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THE UNIFICATION OF ITALY
Historical background.
-The Roman Empire.
-The Italian culture and the rennessance.
-The French Revolution and The Napoleonic Wars.
-The Vienna settlement.
-Mazzini and the idea of an Italian state
(Risorgimento).
-Nationalistic upheavals during the 1820s, 1830s and
1848.
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The Papacy
The influence of Papal diplomacy over the previous millenium
where the Popes had tended to strongly support the existence of a
number of small states in the north of the peninsula such that no
strong power might presume to try to overshadow the papacy.
Such political decentralisation may have facilitated the emergence
of a number of mercantile city states
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Sardinia-Piedmont
The former Duchy of Savoy meanwhile, originally based on limited territories
north of the Alps, had expanded to also include Nice, Piedmont (an extensive
territory in the north-east of the Italian peninsula) and the island of Sardinia and
was now known now by its senior title as the Kingdom of Sardinia.
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Austria
Habsburg Austria was awarded sovereignty over Lombardy and over the former
Venetian Republic whilst the Republic of Genoa was similarly entrusted to the
House of Savoy. The territories of the chuch that straddled the central portion of
the peninsula were again placed under Papal sovereignty whilst to the south the
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Sicily and Naples) was restored to a junior branch
of the Spanish Bourbon dynasty.
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Italian nationalism
The belief that "Italia" was a desireable possibility can be associated with the
change in perspectives that many people, particularly from the more affluent
artisan, middle and minor aristocratic classes, underwent after the American
and French revolutions
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Giuseppe Mazzini
The central figure in the origin of "Young Italy" was one Giuseppe Mazzini (18051872), who in 1821 in Genoa had witnessed the distress of the "refugees of
Italy" who were in the process of fleeing into exile after their failure of their
revolutionary efforts at winning reform and, moved by their example, had chosen
to devote his life to the cause of Italian independence and unity. In 1827 he was
initiated into Carbonari movement and was himself forced into exile in 1831 for
revolutionary activity.
Nicknamed "Soul of Italy"
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He also began to move away from the philosophy of the
Carbonari and subsequently founded Giovine Italia (Young Italy)
a movement dedicated to securing "for Italy Unity, Independence,
and Liberty."
Mazzini's revolutionary vision extended beyond the limited
objective of Italian national unity towards the liberation of all
oppressed peoples. He hoped for a new democratic and
republican Italy that would lead other subject peoples to freedom
and liberty and for a new Europe, controlled by the people and
not by sovereigns, that would replace the old order.
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·
·
·
A popular uprising would create a unified republican Italy.
The true foundation of Italian liberty.
This would spark off a chainreaction - european nationalstates.
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·
1834 - founding of 'The Young Europe'. A revolution needed for
national liberty.
·
·
In the future free nations might combine to form a loosely federal
Europe with a federal Assembly.
Objective; to overturn the despised Vienna settlement
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·
growth of secret national societies (Carbonari)
·
1848, upheavals started in Milan (Lombardy) but spread to all
italian states.
·
Piedmont declared war on Austria and succeeded in driving
the Austrian troops out of Lombardy and Venice.
·
A republic was declared in Rome under Mazzini and under
the protection of Garibaldis troops.
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The 1848–49 revolts
On April 7, 1848 Mazzini reached Milan, whose population had rebelled against the Austrian
garrison and established a provisional government. The First Italian War of Independence,
started by the Piedmontese king Charles Albert to exploit the favourable circumstances in
Milan, turned into a total failure. Mazzini, who had never been popular in the city because he
wanted Lombardy to become a republic instead of joining Piedmont, abandoned Milan. He
joined Garibaldi's irregular force at Bergamo, moving to Switzerland with him.
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On February 9, 1849 a Republic was declared in Rome, with Pius IX already having been forced
to flee. On the same day the Republic was declared, Mazzini reached the city. He was
appointed as "triumvir" of the new republic on March 29, becoming soon the true leader of the
government and showing good administrative capabilities in social reforms. However, when the
French troops called by the Pope made clear that the resistance of the Republican troops, led
by Garibaldi, was in vain, on July 12, 1849, Mazzini set out for Marseille, from where he moved
again to Switzerland.
