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NEW ZEALAND
Te Whakapapa o nga Rakau
Interpreting the Special Features
of Native Plants
In Plant Heritage New Zealand, Tony Foster provides
us with an accessible and reliable resource on the
character of New Zealand’s plantlife — a work to
cherish for years to come.
A RAUPO ORIGINAL
Natural history
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Part 1 introduces us to the nature of New
Zealand’s extraordinary plants. Here we learn
about speciation, taxonomy, growing and dispersal
patterns, and what exactly makes a plant a New
Zealand plant? How have plants grown and adapted
in New Zealand’s very distinctive climate?
Part 2, the main section of the book, presents
a selection of trees, shrubs and flowers, their
classification, names, botanical description,
traditional and modern uses, cultural heritage
and significance to Maori. Stunning photography
highlights the beauty of the plants, as well as helping
with identification.
TONY FOSTER
love of the outdoors and New Zealand’s natural
world led to a degree in biological sciences from
Waikato University. He went on to teach biology and
science in rural New Zealand secondary schools,
including Ngata Memorial College, Ruatoria,
Whangaroa College and most recently as Deputy
Principal at Taipa Area School. He has also tutored
environmental sciences and horticulture at North
Tech, Kerikeri. In 1989 he moved with his family to
Totara North, Whangaroa. The abundant native bush
and unspoilt harbour of Whangaroa became the
inspiration for his tourism business — Bushman’s
Friend, www.bushmansfriend.co.nz — specialising in
ecotours of the surrounding bush reserves. He now
divides his time educating tourists and students of
of New Zealand
all ages about the special features on
plants and their heritage, as well as offering other
nature-tourism products, including harbour tours
and houseboat hire.
Plant Heritage NEW ZEALAND
Tony Foster has had a lifelong interest and passion
for New Zealand’s native plants. Wellingtonbred, he tramped and botanised in the Tararuas and
central North Island during his teens. His growing
Plant Heritage
Plant Heritage New Zealand looks at the unique
characteristics of New Zealand’s plants, what
makes them so special. It delves into the origins
and evolution of the plants, how they have inspired
songs, poems and works of art, Maori myths, stories
and proverbs associated with them, and their many
uses as a natural resource.
TONY FOSTER
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Plant Heritage
NEW ZEALAND
Te Whakapapa o nga Rakau
Interpreting the Special Features
of Native Plants
TONY FOSTER
RAUPO
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A BUSHMANS FRIEND BOOK
Published by Bushmans Friend Ltd
RD 2, KAEO, New Zealand
www.bushmansfriend.co.nz
This edition published by Bushmans Friend Ltd, 2012
First published by Penguin Group (NZ), 2008
Copyright © Tony Foster, 2008, 2012
The right of Tony Foster to be identified as the author of this work in terms of
section 96 of the Copyright Act 1994 is hereby asserted.
Originally designed and typeset by NickTurzynski, redinc., Auckland
Maps by Outline Draughting and Graphics Ltd
Prepress by Weaving the Strands
Printed by Jeff Oliver Print, Whangarei, New Zealand
All rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above,
no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval
system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise), without the prior written permission of
both the copyright owner and the above publisher of this book.
ISBN 978-0-473-21912-3
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the National Library of New Zealand.
Contents
Preface
7
Introduction to New Zealand’s
remarkable plants
1
New Zealand plants in the landscape
13
2
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
29
3
What’s in a name? Classifying plants
51
4
Maori and the plant world
55
The plants
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 5
5
Conifers
69
6
Angiosperms: dicotyledons (flowering trees,
shrubs and climbers)
83
7
Angiosperms: monocotyledons (flowering grasses,
sedges and allies)
161
8
Ferns
177
Glossary
195
References
198
Index to plants
203
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Preface
Most botanists and observers would agree that New Zealand’s flora is among
the world’s most remarkable. How this came to be, why New Zealand’s
plants are so special, and an explanation of their unique characteristics
are the main themes of this book.
The New Zealand flora can be a puzzle. Naming and grouping the plants
is not always easy, and devising a logical explanation for all their forms
and expressions is fraught with difficulties and anomalies. Their many
contrasting qualities and features can be as wide-ranging and mixed as
the views of the people who share this land with them.
What is it about New Zealand plants that makes them so special to
New Zealanders? Their presence as individuals and as forest associations
embodies a large part of our national heritage. Poems and songs have
been composed about them; works of art have been created celebrating
their colours, textures and moods. They inspire ordinary New Zealanders
in their endeavours; they evoke feelings, memories and stories. Maori
proverbs and sayings (whakatauki and pepeha) often refer to the
characteristics of individual plants to describe the trials, tribulations
and experiences of the human condition. The behaviours of some plants
are perceived to predict the future, while others evoke memories of loved
ones, past events of importance, or even send messages of warning. For
some people they provide evidence of our relationship with a spiritual
being and our creation, to others they tell the story of the development
and evolution of species. To many they are a natural resource and an
important contributor to the economy; to visitors they are just one of the
many delights of touring these islands.
New Zealand plants are becoming increasingly popular in the garden and
landscape. Their aesthetics of form and space, the colours of their flowers,
the number of species and varieties make them a favourite of designers
and landscapers when creating an endemic garden architecture.
