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Cognitive Level of Analysis
Class of 2016
Introduction
At the second level of analysis, the products of our biological machinery can be seen in our cognitive system, which
includes our cognitions, emotions and behaviours.
Around the 1950s psychologists began systematically to explore cognition to further understanding of human
behaviour. This shift in focus from studying observable behaviour to studying mental processes, such as memory
and perception, is called “the cognitive revolution”. Cognitive psychologists suggested that humans form internal
mental representations that guide behaviour, and they developed a range of research methods to study these. In
recent years, researchers within social and cultural psychology have used findings from cognitive psychologists to
understand how mental processes may be influenced by social and cultural factors.
Cognitive psychology represents a vast array of research areas including cognitive psychology, cognitive science,
cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience. Topics such as memory, perception, artificial intelligence,
amnesia and social cognition are studied. Cognitive psychologists use traditional research methods (for example,
experiments and verbal protocols) but there is an increasing focus on the use of modern technology.
Cognitive psychologists collaborate increasingly with neuroscientists, social psychologists and cultural psychologists
in order to explore the complexity of human cognition. This approach is illustrated in the field of cultural and social
cognitive neuroscience, indicating the complementary nature of social, cognitive and biological levels of analysis.
Research that integrates these three levels can develop more meaningful theories to explain the mechanisms
underlying complex behaviour and the mind.
Any of the above information can be used in the context of a questions.
Learning outcomes
General learning outcomes (Common to all three levels of analysis)
1. Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis . (SAQ)
Test Strategy: you need to focus on the principle - use studies as support, but do not go in-depth
in describing them
1. Mental representations guides our behavior.
 The mind is a complex machine – an information processor
o Brain is the hardware, mental images/representations are the software
o Information comes from bottom up (senses), which is processed in the
mind via top-down processing from our memory (Schema)
o This leads to output (behavior)
 Cognitions (Schema) influence:
o Loftus: Reconstructive nature of memories
o Bartlett: found cultural schemas influenced memory
o Social psychologist; people with strong stereotypes more likely to
discriminate
2. Mental processes can be scientifically investigated,
 Describing mental processes (memory) in terms of information processing has
made it possible to test theories by scientific methods
 Explain how “scientific methods” are used – experiments with IV, DV
o Three box model of memory
o Barriers to reasoning
 The study of mental processes help to explain human behavior.
o Stereotypes
o Eyewitness testimony
o Barriers to reasoning
 The study of behavior at the cognitive level can often be integrated to the
study of behavior at the SCLOA that than provides a more comprehensive
explanation of that behavior.
2. Explain how principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in
research (that is, theories and/or studies). (SAQ)
 Each principle needs to be linked to at least two studies
 When using studies, make sure you relate back to the principle
3. Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis
(for example, experiments, observations, interviews). (SAQ & LAQ)
 Must address:
o What is unique about the CLOA that differs from other perspectives?
o Most of theses studies are done in a lab – must address ecological validity
o HOW: how the method is used refers to key features of the method as well as how
the method was used in specific research. Participant(s), IV & DV, etc.
o WHY: the appropriateness of the method for the aim of the study, issues of
validity and reliability, ability to generalize
o Must specifically link the above to the level of analysis
 Experiments:
o Definition: IV is what is manipulated/different in control & experimental
group/situation
o Why: Can show cause if all other variables are held constant
o How:
 Laboratory setting, Natural setting (Gavin)
 Sampling & assignment to different groups
o can have low ecological validity
o sampling issues
o Experimenter bias – expectancies


o Loftus
Interviews: asking about memories or reasoning processes
o Definitions:
o Why:
o How:
o S & L:
o Brown & Kulick – Flashbulb memories
Survey/questionnaires: understand reasoning processes
o Definition:
o Why: Hard to manipulate variable for an experiment
o How:
o IAT:
4. Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
o I would stay away from this question as a LAQ – Know enough to answer as a
SAQ.
o Deception: (or lack of informed consent) Festinger, Loftus – not getting informed
consent
o Psychological stress for Festinger, Brown & Kulick
 need to include why ethics needed to be violated (keep participants ignorant of IV)
 Does the information gained out weight ethics violation?