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Mazzini was more of a spectator than a protagonist of the Italian Risorgimento, whose reins
were strongly in the hands of the Savoyard monarch Victor Emmanuel II and his prime
minister, Camillo di Cavour. The latter defined him as "Chief of the assassins".
Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi
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Camillo Cavour
Cavour’s political ideas were greatly influenced by the July revolution of 1830 in
France, which seemed to him to prove that an historic monarchy was not
incompatible with Liberal principles, and he became more than ever convinced
of the benefits of a constitutional monarchy as opposed both to absolutism and
to republicanism. His views were strengthened by his studies of the British
constitution, of which he was known to be a great admirer such that he was
even nicknamed - " Milord Camillo ”
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The Crimean war
·
Cavour wasn't very keen in pulling Sardinia in to the war.
·
The idea was initiated by the ruler who dreamt of glory.
·
Austria isolated as it declared itself neutral. The Empire lost its good relations with
Russia.
·
No militaryvictories but a seat in the peace congress.
·
No immediate success.
·
Cavour and Napoleon III
Florence Nightingale
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After an attempt, by
·
an Italian nationalist,
to assassinate
Napoleon III the
Emperor contacted
Cavour.
The two met at
·
Plombieres.
Napoleon convinced
·
that Austria's
involvement in Italy
would trigger more
terrorism.
Victor Emmanuel's
·
daughter (15) married
to Napoleon's cousin
(36).
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Franco-Sardinian alliance:
·
·
·
·
War against Austria. The Empire was to driven out from Italy.
One North Italian state created under Sardinian leadership.
One central Italian state by uniting Tuscany and Papal states.
France would receive Nice, Savoy and the french speaking
provinces of Piedmont
The assassin Felice Orsini tried to kill
Napoleon III in 1858. The bombs killed
more than 150 guards and civilians.
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The War of Italian Unification.
·
Austria provoked to attack
Piedmont.
·
France attacks Austria.
·
Garibaldi takes command of
italian volunteers.
·
Lombardy annexed.
·
Austrian troops remains in
Venetia.
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·
·
French separate peace with Austria at Villafranca.
Austria alarmed by Hungarian nationalist activity and Russian
troopmovements close the Austrian border.
·
Nationalistic upheavals in central Italy. As the austrian troops
couldn't defend their interests Piedmontese troops moved in.
After plebiscites in Tuscany, Parma, Modena and Romagna these
states united under Piedmont.
Frans Josef and Napoleon meet at Villafranca
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·
Britain forced Napoleon III to allow a stronger central- and north Italian
state.
·
Cavour, who had resigned as a protest against the peacetreaty
between France and Austria, returned as prime minister 1860.
·
Napoleon agreed to accept the Piedmontese annexation in Italy
against Savoy and Nice.
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GARIBALDI AND HIS REDSHIRTS
Cavour reluctant to assist Garibaldi. Jealous of his popularity.
The northern revolts inspired the people of the south to revolt.
·
The revolt was triggered by socio-economic reasons, not
·
nationalism.
·
·
·
The nationalists used the opportunity and invited Garibaldi.
Within some months he had taken control of Sicily
Assissted by a pro-nationalistic attitude in Britain (the Fleet)
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When Garibaldi moved over the strait he turned to become a
·
threat.
Garibaldi was a Mazzinian republican.
·
Cavour feared Garibaldis radicalism and republicanism.
·
Piedmontese troops were sent to Rome to battle Garibaldi if
·
necessary.
·
ALso fear of foreign reactions if the pope was threatened or
the balance of power shattered.
·
Garibaldi handed over his conquests to Victor Emmanuel.
Garibaldi to Victor Emmanuel: 'I salute
the first king of Italy'.