Part One of the book provides an introduction to the plants and
their environment. Chapters explore the origins and evolution of New
Zealand’s flora, and account for present distributions and varieties of
plants. A discussion of the existing vegetation cover outlines the broad
forest and vegetation types and the common plant associations. The
unique features, botanical and otherwise, that are characteristic of New
Zealand’s plants are briefly explored. Identifying, naming and classifying
plants are important steps towards understanding their uniqueness, so
a brief introduction to the taxonomy of the New Zealand flora and an
explanation of names and meanings is provided. The last chapter of this
introduction provides a traditional Maori perspective of Aotearoa’s forest
and plant world and how it came to be.
Preface
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Part Two presents a selection of the plants themselves, arranged
broadly into conifers, angiosperms and ferns. The aim has been to offer
something of the uniqueness of each plant: its classification, names,
botanical description, peculiarities, distribution and associations,
traditional and modern uses, cultural heritage and significance in the
Maori world. Photographs assist in the classification and identification
of the plants as well as illustrating their beauty.
I have relied upon Flora of New Zealand by H.H. Alan (vol. 1, 1961,
reprinted without amendment 1982) as the primary source of botanical
descriptions. I have added my own observations as well in describing the
species.
The classifications are based on New Zealand Indigenous Vascular
Plant Checklist (Peter J. de Longe, John W.O. Sawyer, Jeremy R. Rolfe,
New Zealand Plant Conservation Network, July 2006).
The most difficult part of preparing the book has been to decide which
plants to incorporate and which to leave out. It is obvious that all living
things are beautiful and remarkable and have a story to tell.
I have selected those plants which have inspired me, my students
or the tourists I have guided. These tend to be the more common or
cosmopolitan plants found throughout New Zealand, in the bush and
in ornamental gardens. Or it may be a plant species that holds a special
place in a New Zealand cultural setting.
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P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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For genera with a large number of species (Coprosma, Hoheria, Hebe,
for example), not all species are described, but rather the characteristics
of the genera, using some of the species to describe the features expected.
Many of the species in these genera are confined in their distribution.
Likewise, with the ferns the more common species are described and
others mentioned as examples of the genera.
While we may value the uniqueness and special beauty of the New
Zealand flora, unfortunately many species and their habitats are under
stress. About 33 percent of taxa are threatened or uncommon. Five species
are known to be extinct. Economic development and the associated
changes from forest to rural to urban, introduced pests, timber milling,
mining, and river and wetland degradation all play a part in damaging
plant associations. The exploitation of plants — especially large trees
— has been the story of New Zealand’s history since human arrival. In
many cases, it seems the plant world is measured only according to its
commercial returns. However, if one can see the intrinsic value of New
Zealand’s flora as an extraordinary treasure unique to these islands, the
worth of the plants and their associations and communities increases.
The challenge for all New Zealanders is to balance the desirable aspects
of land development with those of conservation and the sustainable use
of this priceless resource.
Without doubt, the plant world is an enduring taonga, a treasure, of
New Zealand, as expressed in these lines from a Tainui ritual:
Ka waiho ake nei te Ao-tu-roa; he ataata kau ano
Te kau an ate Wao-nui-a tane
Mortal life is but a passing shadow
The great forest of Tane will endure…
Tony Foster
Totara North
August 2008
Preface
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10
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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Part 1
Introduction to
New Zealand’s
remarkable
plants
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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1
New Zealand plants
in the landscape
New Zealand possesses a most remarkable and intriguing flora, and within
its boundaries embraces extreme variations in vegetation types. Plants
inhabit ecosystems as diverse as coastal rocky shores and alpine meadows.
The New Zealand Botanical Region
The vast area known as the New Zealand Botanical Region stretches
from the Kermadec Islands in the subtropical north to Macquarie Island
(actually an Australian territory) in the subantarctic south. As well as the
North and South islands the region comprises the Three Kings, Stewart,
Chatham, Antipodes, Bounty, Snares, Auckland and Campbell islands.
Lying between 29–55° south latitude and 158° east to 176° west longitude,
the region’s diverse physical geography and climatic features are reflected
in the distribution and composition of the plants that occupy it.
A long coastline of some 11,000 km provides a diversity of habitats,
but New Zealand’s physical geography is dominated by lowland and
mountainous areas, with over three-quarters of the land area lying above
200 m altitude. The North Island ranges are less extensive and lower in
altitude (up to 1800 m) than their South Island counterparts, where over
50 peaks rise above 2750 m.
The climate in the region is controlled chiefly by the main islands’
latitude, surrounding oceans and mountainous nature. The long, narrow
islands lie between the high-pressure belt of the sub-tropics and the lowpressure trough in the Southern Ocean. They are surrounded by oceans,
a great distance from the nearest landmass (Australia is some 1610 km
away), with the oceans providing abundant moisture-laden winds. The
main ranges, roughly forming the main islands’ spine, generally lie in
the path of prevailing westerly winds. As any New Zealander or visitor
knows, the region is subject to rapid changes in weather, the result of a
continuous series of anticyclones and troughs, with occasional depressions.
