, znacit, no~i~ek daj im skladnoj, malen'kij.
(p. 61)
l ukrylsja s golovoj odejal'cem, tonkim, nemyten'kim.
Cp. 68)
The language of Soltenicyn is also saturated with
onomatopoeic and expletive elements
which have penetrated
158
into the tale.
It reveals itself in Many imitative and
echoing sounds: Xu-gu-ul Cp. 53), U-u-ul CP. 46) 1 Aj-aj
-ajl CP. 52), A-a-a-al Cp. 53),
, ,
~l.·.
Cp. 49),
am,
gml
Cp. 33), M-m-m-ml CP. 13).
In the three instances given below the gradation of the
words and their separation into phonemes is evident:
Raz-beris' po PJat'l
Raz-zberls' po pjat'l
Ra-a-azberls' po brigadaml
Cp. 55)
Cp. 51)
Cp. 44)
R-razobrat'sja po pjat'l
Ra-zobrat'sja po pjat'l·
(p. 47)
Tju-urinl -- Tju-rinl
Cp. 39)
Cp. 43)
Intonation plays an important role in emphatic lan8'@ge,
especially when it refers to a giving
Kqnc{j nocevat·· 'sto- ~etvertajal
pâ.-storonis' 1
Mf-arll
X-tajdi ot vorotl
of~~rders:
.,-
V:y:xodil CP. 12)
CP. 51)
CP. 49)
(p. 47)
Often, Sollenicyn renders the pronunciation in a phone tic
manner:
,E
~
s takanovec 1
Ne ljudej a stukativl
Da-e-ro61
j,
Cp. 36)
Cp. 27)
CP. 38)
The first exclamation is an example of the Latvian manner
of speech.
e
The next two examples present the Ukrainian
pronunciation.
159
Thus it is evident that both the popular manner of
expression, and the informal onomatopoeic mode of
enunciation characterize the language of Sollenicyn's
tale.
It has been hitherto assumed that dialect, cOlloqiial,
vulgar, esoteric jargonistic expressions of the underworld,
and Most Soviet neologistic
te~
belong to popular speech.
However, doubt may arise about the importance of the role
played by forced-labour camp slang in Sollenicyn's tale.
"Odin den' ••• " is, after all, a detailed study of camp
life.
Therefore, one would expect to find within it
extenaive exploitation of the prison-camp lexicon.
However, the influence of underworld slang doea not
penetrate very far.
Soltenicyn wrcte this tale for the
average Russian reader.
He was too great an artist to
make the mistake of a lesser writer and stud his work
with innumerable slangy expressions that would make the
tale uninte11igib1e to a1l but those who happened to pass
through and survive the camps and prisons of the poatrevolutionary era.
The camp-slang vocabulary exploited b~ Sol~enicyn
consista of about 50 terms.
This is rather a small
number in view of the ta1e'a theme.
In a11 approximately
350 words not belonging to the standard Russian vocabulary
occur in Solzenicyn's tale.
The camp-slang term~ology
160
thus constitutes no more than
15
per cent of these
wo~ds.
Since the 350 non-standard words embedded in the tale are
only a small part of its total vocabulary, it becomes
evident that the basic element of Solzenicyn's 68 page
literary work is simply the standard language.
Thus, the
slangy expressions of the camp inmates constitute a
minimal part of the total.
The contrary impression is
due to the fact that somw of the camp
so frequently that they stand out.
te~
are repeated
The subject-matter
of the tale is, of course, responsible for the frequent
repetition of the camp-terms used.
.'
no surprise that the term
,
Thus
itneed oCQasion
!!! has been employed 75 times.
After aIl the story does concern a camp prisoner, designated
az~k.
Another important issue ia the question of the
authorship and origin of certain terms.
It has been 1
indirectly suggested that certain forms attributed to
.
,
the colloquial or neologistic style of Russian speech
might have been coined by
Aleksand~
Solzenicyn
himse~f.
This is a not unreasonable suggestion when words under
discussion cannot be discovered in the dictionaries"
;
.1
whereas very similar forms are in fact located there.
It then seemed probable that such words, easily understood
by an average Russian reader, had been coined by the
author in accordance with the normal rules of Russian
161
wo~d-~ormation,
so that they
pa~allel
words whose likeness they bear.
Sol~enicyn's
the
In this
standa~d
Russian
catego~y o~
neologisms the ~ollowing ~orma may be included:
neuladka, nedoby~nik, napuznik, posylo~nik, bezopaska,
~ybkin,
gadskij, naotkryte, natixuju,
otstukaturit', etc.
nap~o~eg,
syzdetstv!,
It is of course impossible to prove
that Solzenicyn invented them, as opposed to his hearing
them trom
othe~s
when a
p~isone~ himsel~.
