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Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Learning --Behavior --Change --Relatively permanent --Practice and experience --Stimulus --Response Aristotle --Associations Classical conditioning --Passive response and involuntary response ----Reflexive response --Higher-order conditioning --First-order conditioning --Second-order conditioning --Delayed conditioning ----Trace conditioning ----Simultaneous conditioning ----Backward conditioning --Ivan Pavlov ----Salivating dog ----Contiguity model ----Robert Rescorla: Contingency model --John B. Watson UNIT FIVE: Learning, Memory, Cognition, Language, Testing and Individual Differencesx This section of the course introduces students to differences between learned and unlearned behavior. The primary focus is exploration of different kinds of learning, including classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. The biological bases of behavior illustrate predispositions for learning. • Distinguish general differences between principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning (e.g., contingencies). • Describe basic classical conditioning phenomena, such as acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination, and higher-order learning. • Predict the effects of operant conditioning (e.g., positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, schedules of reinforcement). • Predict how practice, schedules of reinforcement, and motivation will influence quality of learning. • Interpret graphs that exhibit the results of learning experiments. • Provide examples of how biological constraints create learning predispositions. • Describe the essential characteristics of insight learning, latent learning, and social learning. • Apply learning principles to explain emotional learning, taste aversion, superstitious behavior, and learned helplessness. • Suggest how behavior modification, biofeedback, coping strategies, and selfcontrol can be used to address behavioral problems. • Identify key contributors in the psychology of learning (e.g., Albert Bandura, John Garcia, Ivan Pavlov, Robert Rescorla, B. F. Skinner, Edward Thorndike, Edward Tolman, John B. Watson). In the section on Cognition, focus is how humans convert sensory input into kinds of information. They examine how humans learn, remember, and retrieve information. This part of the course also addresses problem solving, language, and creativity. • Compare and contrast various cognitive processes: — effortful versus automatic processing; — deep versus shallow processing; — focused versus divided attention. • Describe and differentiate psychological and physiological systems of memory (e.g., short-term memory, procedural memory). • Outline the principles that underlie effective encoding, storage, and construction of memories. • Describe strategies for memory improvement. • Synthesize how biological, cognitive, and cultural factors converge to facilitate acquisition, development, and use of language. • Identify problem-solving strategies as well as factors that influence their effectiveness. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ----Little Albert experiment ------Conditioned emotional response (CER) --Neutral stimulus (N) --Natural response ---Unconditioned response (UR) ---Unconditioned stimulus (US) --Conditioned response (CR) --Conditioned stimulus (CS) • List the characteristics of creative thought and creative thinkers. • Identify key contributors in cognitive psychology (e.g., Noam Chomsky, Hermann Ebbinghaus, Wolfgang Köhler, Elizabeth Loftus, George A. Miller). An understanding of intelligence and assessment of individual differences is highlighted in this portion of the course. Students must understand issues related to test construction and fair use. • Define intelligence and list characteristics of how psychologists measure intelligence: — abstract versus verbal measures; — speed of processing. • Discuss how culture influences the definition of intelligence. • Compare and contrast historic and contemporary theories of intelligence (e.g., Charles Spearman, Howard Gardner, Robert Sternberg). • Explain how psychologists design tests, including standardization strategies and other techniques to establish reliability and validity. • Interpret the meaning of scores in terms of the normal curve. • Describe relevant labels related to intelligence testing (e.g., gifted, cognitively disabled). • Debate the appropriate testing practices, particularly in relation to culture-fair test --Observations uses. ----Acquistion • Identify key contributors in intelligence research and testing (e.g., Alfred Binet, ------CS+US=CR Francis Galton, Howard Gardner, Charles Spearman, Robert Sternberg, Louis ------Dependent Terman, David Wechsler). on stimulus contiguity I.CLASSICAL CONDITIONING - Classical conditioning is a fundamental way ----Time that animals, including humans, learn new responses. Classical between CS and conditioning involves learning reflexive, involuntary responses to stimuli US that don't normally cause such responses. ----Repetition ----Extinction ----Stimulus generalization ----Stimulus discrimination ----Spontaneous recovery ----Higher-order conditioning --Conditioning sequences ----Delayed conditioning ----Stimulus conditioning ----Trace conditioning Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ----Backward conditioning --Applications of classical conditioning ---Counterconditio ning ----Flooding ---Desensitization Operant conditioning --Principles of operant conditioning ----Active and voluntary --Edward Thorndike ----Law of effect ------Stimulus – response connection ----Puzzle box --B.F. Skinner ----Skinner box --Respondent behavior ----Responses are “emitted” --Reinforcement ----Primary reinforcement ----Secondary reinforcement ------Generalized reinforcer ------Token economy ----Positive reinforcement A. Pavlov and Watson’s Contributions - Using Pavlov's classic research studies of salivation in dogs, students are introduced to classical conditioning, where an initially neutral stimulus that does not normally cause any particular reflex or emotional response is paired with another stimulus that does cause such a response. After several pairings, this previously neutral stimulus (NS) will cause the response to occur. Each stimulus and response is named according to its cause or consequence. The neutral stimulus is paired with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the stimulus that causes the reflex or emotional response. The reflex or emotional response itself is known as the unconditioned response (UCR). When the neutral stimulus begins to cause the response on its own; it is then referred to as the conditioned stimulus (CS); the response caused by the conditioned stimulus is then referred to as the conditioned response (CR). Watson demonstrated how the emotion of fear could be classical conditioning. The story of Little Albert shows students how fears (and phobias) called conditioned emotional responses (CERs) can be easily conditioned. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ----Negative reinforcement --Punishment ----Behavior followed by unpleasant consequences ----Behavior discouraged by withholding something that is pleasurable ----Positive punishment ----Negative punishment (omission training) ----Side effects of punishment ------Increased aggression ------Passive aggressiveness ------Avoidance behavior ------Modeling ------Temporary suppression ------Learned helplessness ----Escape learning ----Avoidance learning --Premack principle --Changes in operant conditioning ----Acquisition ------Shaping ------Chaining ---Generalization ---- B. Basic Principles - After introducing students to key concepts, the chapter enters into a discussion of stimulus generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Generalization occurs when stimuli similar to the original CS elicits the CR; discrimination occurs when only the CS elicits the CR. When the UCS is repeatedly withheld and the previous association between the CS and the UCS is broken, extinction occurs. When a CR that had been extinguished spontaneously reappears, it is known as spontaneous recovery. Higher order conditioning, where a neutral stimulus is paired with a second conditioned stimulus (CS) that already causes a learned or conditioned response, explains many emotions and attitudes. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Discrimination ----Extinction ------Resistance to extinction --Schedules of reinforcement ----Continuous reinforcement ------Matching law ------Optimal foraging law ----Partial / intermittent schedule of reinforcement ------Fixedinterval (FI) ------Variableinterval (VI) ------Fixed-ratio (FR) ------Variableratio (VR) Latent learning --Edward Tolman ----Cognitive maps ----Latent learning Abstract learning Insight learning --Wolfgang Kohler Cognitive Theories --Jean Piaget ----see Lifespan development ----Schema ----Assimilation ---- Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Accommodation --Information processing approach ----Human information processing (HIP) ------Input ------Output Test, operate, test, exit (TOTE) --George A. Miller Social / observational learning --Albert Bandura ----Distinction between acquisition of a learned response and the performance of the response, with the latter depending on reinforcement ----Bobo Doll experiment ----Direct experience ----Vicarious experience ----Processes in observational learning ------Attention ------Retention ------Motor reproduction processes ------Motivation ----Both classical and operant Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm conditioning can take place under social / observational learning ----Violence in the media Factors affecting learning -Meaningfulness --Transfer --Chemical influences Neuroscience and learning --Adaptive brain ----Enriched and deprived environments II. OPERANT CONDITIONING - A second type of conditioning, operant conditioning, (called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning) is based on the consequences of an organism’s behavior. Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if followed by punishment. Emotional influences Evolutionary influences --Biological preparedness ----Taste aversions (Classical conditioning) --Biological constraints ----Instinctual drift (Operant conditioning) ----John Garcia -----Preparedness Cultural validity --Cultural values --Perceptual processes --Intelligence A. Thorndike and Skinner’s Contributions - Operant conditioning was originally investigated by Edward Thorndike and later by B. F. Skinner and occurs when people or animals learn by the consequences of their Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Application of classical conditioning --Marketing --Prejudice --Medical treatments --Phobias responses. These consequences may consist of either reinforcement or punishment. Application of operant conditioning --Prejudice --Biofeedback --Accidental reinforcement and superstitious behavior Cognition Memory --Encoding --Attention ----Structural, phonemic, semantic encoding elaboration --Storage --Levels of processing model ----Sensory memory ----Short-term memory (STM) ----Long-term memory (LTM) --Retrieval --Recall --Misinformation effect --Sourcemonitoring error --Reality monitoring --Constructive B. Basic Principles - Reinforcement is anything that is likely to cause and increase in the response. Punishment is anything that is likely to cause a decrease in the response. Primary reinforcers satisfy an unlearned biological need and secondary reinforcers have learned value. Positive reinforcement occurs when something is added to increase the response rates. Negative reinforcement, which is different from punishment, occurs when something is removed in order to increase the response rate. There are several kinds of schedules of reinforcement. Continuous schedules reinforce each response. Partial schedules reinforce some, but not all responses. The major types of partial reinforcement schedules are fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Shaping is the process of teaching a person or an animal a complex task by reinforcing successive approximations to a desired response. There are also two kinds of punishment, positive and negative. Positive Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm process Stages of memory --Sensory memory ----Visual memory ----Auditory memory ----Attention ----Recognition Models of memory --Informationprocessing approach --Parallel distributed processing model --Traditional three-state memory model / Three-box / Information processing model ----Sensory memory ------Visual memory ------Auditory memory ------Attention ------Recognition ------Time duration --------1/2 second for visual --------2-4 seconds for auditory punishment occurs when something is given to decrease the response rate. Negative punishment consists of removing something to decrease the response rate. (It is helpful here to remind students to think in mathematical terms – positive (add) and negative (take away). Punishment has several serious side effects including increased aggression as well as learned helplessness. In order to use reinforcement and punishment effectively, it is advisable to keep the following tips in mind: (1) Feedback. Provide clear and immediate feedback when the person or animal makes the desired response; (2) Timing. Apply reinforcers or punishers as soon as possible after the response is made; (3) Consistency. Be consistent in applying both reinforcers and punishers; and (4) Order of Presentation. Be sure to reinforce or punish after the behavior has been exhibited. As with classical conditioning, operant conditioning uses the following terms: stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery. Extinction occurs when the reinforcement is withheld until the subject stops responding to the stimulus. Spontaneous recovery occurs when a previously extinguished response spontaneously returns. The difficulty in extinguishing a response is directly related to the schedule of reinforcement being used to strengthen the response. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ----Short-term memory (STM) ------“Working memory” -------Visuospatial sketchpad -------Phonological rehearsal loop --------Central executive ------Selective attention ------Pictures (iconic) ------Sounds (acoustic / echoic) ------Meaning (semantic) ------Time duration --------30 seconds unless rehearsal (repetition) and elaboration ------Capacity --------7 +/- 2 pieces -------Maintenance rehearsal --------Chunking ------Storage ------Decay -------Interference ---------Proactive interference ---------Retroactive interference ------Output ----Long-term memory (LTM) Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ------Explicit -------Declarative memory --------Eidetic / photographic memory ------Implicit -------Nondeclarative memory ----------Priming ------Procedural memory ------Encoding --------Acoustic memory --------Visual memory --------Semantic memory --------Episodic memory ------Time duration --------Relatively permanent ------Capacity --------Limitless -----Organizational -------Conceptual hierarchies --------Schemas --------Semantic networks -------Connectionist networks Biological bases of memory --Brain areas ----Amygdala ----Basal Ganglia and cerebellum ----Hippocampal Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm formation ----Thalamus ----Cortex --Location of memories ----Karl Lashley --Neuronal and synaptic changes -Neurotransmitte r activity at specific synapses --Neural pathways --Long-term potentiation (LTP) --Hormonal changes Improving LTM --Organization --Elaborative rehearsal Memory retrieval --Retrieval cue ----Encoding specificity principle ------Context and retrieval --------Tip of the tongue (TOT) ------Semantic network theory ------Mood congruence ------Statedependent retrieval ------Moodcongruent memory --Recall ----Primacy Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm effect ----Serial position effect --Recognition Cueing memory --Context dependence --State dependence Explicit memory --Intentional recollection of previous experiences --Conscious --Best assessed with recall or recognition Declarative memory --Factual information --Semantic memory system ----General information Episodic memory system --Recollections of personal experiences Memory and learning --Principle learning --Schemas --Mnemonics ----Peg-word ----Method of loci ----Substitute word ----Word associations Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Eyewitness testimony --Elizabeth Loftus Forgetting --Hermann Ebbinghaus ----Learning curve ----Relearning --Retention can be assessed with a recall measure, recognition measure, or relearning measure --Decay theory --Interference theory ------Proactive interference -------Consolidation failure ------Retroactive interference --Motivated forgetting theory ----Repression --Encoding failure theory --Retrieval failure theory Overcoming problems with forgetting --Serial position II. COGNITIVE–SOCIAL LEARNING - Mental processes that lead to learned behavior are explored by the cognitive-social learning perspective. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm effect ----Primacy effect ----Recency effect --Source amnesia --Sleeper effect --Spacing of practice ----Distributed practice ----Massed practice ------Cramming Biology and memory loss --Brain injury --Alzheimer’s disease (AD) --Amnesia ----Physiological causes ----Substance abuse ------Korsakoff’s syndrome ----Psychogenic causes ------Retrograde -----Anterograde Thinking / cognition Cognitive neuroscience --Association cortex --Frontal lobe Psychological basis of thought --Processes in thinking ----Reasoning ----Problem A. Insight and Latent Learning - Wolfgang Kohler, working with chimpanzees, demonstrated that learning can occur with a sudden flash of insight and Edward Tolman demonstrated latent learning occurs in the absence of reinforcement and remains hidden until it is needed. B. Observational Learning - Observational learning (or social learning) is the process of learning how to do something by merely watching someone else perform a behavior, rather than learning through doing. Observational learning theory was proposed by Albert Bandura to explain how people learn by observing others who serve as models. Gender and Cultural Diversity: Scaffolding as a Teaching Technique in Different Cultures - This section discusses the work of Wood et al. (1976) where scaffolding is used in informal situations between a master teacher and learner and involves a combination of shaping and modeling. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm solving ----Decision making --Mental image --Concepts ----Functions of concepts ------Cognitive economy ----Prototype ----Social concepts ----Organization of concepts -----Taxonomies ------Networks ------Schemas ------Scripts ------Cognitive maps ----Artificial concepts ----Natural concepts / prototypes ----Hierarchies IV. THE BIOLOGY OF LEARNING A. Neuroscience and Learning – Research in learning suggests that new synaptic connections and changes in the brain including the cortex, cerebellum, hypothalamus, thalamus, and amygdala. B. Evolution and Learning – Biological preparedness innately predisposes an organism to form associations between stimuli and responses. Taste aversion research is cited as an example of an easily classically conditioned association. Instinctive drift occurs when a conditioned response shift back toward innate response patterns. --Propositions Problem solving --Step 1: Preparation ----Identifying given facts ----Separating relevant from irrelevant facts ----Defining the ultimate goal --Step 2: Production ----Algorithm ----Heuristic --Step 3: Evaluation V. USING CONDITIONING AND LEARNING PRINCIPLES A. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Classical Conditioning Advertisers, politicians, film producers, music artists, and explanations of prejudice, phobias, and medical procedures are all cited as examples of classical conditioning. B. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Operant Conditioning – The influence of operant conditioning principles have numerous real life applications. Often prejudice and discrimination are positively reinforced. To control high blood pressure and anxiety, some researchers use biofeedback—a procedure in which people's biological functions are monitored and the results made known to them so they can learn to control these functions. Professional athletes may exhibit superstitious behavior because of accidental reinforcement. C. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Cognitive-Social Learning In the 35 years since Bandura’s original research, cognitive-social Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Processes in thinking --Reasoning ----Deductive reasoning ----Inductive reasoning ----Formal logic ------Analogical reasoning ------Informal reasoning ----Cultural differences in reasoning Problem solving --Represent the problem ----State a wellstructured problem ----Concentrate on the appropriate variables ----Eliminate nonessential information ----Identify resources and/or limitations Strategy Blocks to effective thinking --Mental set / rigidity --Functional fixedness --Availability heuristic --Confirmation bias --Framing -- learning theory has been applied to contexts such as explaining prejudice, the media influences on consumer choices, and aggressive tendencies. I. The Nature of Memory – Four common memory models are presented. Table 7.1 provides an overview comparing each of these models. A. Four Models of Memory Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Representativen ess heuristic Steps in problem solving --Identify the problem --Represent the problem --Generate strategies --Evaluate strategies --Generate solutions --Evaluate solutions --Make decision --Carry out decision Language and thought Intelligence Intelligence testing --Psychometrics ----Sir Francis Galton ------Bell-shaped curve ----Alfred Binet ------Mental age ------Intelligence quotient (IQ) ----StanfordBinet Intelligence Scale ------Verbal reasoning ------Abstract / visual reasoning ------Quantitative 1. Information Processing Model – The information processing model of memory proposes a computer model to explain how information in memory is processed using the operations of encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding gets information into the brain and is similar to a keyboard. Storage retains information like the computer’s hard drive or disk. And, retrieval is the process of getting the information out of memory storage. 