Annual rainfall varies greatly according to topography but averages 750–
1500 mm, with the main ranges receiving up to 5000–7000 mm on their
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178° W
178° E
174° E
170° E
166° E
Norfolk Island
30° S
Kermadec Islands
N
Three Kings Islands
34° S
NORTHLAND
Whangarei
Auckland
Tasman
Sea
AUCKLAND
Hamilton
Tauranga
WAIKATO
GISBORNE
Rotorua
CENTRAL
New Plymouth
Gisborne
NORTH
TARANAKI ISLAND
Napier
HAWKE’S BAY
Wanganui
MANAWATU
Palmerston North
NELSON
WAIRARAPA
Nelson
Wellington
BULLER
38° S
MARLBOROUGH
42° S
Blenheim
Hokitika
WESTLAND
CANTERBURY
Christchurch
Chatham
Islands
Timaru
Queenstown
FIORDLAND
OTAGO
SOUTHLAND
Dunedin
46° S
Invercargill
Stewart Island
Bounty Islands
Snares
Islands
South Pacific Ocean
Auckland Islands
Antipodes Islands
0
Campbell
Island
50° S
300
Scale (km)
54° S
14
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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summits. Snow lies permanently in the North Island only on Mounts
Ruapehu and Taranaki/Egmont, while in the South Island the snow-line
is around 2200 m altitude. The forest line descends from around 1500 m
altitude in the North Island to 900 m in Stewart Island.
At the limits of the New Zealand Botanical Region, the climatic
variations are marked. The Kermadec Islands have a subtropical island
climate with warm temperatures (mean average 19ºC) and abundant
rainfall (averaging 1510 mm). Some 800 km to the west of the main islands,
the Chatham Islands have a cloudy, humid climate, with the mean annual
temperature 11ºC and annual rainfall averaging 850 mm. The subantarctic
islands south of the New Zealand mainland are relatively inhospitable,
with strong (salt-laden) winds, few periods of warm temperatures and
consistent cloudiness, all of which are unfavourable for plant growth.
Mean temperatures are 4–8ºC, and annual average rainfall is 1450 mm
(on Campbell Island and the Auckland Islands), although Macquarie
Island receives only 1020 mm. All of these islands receive either rain or
snow on more than 300 days in the year.
All these elements of range of latitude, relief, altitude, topography,
soils, climate, and exposure to wind, sun or salt affect the diversity and
distribution of New Zealand’s flora.
Endemism
A key feature of the New Zealand flora is the significantly high proportion
of endemic plants (those found in New Zealand and nowhere else): 82
percent endemism with 2357 species of higher plants. The flowering trees
and shrubs alone comprise over 1275 species with 270 distinct varieties.
In the entire New Zealand flora, there are 90 families, 446 genera, 2357
species and subspecies of distinct varieties.
While 82 percent of New Zealand’s plant species are endemic, only
14 percent of its genera are endemic; and we have only one endemic
family, Ixerbaceae, of which tawari (Ixerba tawari) is the only member.
(Some of the reasons for this high degree of endemism are discussed in
the next section.)
Of course, many well-known cosmopolitan plants, such as Ficus,
Aster, Acacia and Rhododendron, are present in New Zealand, having
been introduced by human agency.
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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Accounting for diversity
and distribution
To understand the reasons for New Zealand’s plant diversity and
distribution it is important to understand something of the country’s past
physical geography and how it relates to the accepted biological theories
on species’ distribution and formation.
The present land area of New Zealand attained its outline only within
the last 6000 years; however, the islands that make up New Zealand
have been isolated from any other landmass for about 80 million years.
Before this time, what was to become New Zealand arose along the edge
of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, before splitting off, due to
tectonic forces, and being carried by the process of seafloor spreading to
its present location.
The current distribution of New Zealand plants (plant geography) is
due to a number of interrelated factors.
• Historical level: Evolutionary development, geologic uplifts or sinking
and climate change have all played a part in establishing species and
controlling plant associations.
• Bioclimatological level: Similar climates around the world sustain
similar vegetation. New Zealand’s main islands lie in the world’s
temperate zone; however, the subtropical north and the subtemperate
south enjoy an environment and climate in which a unique cluster of
plants are able to survive.
• Ecological level: Associations of organisms (flora and fauna) form
communities. Some plants are reliant on other plants or vegetation
types; for example, lianes and other climbers need canopy trees on
which to survive; fruits and flowers may require certain birds for the
successful transfer of pollen or seed. The interrelationship of living
creatures, including competition with other species, may either limit
the places in which a species can grow or expand its range.
• Human level: Humans have altered plant distributions by destroying
and altering habitats, introducing new species and moving species
from their natural range. They have introduced herbivores such as
sheep, goats, possums, deer and cows, that destroy plant populations
or alter breeding and reproduction strategies.
New Zealand’s long period of isolation has been punctuated with continual
geologic change. Some land areas have been raised, others have sunken or
been eroded away, volcanoes have erupted, and sands and gravels deposited.
Geologic and climatic incidences such as earthquakes and periods of
glaciation have produced noticeable effects on New Zealand’s physical
environment. Combine these dynamic events with longer term climate
change — from the warm interglacial periods (as we are experiencing
now) to the periods of cooler climates of glacial periods (or ice ages), and
their associated rise and fall of sea levels — and the result is a jumble of
16
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New Zealand’s landmass
from 25 million years ago
Oligocene,
25–30 million years ago
Late Miocene,
10 million years ago —
warm, interglacial
On occasions, New Zealand
has emerged from the sea as a
chain of islands, at other times
it has appeared as a single skein
of land. New Zealand’s plant
populations have been subject to
periods of isolation and times of
mixing. This has resulted in the
production of many new species
and a unique flora with many
remarkable features.