Cognitive processes (all LAQ except #7): Cognitive process = Memory (chapter 10)
5. Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.
 Test Strategies: define schema theory, relate to studies & bring back to an evaluation of
schema theory, only a short introduction is needed
 Need to define schema theory and relate it to a study
o A cognitive theory about information processing
 Types of schemas – script, self, & social schemas
o “A network of knowledge, beliefs, & expectations about particular aspects of the
world that influences our behavior” Memory!
 How specific information is stored so it can be accessed & used
 Assumes that what we already know will influence the outcome of
information processing
o Piaget: Assimilation & Accommodation
o
 Schema theory & memory
o Anderson & Pichert (1978): (IB Companion) aim to investigate if schema
processing influences both encoding & retrieval – point of view of house buyer or
house burglar – results – yes it does
o Bartlett: cultural influences
 Bradford & Johnson: Title & Non-title – the influence of schemas on
memory & retrieval
o Reconstructive nature of memory
 Loftus –
 Leading Questions: How fast – schemas of crashed & hit
 False Presuppositions: focus on the placement of false
information into a schema of a rural setting
 Evaluation:
o Strengths & limitations:
 Degree of empirical support – both S & L
 Lots of Loftus studies
 Memory studies
 Methodological considerations – ecological validity

Eysenck, 2009; help explain why memories get distorted, but
 Vague in that the precise nature of schemas are not explained
 Not directly observable and only inferred from observable behavior
6. Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process* with reference to research
studies.
 Testing Strategies:
o Make sure you focus on the command term – if evaluate, strengths & limitations
o Need more than one study
o Make sure you do not mix your cognitive processes – memory or reasoning
 Memory* – a cognitive process
Types of memory:
 Explicit:
 Implicit:
1. Three Box Model: Atkinson & Shiffrin (also called the multi-store model)
 Definition:
 Encoding
 Storage
 Retrieval
 Sensory Memory:
 Duration:
 Capacity:
 Encoding:
 Studies:
o Sperling:
 Short Term memory:
 Duration:
 Capacity:
 Encoding:
 Working memory
 Studies:
o Chunking: Miller
o H.M.
 Long Term Memory:
 Procedural Memory
 Declarative Memory
o Semantic: Bousfield, 1953, Cole & Scribner
o Episodic memory
 Evaluate: Strengths & Limitations
 Strengths
o fits the research (need to state the studies for support)
o fits the biology – H.M.
 Limitations: - overall, to simplistic
o Does not explain the process of moving from one storage
unit to the next – Levels of processing helps here
o Not just linear – “working memory & schemas” influence
what we remember, pay attention to, how stored
o Many types of LTM
2. Levels of processing model: Craik & Lockhart, 1972:
 Levels of processing:
 Depth of processing:
o Elaboration
o Personal relevance
o Meaning


Craik & Tulving1975: memory recognition test
Evaluation:
o Empirical support
o Vague concepts – what is depth?
o Does not address the retrieval stage of memory
7. Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process (SAQ)
 Memory – a cognitive process
o Childhood Amnesia: Conway: need to develop a sense of self before memories are
formed – 18 month old – apply paint to nose – point to the mirror – no “theory of
mind” – wipe off own nose shows sense of self – Autobiographical memory starts
at age least by age 5
o Changes at the neurons & synapses
 Kandel, 1989: studies on sea snails & STM – temporary changes alter the
neurons ability to increase or decrease the release neurotransmitters
 LTM: involves structural changes to the brain
 Bliss, 1993: electrical stimulation to hippocampus – increased the
strength of synaptic responsiveness – called long term potentiation
o The receiving neurons became more responsive to AP
o Neuro.transmitter glutamate is involved
o Increase in # of synaptic connections
o Brain Structures: How memories are stored
 Hippocampus & long term declarative memories
 MRI to look at structure of the brain 1997
 Clive Wearing & brain damage to hippocampus
o Anterograde & retrograde amnesia
 HM – liaison to hippocampus
o Hormones & memories
 McGaugh & Cahill: Hormones released by adrenal glands during stress &
emotional arousal can enhance memories
 Epinephrine
 Causes increase in glucose levels in blood
 Study: participants viewed 20 slides of emotional producing slides
that they need to name
o ½ submerged arm in ice water after viewing slides –
produced the f/f response
o ½ no water
o a week later 1st group remembered more pictures
o memory consolidation
8. Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process. Social is within one
society, Cultural is between societies,( Education, Memory)
 Memory – a cognitive process (IB Companion, 80 - 81)
o Cultural Schemes: Bartlett:
 Culture determines what and how things are remembered.