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3RToBymttA
The National Anthem
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After Italy was unified in 1861, many of Verdi's early operas were re-interpreted as Risorgimento
works with hidden Revolutionary messages that probably had not been intended by either the
composer or librettist. Beginning in Naples in 1859 and spreading throughout Italy, the slogan "Viva
VERDI" was used as an acronym for Viva Vittorio Emanuele Re D'Italia (Viva Victor Emmanuel
King of Italy), referring to Victor Emmanuel II, then king of Sardinia
Verdi was the most famous of the Italian composer at the time of the unification.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4NF6LweEA_A
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Social division, in poor, agrarian south and wealthy, urban and
·
industrialised north.
The process of unification - mostly a struggle between the old
·
ruling and a developing middle class. The majority of the people
wasn't part of it.
Lingvistiq division. Only a minority spoke italian in Italy.
·
·
·
The Catholic Church.
Piedmontism.
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Economic problems:
Limited internal market - low level of agrucultural productivity
·
and poverty of communications (No integrated railway network
and few roads)
Shortage of Capital (Lack of industrial investements).
·
Conservatism (Improved techiques ignored)
·
The problem of the South; diseases, feudalism, violence,
·
banditry.
·
·
The public debt after the wars of unification.
The lowest wages but the highest taxes (demand kept low).
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THE NATIONAL UNIFICATION
In 1852 Count Camillo di Cavour became prime minister of Sardinia-Piedmont.
He was a realistic, moder n politician with clearly defined objectives and a policy
how these could be achieved.
He made S-P into a model state of moder n liberalism - Industrialized and
wealthy.
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1855-56 - Participation in the Crimean war to put the Italian question on the
map of European politics.(Alexander II succeeded Nikolaj I as czar of Russia Radical change in Russian foreign policy. Russia wasn't the police of Europe
anylonger).
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1857: S-P:s political leadership (King Viktor Emanuel II and Cavour) gained
the support of the guerillafighter Garibaldi (with his redskirts).
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1858: Meeting of Plombières - Napoleon promised military aid in case of an
Austrian threat. An alliance on this basis in 1859.
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1859: Military preparations on the part of S-P provoked Austria to declare war.
While Austria attacked it resulted in French assistance to S-P.
In the peace Lombardy fell to France and from France to S-P (exchanged 1860
for Savoy, Nice).
Tuscany, Parma, Bologna and Modena joined S-P after plebicites.
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1860: Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily and started a uprising. Very
successful which worried Cavour (Who feared an European intervention). The
army of S-P started its march southwards to prevent Garibaldi from reaching
Rome. Garibaldi resigned his dictatorial position and swore an oath of loyalty to
Viktor Emanuel (this broke the revolutionary edge of the unification and
possibly hindered an foreign intervention in Italy).
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March 1861: The Italian kingdom is united, besides Venetia and
Rome. Viktor Emanuel II is declared king of Italy.
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1866: Through a military alliance with Prussia (Idea of Bismarck)
Italy gained Venetia after a war against Austria.
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1870: Rome, except the Vatican State, is included in the Italian kingdom. (Due
to the Franco-Prussian war France is forced to withdraw their troops from
Rome). Rome becomes the capital of Italy.
Big problems between North-South, criminality etc.
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IB EXAM QUESTIONS ON THE ITALIAN- AND THE GERMAN UNIFICATIONS
Cavour united Italy not because he intended or wanted to, but because circumstances
“
forced him to.” To what extent do you agree with this judgement?
In what ways, and with what results between 1862 and 1871, was Germany unified
under Prussia?
How united was Italy by 1871?
Analyse the effects of the 1848 revolution in Prussia on the eventual unification of
Germany in 1871.
“
A popular patriot.” How far do you agree with this judgement on Garibaldi’s
contribution to Italian unification?
Why, and to what extent, had Prussia replaced Austria as the leading power in the
German confederation by 1862?
Why has it been claimed that Italian unification needed both a Cavour and a Garibaldi?