Early Pleistocene,
2 million years ago —
glacial
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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constantly changing land areas over the course of time. On occasions New
Zealand has emerged from the sea as a chain of islands, at other times
it has appeared as a single skein of land. The climate changes recurred
over millions of years and in the process the changing footprint of New
Zealand in the Pacific Ocean has interacted with an essential biological
process — that of speciation, the formation of new species.
Speciation
Speciation can be defined as the evolutionary development of new
species, usually by one species dividing into two or more species that are
genetically unique.
It was Charles Darwin in The Origin of Species (1859) who first
proposed the theory of evolution by the process of natural selection. Over
the years Darwin’s central idea of new species evolving from existing
species has been refined as fresh evidence, research and understandings
reveal the mechanisms by which the variety of life and the selection of
advantaged forms could have occurred.
Darwin recognised isolation as the primary factor in stimulating
species formation, the secondary factor being natural variation in the
offspring. It’s not the strongest of the species that survive, nor the most
intelligent, but those most suited to their environment and most responsive
to change. New Zealand’s history of change, being a collection of islands
and at other times one single landmass, suggests plant populations have
been subject to periods of isolation and times of mixing, but not breeding,
with related and competing species. Isolation and strategies the plants
have employed to cope with change have resulted in the production of a
unique flora with many remarkable features.
Species and isolation
A species may be defined as a group of like organisms that interbreed
naturally and are reproductively isolated from any similar group. The two
main ideas in this definition are ‘like organisms’, those that show very
similar physical features, and ‘reproductively isolated’, meaning they are
cut off from similar species and not able to breed with them.
The simplest form of reproductive isolation is geographical. A physical
barrier such as a mountain range or an ocean keeps one population
separate from other similar populations and prevents interbreeding
between the two.
Other forms of isolation that prevent similar populations breeding
include temporal (related to time) isolation and ecological isolation.
Plants flower at different times of the year and even different times of
the day. This excludes contact with closely related species. In Northland,
Coprosma grandifolia flowers in June, whereas C. repens flowers in
October and November, so the timing of flowering prevents crosspollination between these similar species.
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Closely related species may occupy different habitats even when they
live in the same general area. C. robusta prefers well-lit, dry and open
areas while C. grandifolia prefers shady river edges. The two different
habitats (ecological isolation) prevent cross-fertilisation.
If two species achieve pollination followed by fertilisation and make
seed that germinates, the offspring are hybrids. In the majority of cases,
although not all, the hybrids are sterile; though they may appear as
healthy vigorous individuals, their ability to produce flowers or viable
seed is considerably reduced. And, being incapable of interbreeding, they
remain as individuals and cannot be classed as species.
The period of isolation in a distinctive habitat or environment
results in plant adaptations best suited to that specific environment
or environmental niche. If the plants do manage to occupy the same
geographic area, they will show breeding behaviours that are incompatible
or unique to the individual populations and so be occupying different
niches. As they are incapable of breeding with each other they will have
formed two species, where once there was only one.
Species and isolation
Coprosma species provide good examples of temporal and ecological isolation, and adaptive radiation.
Coprosma repens (taupata). Its ovate, glossy
leaves are adapted for a windy, salt-laden coastal
environment. Flowers in October.
Coprosma grandifolia (kanono). Large, blotchy,
soft leaves are adapted for a shady, moist, riparian
environment. Flowers in June.
Coprosma robusta (karamu). Large, glossy leaves,
leathery and hardy; found in scrub. Flowers in
November.
Coprosma lucida (karangu). Glossy leaves; found in
forest margins. Flowers in September.
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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Adaptive radiation is the process where one species gives rise to multiple
species to exploit available niches. Each species has particular adaptations
suited to the particular niche in which it survives best. This concept is
noticeable in many New Zealand genera. An obvious example is found in
the large-leaved Coprosma.
New Zealand’s forest and
plant associations
From the arrival of humans into these islands — Maori from around
ad 1300, Europeans from around 1770 — the forests and plant associations
have been greatly modified and reduced. The early colonisers brought
and used fire as a means of clearing and modifying the vegetation. Dutch
explorer Abel Tasman noted extensive fires on the South Island’s west
coast during his visit in 1642. Fire was used to prepare transport routes,
flush out ground-dwelling birds such as moa, and prepare ground for
cultivation. Fossil, tree remains, stumps and charcoal and pollen records
indicate that forest covered approximately 75 percent of New Zealand in
ad 700 and by 1800, just prior to European colonisation, was reduced to
some 55 percent.
A new era of forest clearing occurred with the arrival of the Europeans.
The early settlers also brought many exotic plants, including potato, corn
and agricultural grasses. The introduction of these plants for consumption
and trade as well as the establishment of pastoral farming accelerated
forest clearance. Sawmills were soon established to cut timber, but in
many inaccessible or remote areas the forests were simply cut and burnt.
By the early twentieth century virtually all the plains, lowlands and
much of the lower hill country had been cleared of forest and converted
to agricultural use. Over the last 160 years, the forest cover has been
reduced to only around 23 percent of the total land area.
New Zealand’s vegetation
New Zealand’s vegetation types cover a wide range of plant families
occupying diverse environments. Generally, the forests are classified as
rainforests, divided into subtropical rainforest and subantarctic rainforest,
with various intermediate types and sub-types, according to dominant
species and environment.
Subtropical rainforest
The conifer-broadleaf forest of the warmer north and lowlands is dominated
by the large-leaved evergreen flowering trees and the coniferous trees,
which mainly belong to the Podocarpaceae family (and are commonly
known as podocarps). This ancient plant family originated in the former
20
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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ad 700.