In every language besides
p~actice,
the~e
wo~ds
used in
eve~y-day
are also the so called "potential
i.e. forms non-existent in
~eality,
wo~ds,"
whose use, however,
is possible because of the accidentaI character of
formation.
"natural
Such npotential
wo~ds,n fo~
wo~ds"
wo~d­
can actually ba called
they often imitate historical
processes in the language and hence forro not quite
imaginary facts of speech, but patterns possible and
fraquently present in certain spheres of language:
dialects, children's language, extinct forms of speech
such as old documents, folktales, proverbs, etc.
normally hidden potential, absent
This
f~om ordina~y
speech
or only hinted at in a covert way, can suddenly
appea~
on the surface and be realized when exploited by the
writer who coins neologistic terms by converting the
potential into the actual.
Numerous vocables of SOlzenicyn's tale "Odin den'
Ivana Denisovica" may be such transformations.
The fact
162
that they contorm to ordinary usage, do not stand out,
and seem to be natural constituents of the language is
clear evidence ot the writerls great skl1l in creatlng
or realizlng tresh lexical resources.
163
INDEX OF RUSSIAN WORDS
The fo11owingindex inc1udes a11 words cited
in the present work with their page references
in the F1egon Press edition.
A1e~ka-baptist
-- 61
avra1 -- .39, 41
avtoremontnye -- 22, 45, 46
ba1an -- 27, 41
balanda -- 7, 8, 52, 53, 55,
57, 58, 60, 63, 66
baraxo1'ce -- 34
begma -- 44
beaevo~ka -- 16
bedo1aga -- 20
bez~'paska -- 67
bezli:rnyj -- 56
b1at -- 24
po b1a tu -- 56
blatnoj -- 35, 63
blevotina -- Lj.6
bokovina -- 31
botinkov -- 6
brat-~stonec -- 61
brat-z~k -- 19
brevnotaska -- 27, 41
brexat~ -- 6
brigadnik -- 3, 4, 7~ 12, 30
b/u -- 34
BOR -- 5, 10, 14, 15, 28, 51,
54, 63
burkotat' -- 4, 30
burovaten'kij -- 9
bytovoj -- 27 28
(nastojascego1 ëaju -- 61
ce1ovekovyxod -- 15
'6' ertenys - 25
CTZ -- 6
cuma -- 46
cuska -- 6, 7, 45
cu~kat'sja -- 37
der'mo -- 7, 53, 64
derevce -- 16
dereven'skij -- 18
derevjannyj bus1at -- 18,
27, 48
derevoobde1otnyj -- 16, 49
derunok -- 64
dBrzit -- 35
desjat' sutok -- 61
desjatnik -- 19, 23, 32, 39,
41, 45, 47
dezurka -- 9
dezurnjak -- 4
dobo1tka -- 8
dogljadaet -- 32, 41
dolbajut -- 22
do1bat' -- 15
(iz) domu -- 17
donce -- 32
dospevat' -- 28
doxodit' -- 7, 16, 35
doxodjaga -- 28, 29
doxrjast1!at l - - 7
dryn -- 41, 67
dvuxsotgrammovka -- 34
dymu -- 25
e~edBn -- 29
~lektrorabota -- 39
~lektromont~nyj -- 40
energopoezd -- 19, 28
~stol'ko -- 31
tamil' ica -- 14
Fetjukov-laka1 -- 1.3
titil' -- 4
fitil'-inva1id -- 58
tuëmnik -- 42
164
fuganut' -- 4
fuimat'sja -- 6
fuj -- 7
fujas1ice -- .35
gad -- 4, 6, 24, .34, 45, 54,
57, 64,
gadskij -- .38
gadstvo -- 42
garantijka -- 27
gaxnut' -- 4.3
gde-tos' -- 20
gohu -- .35
Gopcik-x1opcik -- 25
gorjun 66
gorjunja -- .34
grBbanyj -- 55
grev -- 12
GULAG -- .34
gunjavyj -- 1.3
gu~evat'sja -- 60, 6.3
ino -- 64
instrumenta1ka -- 21, 2.3,
36, 42
instrumenta1 t séik -- 22, 42
ixij -- 14, 22, 26
ixnij -- 44
izda1ja -- 2.3, 5.3
izgadittsja -- 54
kaptër -- 60
kaptërka -- .3, 5, 6, 14, 16,
54, 62
kartosinka -- 57
karcer -- 5, 15, 39, 50, 5.3,
61, 62, 6.3, 65, 66, 68
katuS'ka -- 27
kavtorang -- 16, 20, 24, 25,