2. Parallel Distributed Processing Model – The PDP or connectionist Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm reasoning ------Short-term memory model of memory views memory as more distributed rather than a sequential operation. ----Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) ------Verbal scale ------Nonverbal performance ------Full score 3 Levels of Processing Model – Craik and Lockhart’s levels of processing model suggest that memory relies on the degree or depth of mental processing from shallow to deeper processing. 4. Three-Stage Memory Model: Sensory Memory, Short-term Memory (STM), and Long-term Memory (LTM) - This model proposes that memory needs different storage stages to house information for various lengths of time. A flowchart for memory processes (Figure 7.2) includes the three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). ----Group tests ------ACT / SAT Scientific standards for psychological tests -Standardization --Valid --Reliable ----Test / retest ----Internal consistency Culturally biased tests Nature vs. Nurture --Nature / heredity ----Genetic inheritability Nurture / environment --Shared environment --Nonshared environment --Twin studies ----Identical B. Sensory Memory - Sensory memory occurs within the senses and very briefly preserves a replica of an image. Visual images (iconic memory) last about 1/4 to 1/2 second and auditory images (echoic memory) up to four seconds. Sensory memory’s capacity is unclear. C. Short-Term Memory - STM is our conscious thoughts or working memory. It can hold about seven (7 + or – 2) items and can store them for about thirty seconds; however, its capacity can be increased by chunking and its duration can be increased by maintenance rehearsal. STM may be viewed as a three-part working memory: Visuospatial Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm twins ----Fraternal twins --Charles Spearman ----G (General intelligence) ------Factor analysis ----IQ tests which predict success in life --L.L. Thurstone ----Multi-Factors Theory ------1. Verbal comprehension ------2. Word fluency ------3. Numerical fluency ------4. Spatial visualization ------5. Associative memory ------6. Perceptual speed ------7. Reasoning --Raymond Cattell ----Agreed with Spearman / disagreed with Thurstone ----Two subtypes of G ------1. Fluid intelligence (gf) ------2. Crystallized intelligence (gc) Sketchpad, Central Executive, and the Phonological Rehearsal Loop. D. Long-Term Memory - LTM is more permanent and has unlimited capacity. Organization of information improves transfer and retrieval of information, as well as, sleep. LTM is divided into two major systems – explicit/declarative and implicit/nondeclarative procedural memory. Two types of explicit/declarative memory include semantic and episodic memory. Implicit/nondeclarative memory includes procedural, classical conditioning, and priming. Like priming, retrieval involves retrieval cues (recognition and recall) and the encoding specificity principle. Applying Psychology to Student Life: Improving LongTerm Memory (LTM) - To successfully encode information for LTM, it is important both organize information into chunks and into hierarchies. Rehearsal also improves encoding for both STM and LTM and includes both maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal. Attempting to recreate the original learning conditions by paying attention to the retrieval cues of context, mood, and state can also improve memory. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm --Howard Gardner ----Eight Intelligences ------1. Linguistic intelligence ------2. Logicalmathematical intelligence ------3. Spatial intelligence ------4. Musical intelligence ------5. Interpersonal intelligence ------6. Intrapersonal intelligence ------7. Bodykinesthetic intelligence ------8. Naturalist intelligence --Robert Sternberg ----Triarchic (Three-Part) Theory of Successful Intelligence ------Analytical intelligence ------Creative intelligence ------Practical intelligence -----Componential mental processes ------Experiential intelligence ------Contextual intelligence Diversity of III. Forgetting A. How Quickly Do We Forget? – Hermann Ebbinghaus’ now famous “curve of forgetting” research demonstrated the rapidness at which information is forgotten immediately after learning. However, he also found that relearning can occur more quickly the second time. B. Why Do We Forget? Five Key Theories – Five major theories have been offered to explain why forgetting occurs: decay theory, interference theory, motivated forgetting, encoding failure, and retrieval failure. The decay theory proposes that memory deteriorates over time while interference theory suggests forgetting occurs when there is competing information. Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the learning of old information and proactive interference Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm mental ability --Giftedness --Creative thinking ----Three elements ------Originality ------Fluency ------Flexibility ---Characteristics of creative people ------Selfreliance ------Sensitivity ------Living on the fringes of the culture they inhabit ------Behaving in a childlike way ----Measuring creativity ------Divergent thinking ------Convergent thinking ----Resources of creative people ------Intellectual ability ------Knowledge ------Thinking style ------Personality ------Motivation -----Environment ----Research ------Sternberg and Lubart: Investment theory --Mental retardation occurs when old learning interferes with the learning of new information. The motivated forgetting theory proposes that we may forget or inhibit the retrieval of information that may be unpleasant, painful, or embarrassing. Encoding failure theory may contribute to information never being encoded from STM to LTM and thus forgotten. Retrieval failures may also contribute to the inability to recall information that is stored in LTM. Applying Psychology to Student Life: Recognizing Problems with Forgetting – Four important factors that help prevent forgetting include: (1) the serial position effect in which more forgetting occurs for material in the middle of a list than at the beginning or end, (2) source amnesia is a result of confusion or misattribution regarding the actual occurrence of an event, (3) the sleeper effect is a tendency to initially discount unreliable sources and later consider it trustworthy because the source was forgotten, and (4) the spacing of practice. Forgetting is greatest when students use massed practice or “cramming” rather than distributed practice with breaks in between learning. Gender and Cultural Diversity: Cultural Differences in Memory and Forgetting – The work of Ross and Millson (1970) used college students from the United States and Ghana and discovered that the Ghana students were better at memory testing for themes in stories presented aloud. Wagner (1982) found that previous experience plays a part in facilitating memory recognition. It appears that STM is not affected by cultural factors but that a person’s culture provides background of experience and strategies for remembering factors specific to Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm ----Causes ------Genetic -----Environmental ----Degrees of mental retardation ------Mild ------Moderate ------Severe ------Profound ----Savant syndrome Elements of language --Phonemes --Morphemes --Grammar ----Syntax— Phrases and sentences ----Semantics Meaning and understanding --Context --Talking up or down --Denotation and connotation --Nonverbal communication Acquiring language --Innate ----Noam Chomsky --------Born with ability of language --------Language acquisition device (LAD) --Environmental ----B.F. Skinner -------Environmental, that culture. IV. Biological Bases of Memory Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm shaping, conditioning allows for language development --Benjamin Whorf ----Linguistic relativity hypothesis ------Language shapes culture and perceptions --George Lakoff / Mark Johnson ----Thought and reason are adaptations that are dependent on the nature of the body Language development --Prelinguistic stage ----Reflexive cry of infant ----Age 2 to 3 months ------Cooing ----Age 4 to 6 months ------Babbling --Linguistic stage ----Age 1 ------Singleutterance vocabulary -----Overextension ----Age 2 ------Telegraphic speech -----Overgeneralize ----Age 5 ------Mastery of A. How Are Memories Formed? -The biological aspects of memory include neuronal and synaptic changes, hormonal influences, and structures in the brain. Changes in the dendrites occur from repeated reverberating circuits. Hormones produced during stress or excitement, such as epinephrine and cortical play a significant role in memory. These hormones affect areas of the brain structures in the limbic system including the amygdala, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and other parts of the brain. Hormonal changes during a heightened state of emotions may produce a vivid image surrounding the event as in the phenomenon Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm grammar ----Beyond age 5 ------Continued expansion of vocabulary and grammar known as flashbulb memories. B. Where Are Memories Located? – Lashley concluded after three decades of research in memory that memories are distributed throughout the cortex. Current research suggests that memory tends to be both localized and distributed throughout the brain. C. Biological Causes of Memory Loss – Organic causes including traumatic brain injury, amnesia, and Alzheimer’s disease are presented. Memory loss for events that occurred before the injury is called retrograde amnesia and memory loss for events that occur after an injury are called anterograde amnesia. Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive mental deterioration in memory which generally begins between the ages of 45 and 55 and may be primarily genetic. Animals and language Research Highlight: Memory and the Criminal Justice – Research studies are presented which address two areas of memory problems including the difficulties with eyewitness testimonies and repressed memories. Primarily because of the constructive nature of memory the reliability of eyewitness testimonies are questioned. The area of false versus repressed memories is a hotly contested debate. Because of the constructive element of memory as well as source amnesia, the misinformation effect, and the sleeper effect it is difficult to discern their reliability. V. Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory A. Understanding Memory Distortions - The explanation for why memories are often rearranged and distorted can be found in our need for logic, consistency as well as the need for efficiency. B. Tips for Memory Improvement - Eight tips for memory improvement are highlighted: (1) pay attention and reduce interference, (2) use rehearsal techniques – maintenance and elaborative, (3) improve your organization, (4) counteract the serial position effect, (5) manage your Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm time – avoid massed practice, (6) use the encoding specificity principlecontext and state, (7) employ self-monitoring and over learning, (8) use mnemonics – the method of loci, peg-word, substitute word, and word association, and (9) avoid the seven sins of memory – transience, absentmindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestibility, bias, and persistence. Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Using Metacognition to Improve Your Memory - The active learning exercise for this chapter allows students to practice reflective thinking—to "think about thinking"—and to use it to evaluate processes involved in recalling and storing memories. Students are asked to engage in a reflective thinking activity by reflecting on their memories of the first day of their General Psychology course. I.THINKING - Thinking is a component of cognition, which is the process of acquiring, storing, retrieving, and using information. Cognition involves the gathering and processing of information and includes sensation, perception, learning, and memory, which have been discussed in previous chapters; and thinking, language, and problem solving, which are discussed in this chapter. Thinking involves using information and knowledge to perform such mental activities as reasoning, solving problems, producing and understanding language, drawing conclusions, and expressing and comprehending thoughts. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm A. The Thinking Brain – Recent research has identified the prefrontal cortex as a special processing area during problem solving and decisionmaking and it is also connected to the limbic system the center of our emotions. Regions of the prefrontal cortex may be the part of the brain most actively involved with thought. B. Cognitive Building Blocks – Thinking involves three basic building blocks – mental images, concepts, and language. A mental image is a representation of a sensory experience. Concepts are mental representations of a group or category and help us simplify and organize information. We learn concepts by at least three major methods – artificial concepts, natural concepts, and hierarchies. While artificial concepts are precisely defined and may not be as expedient, natural concepts rely on prototypes or a “best example” which can be quicker and more efficient. Hierarchies are concepts that have been ranked with specific subcategories within broader concepts. C. Problem-Solving - Problem solving is defined as a series of thinking processes we use to reach a goal that is not readily attainable. The three major steps in problem solving are preparation, production, and evaluation: 1. Preparation - As the first step, preparation involves identifying given Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm facts, distinguishing relevant from irrelevant facts, and defining the ultimate goal. 2. Production - During the production stage, possible solutions, called hypotheses, are generated. There are two major procedures for generating hypotheses—by using algorithms and heuristics. Algorithms are problem-solving strategies that always eventually lead to a solution. They often involve trying out random solutions to a problem in a systematic manner (e.g., 2 x 10 = 2 + 2 + 2...all the way to 10). Heuristics are rules of thumb or educated guesses developed from previous experience that involve selective searches for appropriate solutions to problems. Heuristics generally, but not always, leads to a solution. The three most valuable heuristics are means-end analysis, working backward, and creating sub-goals. 3. Evaluation - The final step in problem solving, evaluation, involves appraising hypotheses to see whether they satisfy the conditions of the goal as it was defined in the preparation stage. Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Recognizing Barriers to Problem Solving – Barriers to problem solving include mental sets (only using methods that have worked in the past rather than trying new ones such as the SQ4R Method), functional fixedness tendency to see only familiar uses for well-known objects), confirmation bias (the tendency to seek out and pay attention to information that confirms existing positions or beliefs, while ignoring contradictory information), availability heuristic (basing the probability of events on how easily recalled, and representativeness heuristic (estimating the probability of an event based on how well a previous prototype. Critical Thinking/Active Learning: Solving Problems in College Life: The critical thinking exercise allows students to practice the three major problem solving strategies (algorithms and heuristics) and two specific heuristics (means-end analysis, working backward, and creating sub-goals). D. II. Creativity - Creativity is the generation of ideas that are original and useful. Creative thinking involves originality, fluency, and flexibility. Two distinct types of creative thinking include: convergent, where the person works toward a single solution to a problem; and divergent, in which the person tries to generate as many solutions as possible. Brainstorming is an example of divergent thinking. LANGUAGE Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm A. Characteristics of Language - Human language is a building block of thinking, enables us to communicate our thoughts and feelings in creative and complex ways, and is largely learned rather than instinctive like other animals. Phonemes are the basic speech sounds; they are combined to form morphemes, the smallest meaningful units of language. Phonemes, morphemes, words, and phrases are put together by rules of grammar (syntax and semantics). Syntax refers to the grammatical rules for ordering words in sentences; semantics refers to meaning in language. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm B. Language and Thought – The Whorf hypothesis is presented as an intriguing hypothesis that theorizes language determine our perceptions of reality. Some researchers suggest that a more tenable position is that language influences thought. Several examples are presented to support Whorf’s linguistic relativity hypothesis. C. Language Development – Stages and theories of language development are explored. The first prelinguistic stage begins with the newborn’s reflexive cry and becomes more purposeful. At about 2 to 3 months, babies begin cooing and around 4 to 5 months they start babbling. The linguistic stage begins near the first year. Around 2 years, a pattern called telegraphic speech begins and by age 5 children have usually mastered the basic rules of grammar. Most theorists believe that language acquisition is a combination of both nature and nurture. Noam Chomsky believes that humans are born “pre-wired” with an ability to put words together in a meaningful way and possess a type of language acquisition device (LAD) that enables a child to analyze language and extract the basic rules of grammar. D. Animals and Language – Nonhuman animal use of language is explored. One of the most successful studies taught apes nonvocal language using American Sign Language. In another study, dolphins were taught to understand sentences that varied in syntax and meaning. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Although evidence suggests that animals can learn language, skeptics suggest that animals are being trained to respond for rewards., but it is less complex, less creative, and more rule-laden than human language. III. INTELLIGENCE A. What is Intelligence? - There are numerous definitions for intelligence. Charles Spearman viewed intelligence as "g," a general cognitive ability; L. L. Thurstone viewed it as seven distinct mental abilities; J. P. Guilford viewed it as 120 or more separate abilities; and, Raymond Cattell viewed it as two types of "g"--fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence. Contemporary theorist, Howard Gardner, proposes a theory of multiple intelligences and has identified eight different types of intelligence and suggested that teaching and assessing should take into account people's learning styles and cognitive strengths. Robert Sternberg, another contemporary theorist, developed a triarchic theory, which emphasizes three separate but related aspects of intelligence—the internal components, the use of these components to adapt to environmental changes, and the application of past experiences to real-life situations. The text defines intelligence as the global capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm B. How Do We Measure Intelligence? - Most IQ tests are intended to Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm predict abilities needed for school success. There are several individual IQ tests, the major ones being the Stanford-Binet, and the Wechsler. The Stanford-Binet measures primarily verbal abilities of children aged three to sixteen. Although the Stanford-Binet also has sub-scales that can measure adults, most often adult IQ scores are measured using the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. There are actually three separate Wechsler intelligence scales, each designed to test distinct age levels verbal and nonverbal abilities. In order for any test to be scientifically acceptable it is necessary for the test to include three basic requirements: standardization, reliability, and validity. Standardization is the process of giving a test to a large number of people in order for the norms for the test to be developed and ensuring the procedures for administering the test are formalized so that all people who administer the test do so in exactly the same way. Reliability is a measure of the stability of test scores over time. Good tests will return similar scores when given to the same person at different times. Validity refers to how well the test measures what it is intended to measure. An IQ test is considered valid if it predicts grades in school. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm IV. THE INTELLIGENCE CONTROVERSY A. Extremes in Intelligence – The validity of intelligence testing is explored for measuring the extremes in intelligence - mental retardation and giftedness. Mental retardation is defined as an IQ less than 70 and has significant deficits in adaptive functioning. The causes of mental retardation include both genetic and environmental. Giftedness includes people with especially high IQs often including only the top 1 or 2%. Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm Research Highlight: How Do We Explain Differences in IQ? - Research into the influences of biology and genetics on intelligence reveals the importance of brain size and efficiency. The results of the powerful Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart strongly emphasize the influences of heredity. Gender and Cultural Diversity: Are IQ Tests Culturally Biased? - IQ Test scores are influenced by both environment and heredity. The gender and cultural diversity section explores the controversial book—The Bell Curve by Hernstein and Murray. The problem of African-Americans and other minorities scoring lower than whites on IQ tests is discussed. Lowered Source http://www.iccsd.k12.ia.us/Schools/West/faculty/neuzil/psychology%20folder/curriculum09/UNIT%205a.htm school success for many children can be traced to lack of school readiness and language barriers. Programs such as Head Start combat these problems by providing early education for low-income children.