Pre-European settlement.
The decline in
New Zealand’s
forest cover
N
Key
Forest
Scrub
Grassland
Mountain
Swamps
2008.
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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supercontinent of Gondwana. Generally tall trees, the stately podocarps
form a dominant element of the forest and lend it a primeval appearance.
Some of the trees develop buttresses at the foot of the trunk, a character
typical of many trees of tropical origin. The subtropical rainforest has a
diverse and dense understorey rich in shrubs, lianes and epiphytes as well
as mosses, liverworts, ferns and tree ferns.
Kauri forest
Kauri forest is a distinctive
type of subtropical rainforest,
a feature of which is the
horizontal layering of strata:
from groundcovers to the shrub
layer, subcanopy, canopy and
emergent trees.
22
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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A number of distinct forest types occur within the subtropical
rainforests, including the following.
• Kauri forest: now much reduced in area, it once covered much of
the northern North Island, with kauri (Agathis australis) being the
dominant species.
• Kahikatea forest: occurs mainly in wet ground and shallow swamps,
with kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrdioides) being the dominant tree.
It was common in such areas as the Waikato, the Hauraki Plains and
Westland.
• Tawa forest: occurs locally in the North Island and in the Marlborough
Sounds in the South Island, with tawa (Beilschmiedia tawa) being the
dominant tree.
• Northern rata forest: occurs in parts of the North Island as well as
in the Nelson region and Westland, with northern rata (Metrosideros
robusta) being a dominant species.
• Kamahi forest: occurs in parts of Westland and Stewart Island,
dominated by kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa), often occurring after
partial forest clearance.
These evergreen forests, with their mixed community of broad-leaved trees
and conifers, extend throughout all three main islands.
Subantarctic rainforest
The other major forest type is subantarctic rainforest, characterised by the
presence of various species of Nothofagus or southern beech. These beech
forests occur in lowland as well as montane and cooler areas, extending
from the southern Coromandel Peninsula to Southland (with one species, N.
truncata, extending into Northland). They are very uniform in composition
and, due to their dense canopy, they have a characteristically sparse and open
understorey of shrubs, but often a wealth of ground ferns and mosses.
Intermediate forest types
In between the two main forest types are numerous intermediate forms.
Mixed associations of subtropical and subantarctic rainforests occur,
with the beeches often dominating the higher, less fertile ground and the
podocarps and broadleaved trees inhabiting the moister gullies. Other
examples include beech-montane forest and coastal forest. However, over
two-thirds of New Zealand’s native forests today either are dominated by
beech or have beech as a major component.
Other major vegetation types
Some of the other main plant associations in New Zealand include the
following.
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
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• Coastal forest and scrublands: New Zealand’s coastal environment
is a demanding place for plants. Many coastal plants demonstrate
adaptations that allow them to survive in the exposed windy and salty
environment. Glossy leaves reflect light and are often coated with a
tough, waxy polish on upper surfaces to allow salt-laden moisture
to run off, while hairs and felt on undersurfaces prevent moisture
evaporating. Many leaves roll up into a flute to prevent excess
evaporation; a number of plants become prostrate in habit to avoid
the worst of the wind, while others creep through sand and gravels
with their wandering rhizomes. Pomaderris kumeraho, Coprosma
acerosa, pingao (Desmoschoenus spiralis), Pimelia prostrata, and
Muehlenbeckia australis are all ground-hugging plants that cling to the
shifting sands and gravels. In the richer soils manuka (Leptospermum
scoparium), wharangi (Melicope ternata), hebes, and many ferns
and flax are commonly found under a canopy of pohutukawa, ngaio,
Pseudopanax, taraire and kowhai.
Scrublands are usually dominated by multi-stemmed shrubs,
often in association with bracken fern (Pteridium esculentum).
Scrublands often occur in lowland and hilly areas where the original
forest cover has been removed or disturbed.
• Lowland shrub, heath and rock vegetation: This is found throughout
New Zealand and is typically dominated by manuka, kanuka (Kunzea
ericoides), divaricating Coprosma, and an assortment of hardy ferns.
• Grasslands and fernlands: These mainly comprise Poa (the tussocks),
Carex (the grasses), bracken, and Cortaderia (toetoe). The grasslands
occur mainly in the drier regions in the lee of the ranges along the
eastern sides of both main islands. Low-tussock grasslands occur in
lowland and hill country and comprise species of Poa and Festuca,
while tall-tussock grasslands are dominated by the snow grasses
(Chionochloa), which generally occur at higher altitudes but descend
to sea level in the far south of the South Island.
• Alpine vegetation: New Zealand has extensive alpine areas (up to
approximately 2000 m altitude), especially in the South Island (with
around 70 percent of alpine species), as well as on the North Island
ranges and volcanoes, and on Stewart Island. There are various
associations and communities of plants in these regions, including
herbfields and grasslands, wetlands and bogs, and shingle screes.
Common plants include snow totara (Podocarpus nivalis), Aciphylla,
the tussocks Carex and Poa, Hebe, Raoulia and Celmisia, many species
of which are prostrate and small in habit. New Zealand is home to some
600 alpine plant species, 93 percent of them found nowhere else.
• Wetland, swamp and bog vegetation: These areas consist mainly of
flax (Phormium species) and reeds such as raupo (Typha orientalis).