26, 28, 30, 31, 35, .38,
41, 42, 4.3, 45, 46, 47,
60, 61, 62, 63, 66
kavtorangov -- 28, 66
kes' -- 14, 22, 24, 43
k1ad -- 39
kompo1ka -- .34
komvzvod -- .34
kondej -- 4, 5, 7, 9, 12,
42
korytce -- 25
kosanut' -- 4, 10
kosty1'nut' -- 38
(ot) kraju -- 9
krasninka -- 41
krasnof1otec -- 4
krovosos -- 40
kum -- .3, 5
KVé -- 8, 44, 53, 54, 60
1edu -- 35
1esopova1 -- 27
1evyj -- 9, 10
1inejka -- 8, 10, 12, 51,
52
1jut' -- 12
lopux -- 59
magara -- 8, 29
mas1ice-fujas1ice
35
maternut' -- 55
materja1'éik -- 21
matjugat'sja -- 43
maxnut' -- 22
medsanbat -- 10
merzavec -- 61
merzotina -- 46
mexzavod -- 48, 49, 51
mexzavodec -- 48
mexzavodskij -- 48, 52
minonosec -- 14, 62
morda -- .37, 39, 54, 6.3
mordovorot -- 54
morozjaka -- 2.3
mjasinka -- 8
nabratyj -- 56
nakos' -- 39
namordnik -- 20
naotk;"~te -- 28
naprofeg -- 39
napuznik -- 14
narodu -- 8
naskorjax -- 6
nasypaet -- 59
natixuju -- 54
navykate -- 39
nedobytnik -- .35
nedokurok -- 1.3
nemyten'kij -- 68
neprijutno -- 40
neu1adka -- 14
neume1ec -- 67
nevda1i -- 36
non~e --8, 19
165
,normirovlcrik -- 19, 24
nosilki -- 26
nosja -- 58
nosu -- 38
nov&xon'kij -- 6
nudno -- 1$
nyn~e -- 64
obalduj -- 7
obnevolju -- 62
obogrev -- 57
obogrevalka -- 19, 22, 23,
24, 31,
32~
33, 36, 42
odejal'ce --6~
odnobrigadnik -- 7, 13
odnova -- 11
okunaja -- 56
okun~i -- 7
oper -- 12, 54, 59
Osoblag -- 12, 27,
otkaz!'ik -- 10
otkosina -- 58, 59
otlet -- 10
otlitnik -- 34
otmaxnut'sja -- 22
(bez) otryvu -- 40
otttukaturit' -- 8
otymat' -- 49
padal' -- 45
padl0 -- 6, 7, 25, 45, 46,
55, 67
pajat' -- 51
pajka -- 8, 11, 14, 16, 18,
19, 21, 33, 40, 54, 58,
60, 66
parasa -- 3, 4, 5
para~ny j -- ,3
palè'enok -- 45
paskuda -- 43, 46
pereminat' -- 31
(bez) pereryvu -- 36, 37
peresidka -- 26, 27
podsosat'sja -- 13
pOdstrel'nut' -- 13
podymat'sja -- 9, 55
pogrebovat' -- 20
pokazuxa -- 7
(net) pokoju -- 10
polkan -- 54
polkarcer -- 5
polubegom -- 49
pomatjugat'sja -- 23
pombrig --4, 11, 29, 31,
46, 56
pombr1gad1r -- 11
pombr1gadirov -- 11
pomene -- 35
pomenet' -- 8
pomirju -- 4
pont -- 64
popervu -- 14
popka -- 19, 23, 29
poploS'e -- 7
popustja -- 48
pospokojnej -- 27
posudomoj -- 30
posudomojka -- 3
posylo!n1k -- 60
po~akalit' -- 57
poval -- 27
poy.;remèbka -- 32
PPC --
4,
6, 9, 12, 18, 51
predzonnik -- 15, 51
pridurok -- 19, 29, 51, 53,
58
pridurnja -- 53, 64
prjam -- 28
proaxat' -- 32
proburkotat' -- 30
procentovka-- 18, 24
prodsklad -- 29
prodstol -- 4
progarknut'sja -- 12
prol' ja --4
prorab -- 18, 19, 23, 32,
39, 40, 45
prosljunjavit' -- 13
prosepeljavit' -- 40
provalina -- 37
proxodu -- 25
puzatyj -- 54
puzo -- 28, 37, 59
p' ja -- 62
rabotjaga -- 6, 7, 10, 23,
24, 28, 29, 35, 36, 45,
53, 54
radyj -- 67
rangu -- 20
rasstarat'sja -- 41
166
rasstaryvat'sja -- 44
rastvoromela1ka -- 21
rastvoI'U -- 39
razgovoI"U -- 57
(ni) razu -- 52
razzjavit' -- 31
rybce -- 62
rybldn -- 8
sa1aga -- 39
samodumkoj -- 20
samosadu -- 9
san~ast' -- 3, 4, 7, 8, 9,
·12, 48, 53
saninstruktor -- 28
sedinka -- 37
sered' -- 48
sidja -- 29
sidka -- 5, 6, 50
si10dër -- 55
slast' -- 9
smef'ueéka -- 18
smogajut -- 18
smortok -- 41
snaroè'ka -- 45
sne~ -- 16
soba~ij -- 33, 62
Socbytgorodok -- 4, 12, 18,
22, 43, 51, 68 .