How far is it true to say that Austria lost control of Germany rather than Prussia
gained it?
Analyse the aims, motives and policies of Cavour between 1852 and 1861.
Compare and contrast Bismarck’s policies towards Austria and France between 1862
and 1871.
“
The involvement of foreign powers was of crucial importance to the unification of
Italy.” How far do you agree with the statement?
It has been claimed that Germany was united ‘more by coal and iron than by blood and
iron’. How far do you agree that economic power contributed more to the unification
of Germany than did the military victories of the 1860s?
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1)
2)
3)
Analyse the aims, motives and policies of Cavour between
1852 and 1861.
Important to make the distinction between;
- objectives, what he wanted to achieve
AIMS
MOTIVES
-reasons, why he wanted to achieve his objectives
POLICIES
-methods, how he tried to achieve the objectives
1) AIMS
·
·
·
·
·
·
Piedmontese expansion or North Italian confederation under Piedmontese leadership
Political strength and independence - remove the Austrian dominance on the
peninsula. This wasn't fulfilled before 1866 (after the death of Cavour).
Wealth and prosperity - economic liberalism and industrialisation
Stability - no domestic upheavals nor foreign threat
Removal of the influence of the papacy on italian affairs
Transform 'Italy' to a Great European Nation
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2) MOTIVES
·
Cavour believed reforms could reduce revolutionary pressure and strengthen the
government.
·
·
·
·
Wanted to remove the Austrian dominance of the peninsula
Wanted to cut down the powers of the papacy
Nationalism
Personal ambitions
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3) POLICIES
·
Piedmont - a modern constitutional monarchy
The programme of economic reforms which modernised and strengthened
Piedmont. Piedmont transformed to the 'leading star' of the italian nationalists.
·
Political liberties - democratisation of the constitution, Nobility and church lost of
it's influence.
·
Economic reforms. State investment boosted the economy. Belief in market
economy with minimal state intervention.
·
·
·
·
The reforms were costy and some vital reforms were neglected.
Good relations to Britain and France
The Crimean War
The alliance with France against Austria. Nice and Savoy against Venice and a
removal of the Austrian influence
·
Sent an army to Rome to prevent Garibaldi to found an Italian republic-succeede
in controling the radicalism of Garibaldi but had to accept the unification of the
whole peninsula+Sicily
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Why has it been claimed that Italian unification needed both a Cavour and a
Garibaldi?
Introduction;
·
set the timespan, 1815-70
·
define the italian unification
·
an explanation on how the statement will be dealt with
Body of the essay:
·
Cavour
·
Garibaldi
·
Cavour vs. Garibaldi
·
the statement vs. development
·
when is the unification finished
Conclusion:
·
Why?
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Two different introductions - evaluate.
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Dispositions of the bodies of the essays;
Cavour;
Cavour;
·
·
several economic reforms
modernisation of S-P
·
mediawarfare directed against Austria
·
objective-S-P expansion in the north
Crimean War-alliances
Expansion of S-P
Alliance with France (deal:Lombardy and Venice
·
for Savoy and Nice) - setback and resignation
Popular revolts brougt Napoleon and Cavour back
·
military alliance with France
·
modernisation of economy and legislation
·
·
·
S-P became the ideal of the north
·
Fear of Garibaldis revolutionary reputation
·
Succeedeed in controlling Garibaldi
·
Garibaldi
·
·
·
Died during the unification, 1861
·
The nationalist, general and courageous actionhero
The conqueror of Sicily and southern Italy
The popular figurehead
Garibaldi
·
·
·
·
·
Improvised action in nationalistic revolt of S
Massive popular support and victory
Garibaldis come-back in the Prusso-Austrian war
Garibaldis stubborness
To much credit of the unification given to G
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Two conclusions - evaluate!
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“The involvement of foreign powers was of crucial importance to the
unification of Italy.” How far do you agree with the statement?
Introduction;
·
·
·
Definition of Italian unification
timespan
Foreign Powers
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