Trees include cabbage tree (Cordyline australis), kahikatea, pukatea
(Laurelia novae-zelandiae) and swamp maire (Syzygium maire).
Swamps act as filters, trapping silt and mud and acting as a mop
for floodwaters. However, swamps were considered wastelands by
24
Southern beech trees
Beeches make up the
subantarctic rainforest. This
forest features open plantscapes,
with fewer species than the
conifer-broadleaf forests.
Photo Liz van der Laarse.
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 25
25
18/7/08 8:43:29 AM
European settlers, who drained and ploughed them into farmland.
There has been a reduction in wetland areas by about 85 percent in
the last 160 years, from nearly 700,000 ha to around 100,000 ha.
s Estuarine vegetation: This is where salt and fresh water interact.
In the north, estuaries and harbours are the domain of mangroves
(Avicennia), the saltmarsh ribbonwood (Plagianthus divaricatus) and
the prostrate Samolus repens. The cooler south is dominated by rushes
and sedges.
Sundew drosera
Sundew
Drosera
0GTJYOBUJWFTVOEFXTUISFFBSF
BMQJOFMJWJOHJOQPPSTPJMTBOE
TVQQMFNFOUJOHUIFJSOVUSJUJPO
CZDBQUVSJOHTNBMMJOTFDUTBOE
EFWPVSJOHUIFNXJUIUIFJSMFBG
TFDSFUJPOT
Wetland scene
Raupo,
flax and cabbage trees
'MBYBOEDBCCBHFUSFFTBSF
are
typical
wetland plants. New
UZQJDBMXFUMBOEQMBOUT/FX
Zealand’s
wetlands have been
;FBMBOEµTXFUMBOETIBWFCFFO
greatly
reduced.
HSFBUMZSFEVDFE
26
P L A N T H E R I TAG E N E W Z E A L A N D
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New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 27
27
18/7/08 8:43:33 AM
Geniostoma ligustrifolium flowers.
28
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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2
The characteristics of
New Zealand’s flora
New Zealand’s assemblage of plants has its own unique history, relationships
with plants in other regions of the world, and distinctive characteristics.
What is a New Zealand plant?
Not all plants that grow in New Zealand can be called New Zealand plants,
even those that have established themselves over a long period of time. To
avoid confusion there are really only three kinds of plants in New Zealand:
exotic, native and endemic.
Exotic plants are those which did not occur in New Zealand prior
to the arrival of humans, and which have been introduced, usually by
human agency. Radiata pine, kiwifruit, feijoa and tamarillo are plants
bred or selected in New Zealand and while marketed as being from New
Zealand and bred and horticulturally improved here, in botanical terms
they are exotic.
Native plants are those which were already in New Zealand at the
time of human arrival, and are also termed indigenous. Some common
native species are also native to Australia, such as akeake (Dodonaea
viscosa) and manuka. In some cases there is debate as to whether a plant
species is the same or different to another found elsewhere. Hibiscus
diversifolius, for example, was once considered to be found only in
northern New Zealand but now it is regarded as the same species found
throughout the Pacific. There are about 200 species that are common to
New Zealand and other Pacific or Asian regions.
Endemic plants are those found in New Zealand and nowhere else.
They make up about 80 percent of all the native species. There is one
endemic family (0.9 percent of families), 65 genera (14 percent), and 1944
species, subspecies and varieties (82 percent).
In the entire New Zealand vascular flora (plants with vascular ‘pipes’,
xylem and phloem, that transport and dissolve sugars around the plant),
the total number of families is 90, consisting of 446 genera and 2357
species, subspecies and varieties.
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Ancestry and elements of the flora
The genealogy and ancestry of New Zealand’s plants suggests that many
have ties to plant families in both the northern and southern hemispheres,
some of which reflect the country’s Gondwanan origins. In the Cretaceous
period (135–65 million years ago) New Zealand was part of the vast
continental landmass of Gondwana, attached to what would later be
Australia and Antarctica (which was connected to South America). The
Cretaceous saw the rise of angiosperms (flowering plants), which were
able to spread easily over Gondwana. Many of them would thus appear as
part of New Zealand’s later flora, including the ferns and clubmosses and
the ancestors of today’s podocarps, such as rimu, kahikatea, miro, matai
and totara, along with the ancestors of today’s kauri, southern beech and
mangroves.
Some 80 million years ago, tectonic upheaval saw New Zealand split
apart from the Gondwanan landmass and be dragged, by further tectonic
processes involving spreading seafloors, to its isolated position in the
South Pacific Ocean.
Many other plants were introduced from other regions by seed being
carried by winds, ocean currents or seabirds. Our current flora, therefore,
has some ancient elements, while other plants are regarded as relatively
30
Karapapa
(Alseuosmia
macrophylla)
This pretty shrub, found in
northern forests, is a member of
the endemic genus Alseuosmia.
P lant H eritage N ew Z ealand
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recent developments. An example is our alpine flora, around 90 percent
of which is endemic, reflecting the rise of the Southern Alps around five
million years ago to a height sufficient for these plants to develop.
Over the last three million years, ice ages and the interglacial periods
which separated them also played a large part in determining the plants
which would make up today’s New Zealand flora. High sea levels cut
off some areas, which meant some plants developed in isolation, such
as the liane Tecomanthe speciosa, found on the Three Kings Islands.