o Cross-cultural psychologists are well aware that memory test cannot be used
across different cultures.
o Schooling & Non-schooling: Cole & Scribner: aim was to investigate memory
strategies. Took appropriate steps to set up memory tasks: (Liberian & American
children were compared)
 Ask different age groups of children to memorize items that had been
presented in 4 categories
 unschooled children did not increase their recall of items (did not
use memory strategies like chunking)

schooled Liberian students use of semantic categories in recall and
did just as well as US children the same age
 When words presented as a narrative to unschooled children they
did just as well as other groups on recall
 Supported by Wadell & Rogoff, 1982 who found the same results with
Mayan children
o Cultural factor of Eyewitness memories (Loftus, 518) after shown a video of
quickly occurring crime – whole scene takes 5 seconds - when faced with
identification of ‘criminal’ 1 hour later (having to pick out from 5 pictures)
 Found that same ethnic identification significantly higher for white &
black Americans
 Found same age identifications significantly higher for age groups in
America
o Cultural: Individualism/collectivism dimension & flashbulb memory (Wang &
Aydin)
1. Quick definition of this dimension
a. In individualistic cultures – expressing and sharing of emotions is
acceptable & encouraged
b. In collectivist cultures – expressing of emotions is usually not
encouraged
c. This leads to:
i. Lower levels of emotions
ii. Lower levels of mental ruminations
iii. Lower sharing of emotions
2. Quick definition of FBM
a. Individuals tend to share their emotional experiences
b. The more intense the emotional experience, the more social sharing
3. Prediction that people in individualist cultures will have more FBM than
collectivist cultures
a. Support (Wang & Aydin): when Chinese participants are ask to
recall memories of public events they recall fewer events than US,
UK, or German participants
b. Otani, 2005: found only a small percent of Japanese participants
formed FBM of a nuclear accident.
9. With reference to relevant research studies, to what extent is one cognitive process reliable?
Test Strategies: I would look at memory
o Reliability is the focus – strengths & limitations of a cognitive explanation
(Memory)
o What factors account for the lack of reliability of the cognitive process
o Do not focus on the details of Loftus’ study
 Memory – a cognitive process – a brief definition of memory, types etc. MAY be in
order, depending on the command term
o Focus on Eyewitness testimony – Why? The Innocents Project
o Need to focus on the results of studies (example: Loftus where only 17% were
influenced) if the command term is to what extent
o Memories are reconstructed:
 Wells: Factors influencing reliability of eyewitness testimony
 Guilty person is not in lineup
 Wrong identification is reinforced
 Once reinforced, wrong memory is engrained in memory
 Loftus studies – see empirical study sheet
 Implanting false memories with use of false presuppositions
 Influencing memories with leading questions
 Weapon effect

Garvin : influencing children’s testimony (memories)
 Age
 Leading questions
 Social influence techniques
o Recovered memories:
 Freud – suppression of unwanted/emotionally traumatic events
 Recovered memories through therapy
o Strengths & Limitations:
 Applications to real life
 Contradictory findings
 Ecological validity of laboratory experiments
 Yuille & Cutshall, 1986: found eyewitness memories very good in
real life
10. Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes. (T & W: 118)
 Test Strategies; Make sure the definition/explanation of the technology is given –
distinguish between structural and functional brain imaging
 All findings are correlational data – NOT an experiment and does NOT show
causation
 MRI: provide a three-dimensional picture of brain structure
o no injection of chemicals
o MRIs detect changes in oxygen changes in the blood – the more active a brain
area is, the more oxygen is used – researchers than correlate what cognitive
processes are happening with areas of brain activity
o fMRI provides brain images many times a second – ‘real time’
o Kilts, 2003,: aim is to investigate the role of the brain in product preferences