Socgorodok -- 17
sovat' na 1apu -- 18
spajka -- 53
sporej -- 36
spotyclivo -- 48
srok€'" -- 40
stakanovec -- 36
sterva -- 45, 47, 54
stervoza -- 46
stoja -- 29
stojaëi -- 47
stre1ok-pulemetcik -- 34
strojmaterial -- 32
stucat' -- 3, 12
stukac -- 27, 28, 59
stupni -- 3
su~ij -- 38
suè"it'sja -- 49
susi1ka -- 4, 54, 65
svetu -- 25
svinjacij -- 39
-- 19, 46, 53, 63
syzdetstva -- 22
saka1 -- 13, 20, 34, 47,
60
sakalit l - - 31
sa1man -- 64
saraxnut 1 - - 14
sazisto -- 58
sesterit l - - 52
sestërka -- 28, 29, 32, 54,
55
sibko -- 7, 33, 55
skodnik -- 46
!kva1yga -- 53
~lakob1ok -- 29, 37, 38
~mon -- 11, 12, 13, 14, 44,
50, 51, 54, 60, 62,
svolo~'
ié'
smonjat' -- 48, 49, 52
~ana -- 35
sugat' -- 64
S"umnut' -- 30
!iuranu t ' -- 21
~urudit' -- 64
!usera -- 46
tabacinka -- 13, 34
[email protected] -- 23, 57
TEe -- 15, 16, 19, 21, 23,
\ 32, 33, 35, 37, 40, 41
tecovskij -- 52
terpe1'nik -- 27
to1kac -- 55
tolkanut' -- 4
Cbez) tolku -- 65
torf'orazrabotki -- 17
trexsotgrammovka -- 58
tr japic a -- 21
trog -- 65
trog'te -- 25
trudoden' -- 17
udovolennyj 68
ugrev -- 29
ukryv -- 12, 62
ulybitsja -- 67
umaxnu t 1 - - 22
(net) uporu -- 25
urka -- 63
167
uto1akivat' -- 12
uxajdakat'sja -- 10
vagonka -- 36 46 56 Il, 20 6
28 6 61 6 65, 66, 67, 68
v~~evo~ka-opojaska -- 50
ver~uxaj -- 51
vetru -- 256 58
vka1yvat' -- 4, 246 29
ynatrusku -- 59
voskresen'ice -- 52
vpërede -- 35
vpo1notu -- 30
xalabuda -- 28
xa1turit' -- 37
x1eboz-ez -- 56
x1eboz-ezka -- 46 11, 29
xoc:"ca -- 48
xodu -- 30
xoiàdu -- 25
xoS"' -- 18, 59
x~en -- 30, 48, 55, 61, 64
xz-enovina -- 6
zay -- 54, 55
zayaz-uxa -- 41
zavsto10voj -- 54, 55
zavtz-evo -- 61
zagz-ebanec 45
zakosit' -- 30, 31, 60, 68
zakz-aek -- 42
za1upat'sja -- 20, 21, 52
zamesto -- 4, 17
zana~i t' -- 43
zaplot -- 5
zaz-aza -- 40
zaz-ane -- 41
zarp1ata -- 24, 32
zaz-tjat'sja -- 13
zasavyvat' -- 11
zastojat' -- 18
zatemok -- 67
zatiz-ka -- 29
zatursit' -- 60
zaulju1jukat' -- 43
zaxa1tyrivat' -- 33
zaxz-jastok -- 46
z(k -- 24
zek -- 5, 6, Il, 12, 13,
14, 15, 16, 19, 21,
23, 24, 28, 31, 32,
33, 35, 41, 45, 46,
47, 48, 49, 51, 53,
\ 54, 57, 646 65, 68
zekovskij -- 14
zjab1yj -- 10
(ne) znato -- 48
zdja -- 53, 56
lituxa -- 6, 60, 66
zizica -- 57
168
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