Warmer periods facilitated the spread of plants. Some plants that once
existed in New Zealand did not survive the ice ages. Examples include
the common Australian trees Eucalyptus, Casuarina and Acacia, which
once flourished here but now are only found as introduced exotics.
Because of the ancestry of the New Zealand flora, it has been suggested
(e.g. Leonard Cockayne, 1928) that some of its constituent elements
include the following.
• An endemic element, comprising 80 percent of the flora and more
than 40 endemic genera, for example: Alseuosmia, Corallospartium,
Dactylanthus, Ixerba, Loxoma, Rhabdothamnus. It is further
suggested there is an ancient New Zealand element with its roots
in the Tertiary period, such as Aciphylla, Astelia, Carmichaelia,
Celmisia, Coprosma, Dacrydium, Hebe, Melicytus, Phyllocladus,
Phormium and Pseudopanax.
• An Australian element of about 40 genera including Clianthus and
Phebalium.
• A subantarctic element consisting of plants common to New Zealand,
eastern Australia, Tasmania and southern South America. They include
Aristotelia, Dicksonia, Griselinia, Libertia, Libocedrus, Nothofagus
and Podocarpus.
• A tropical element including representatives of the Lauraceae family
(tawa, taraire, mangeao), Meliaceae (kohekohe), Palmae (nikau),
Santalaceae (Mida — maire), and Verbenaceae (puriri).
• A cosmopolitan element, which describes species that have a
considerable range in either temperate or warm climates, including
Asplenium and Calystegia.
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
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Wheki (Dicksonia squarrosa)
The genus Dicksonia is an example of a subantarctic element in the New Zealand flora,
consisting of plants common to New Zealand, eastern Australia, Tasmania and southern
South America.
32
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Characteristic features of
New Zealand plants
New Zealand’s long isolation from other landmasses has allowed the
development of vegetation types that exhibit features and adaptations
generally regarded as New Zealand characteristics. Observing the New
Zealand flora as a whole, these characteristics comprise one or more of the
following features:
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
AHIGHPERCENTAGEOFENDEMICPLANTS
FEWANNUALHERBSANDGRASSES
MANYPLANTSHAVEBERRIESORDRUPESDISPERSEDBYBIRDS
VERY FEW HAVE DEFENCES AGAINST MAMMALIAN BROWSERS THOUGH THEY
do have defence strategies for browsing birds such as moa and other
flightless birds
MANYDIOECIOUSSPECIESWITHSEPARATEMALEANDFEMALETREES
MANYmOWERSARETYPICALLYSMALLANDWHITE
MANYPLANTSHAVEDIVARICATINGGROWTHFORMS
ASIGNIlCANTNUMBERHAVEDISTINCTIVEJUVENILEANDADULTFORMS
A SIGNIlCANT NUMBER SHOW PLASTICITY WHERE SHAPE OF LEAF OR FORM
of plant changes according to its environment; in some species, leaf
shape and habit may change on the same branch and among the same
plants growing together
MANYPLANTSHAVEEVOLVEDINTOLARGERFORMSCOMPAREDTOSIMILARPLANT
families in other countries and, to compound this, many plants on
offshore islands also show larger forms than the mainland species
HYBRIDISMISCOMMONANDINSOMEGENERATHEDELIMITINGOFSPECIESIS
DIFlCULT
THERE ARE REGIONAL HOTSPOTS OF BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY MANY AREAS HAVE
plants unique to that location
ANCIENTREMNANTSTHATHAVEBECOMEEXTINCTINOTHERPARTSOFTHEWORLD
but have survived in New Zealand
THEMAJORITYAREEVERGREENANDTHEREAREFEWCOLDTOLERANTTREES
THENUMBEROFSPECIESINCREASESFROMSOUTHTONORTH
The following sections in this chapter expand on some of these
characteristics.
Divarication / Filiramulation
A curious feature of New Zealand’s flora is the large number of shrubs with
small, tough leaves and flexible, interlacing branches that leave the stem
at obtuse angles. The new spring growth is often brown or grey, giving the
appearance that
thatthe
theplant
plantmay
may
dead.
formemerge
of growth
termed
bebe
dead.
TheThis
flowers
from is
the
stems
divarication,
filiramulate.
as opposed to filiforme
the usualor
branch
ends or lateral buds. This form of growth is
Divarication in New Zealand plants has been referred to as an
TERMEDDIVARICATIONORlLIFORME
Divarication in New Zealand plants has been referred to as an
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
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18/7/08 8:44:19 AM
example of parallel evolution, a process in which unrelated species
exhibit a similar form or shape, hypothesised to be due to environmental
conditions and influencing the selection of successful form.
Divarication occurs in diverse families such as podocarps, violets, and
coffee plants. In New Zealand divarication is found in about 10 percent of
woody trees and shrubs. Even some ferns are multi-branched and could
almost be considered divaricating. The form is noticeable in some conifers
and flowering trees, but mainly in shrubs. The most intriguing feature
is the manner in which divarication is distributed among the genera.
Sometimes, only a few species will show this form, while other members
of the genera grow in a traditional habit. Melicytus is an example: the
New Zealand genus has five members that show this form and six that do
not. Coprosma has about 50 divaricating members and six that are not.
In the conifers, matai (Prumnopitys taxifolia) shows divarication only
as a juvenile, but the closely related miro (P. ferruginea) does not exhibit
this feature.