(advertising)
 self-selected sampling
 1st rated products in terms of attractiveness
 2nd MRI asked to do the same rating of items
 each time a product was rated attractive, activity in the medial
prefrontal cortex, an area associated with our sense of self &
personality
 if we are attracted to a product, we also identify our self with
the product
o Camerer, (2003): Use of MRI in economic decision making – playing the
ultimate game
 When deciding whether to accept low offer, two areas of brain active
 Prefrontal cortex = rational problem solving – if greater activity
– accept low offer
 Anerior insula = pain, disgust & other unpleasant feelings – if
greater activity – reject offer
 70% accuracy in predicting decision just based on MRI scan
 Innate wiring for fairness – universality of ‘golden rule’
o Nyberg, 2000: MRI & storage location of LTM
 When people remember pictures, areas of the occipital lobe are active
 Sounds, auditory cortex is active
o Thompson, 1983: MRI showed activity in the cerebellum for procedural
memory (simple, classically conditioned learning)
o HM & use of MRI to locate specific damage to his brain
 PET: measures glucose consumption & blood flow
o injection of non harmful radioactive element into glucose
o used to detect brain tumors or memory disorders like Alzheimer’s =
o Mosconi, 2005: able to detect early stages of Alzheimer’s by focusing on
reductions in brain metabolism in the hippocampus
 longitudinal study: followed 53 healthy participants for 9 – 24 years –
those with early signs of reduced metabolism in the hippocampus were
later associated with the development of Alzheimer’s
Cognition and emotion (All LAQ)
11. To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion? (LAQ)
 Must focus on the interaction to get top marks!!!
 Emotions consist of three parts:
o Physiological changes: autonomic nervous system
o Our cognitions about the emotion
o Associated behavior: crying, smiling, running away
 Mirror Neurons: T & W, 397
 Physiology of emotions: T & W, 398 – IB Companion, 89
 LeDoux Two Pathway Model:
 James-Lange theory: (A-Level, 100 – 103)
o Our emotions are essentially our experiences of our bodies physiology
o Stages involved in producing an emotion
1. There is an emotional stimulus (tiger) – which causes specific
2. Physiological change (running) – which is than interpreted
3. As the experience of the emotion (tiger + running = scared)
o For: physiology does influence experience of emotions
 Schwartz, 1981: found distinct physiological reactions for anger, fear,
happiness
o Against: Specific physiological changes have only been found for strongest,
most basic emotion, not others


Schachter-Singer: Arousal-interpretation theory:
o There are two factors – both of which are essential – for emotions to be
experienced
1. High physiological arousal &
2. An emotional interpretation of the arousal (cognition)
o If either component is absent, no emotion
o cognition determines the type of emotion
o arousal level determines the degree of the emotion
o A-Level, 102
Lazarus’s appraisal theory: (IB Companion, 90)
o Cognitive appraisal plays a crucial role in emotional experience – three
specific kinds of appraisal
1. Primary appraisal: stimulus is either +, -, or neutral
2. Secondary appraisal: what resources you have to deal with situation
3. Re-appraisal: stimulus & coping strategies are monitored
o Evaluation:
 Positive: appraisal is important component of emotions
 Positive: individuals different appraisal of same situation accounts for
different emotions
 Negative: Appraisal is rather vague and hard to measure
 Negative: de-emphasizes social context of emotions
12. Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process. (LAQ)
 Hormones & Memory
o Amygdala is activated
o Emotional arousal & stress release epinephrine
 Flashbulb Memory: IB Companion, 91
o Brown & Kulick theory: Make sure you define what it is
 Need to emphasis the role of emotions!
o Test Strategy: S & L: can focus on methods, supporting or contradiction of
studies, revision of original theory – how it holds up today
o Strengths: Need to emphasis the role of emotions!!
 B & K original Study
 Conway Study
o Limitations: Need to focus on Emotions!
 Harsch:
 Rubin:
o Conclusions about FBM
 So how does emotion influence memory?????