One suggested explanation for the prevalence of this form is that it
evolved as a defensive mechanism against browsing moa. (There were no
mammalian browsers in New Zealand.) Moa fed on seeds, leaves, twigs
and fruit. Woody and tangled shrubs with small leaves were unpalatable
to moa and offered little sustenance, so plants with this divaricating form
were left alone to reproduce successfully.
Another theory is that the divaricating form is advantageous in a
dry, cold and windy environment, such as existed in New Zealand in
previous ice ages. (However, fossils of divaricating shrubs have been
found dated to more than 16 million years ago, before the ice ages.) The
small leaves are a strategy to reduce evapo-transpiration in a windy
environment and the closely packed leaves and branches create a selfprotecting shape.
Yet another hypothesis is that this twisted, small-leaved form creates
an ideal habitat for lizards and small birds that are the primary agents
of fruit and seed dispersal. These small creatures are able to move
through the tangle of interwoven branches, feed on the fruit and remain
hidden from predators. Plants that adopt this form are very successful
distributors of their seed. However, this would only advantage adult or
sexually mature plants.
Juvenile and adult forms
Among New Zealand plants about 200 species exhibit a juvenile leaf shape
which is quite different from the adult form. This characteristic occurs
haphazardly throughout the flora, being present in families and genera not
closely related. Even among closely related species, it is present in some,
but not all.
The advantage of a juvenile leaf form is that the leaves are best adapted
to a ground environment. The leaf may be in the shade of other taller
trees or shrubs and so assumes a small leaf size. This juvenile form may
34
P l ant H e r i tag e N e w Z e a l and
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Muehlenbeckia astonii
"EJWBSJDBUJOHTISVC
Coprosma rhamnoides flowers
5IFTNBMMXIJUF¿PXFSTPDDVSBMPOHUIFTUFNT
The female flowers shown here each have two elongated
XIJDIJTUZQJDBMPGEJWBSJDBUJOHTISVCT
styles and will eventually form two seeds per berry.
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 35
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18/7/08 8:44:24 AM
Totara
5PUBSBUBLFTPOBEJWBSJDBUJOH
The
charachteristically furrowed
GPSNXIFOKVWFOJMFDIBOHJOHUP
bark
of Totara.
BNPSFSFHVMBSMFBGBOECSBODIJOH
IBCJUBTBOBEVMU
be unattractive or unpalatable to browsing flightless birds. By contrast,
the adult leaf on a tall trunk may be in full sunlight, where its shape
maximises photosynthetic opportunities for the daily supply of sugars
ANDTHEENERGYRICHPROCESSESOFmOWERANDSEEDDEVELOPMENTNECESSARY
for reproduction.
36
P l A N T H e r i TAg e N e w Z e A l A N D
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Monoao (Dacrydium kirkii)
Monoao exhibits the characteristic of
both juvenile and adult forms. Here
juvenile (right) and adult foliage (left)
occurs on the same branch.
The flowers of New Zealand plants
The primary function of flowers is to attract a pollinator in order to
transfer pollen to the female stigma. The pollen contains the male gamete
that fertilises the female ova to produce a seed that, once dispersed from
the mother plant, germinates into a new individual.
Most flowers, by virtue of their shape, form and colour, are designed
to appeal to the fauna most likely to be the agents of their pollination:
birds, reptiles, ants, bees, flies, moths and so on.
In New Zealand plants, the flowers employ a number of ways to attract
pollinators. The larger, brightly coloured flowers are designed to catch
the attention of birds, which come to feed on the sweet nectar. These
flowers often have an architecture that specifically complements the
beak shape of the pollinating bird. Tui are attracted by the yellow bells
of kowhai (Sophora species) in the spring and the bright red filaments of
the Metrosideros species pohutukawa and rata which blaze in summer;
the year-round floral display of puriri (Vitex lucens) attracts many bird
species, while the flowering wands of New Zealand flax invite all manner
of native birds, particularly the tui.
However, the smaller flowers, often white and radially symmetrical,
are designed for non-specific opportunistic pollinators such as flies,
gnats, bees, small birds and the wind.
Smaller flowers are adapted to pollination by insects or the wind,
with white or green flowers attracting the attention of passing insects.
White petals act like tiny solar panels which create a warm microclimate
that encourages small insects to visit on a chilly morning. Among alpine
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 37
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18/7/08 8:44:27 AM
Kowhai (Sophora
species) and tui
The yellow kowhai flowers
attract tui and other nectareaters in spring.
Phebalium nudum
Mairehau flowers show many
features of New Zealand
flowers — small, white and
symmetrical; ideally suited to
a variety of pollinators.
38
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Pohutukawa
(Metrosideros
excelsa)
Pohutukawa flowers’ bright
red filaments attract
nectar-eating birds.
New Zealand
jasmine (Parsonsia
capsularis)
New Zealand jasmine has small
white flowers that develop into
seedpods full of wispy seed
which the wind will disperse.
plants the flowers may be larger but are usually white in colour. There
is a distinct lack of blue, purple and red hues in New Zealand flowers;
those that are brightly coloured are generally closely related to plants
in Australia and are viewed as relatively recent arrivals. (Less than
1 percent of New Zealand’s flowering plants are clearly adapted to bird
pollinators, compared to about 15 percent of Australian plants.)
The smaller flowers have adaptations that encourage visits by nonspecialised pollinators. The flowers are often radially symmetrical,
meaning they can be approached from any direction, and do not require
the pollinator to undertake precise movements. The pollen, anthers and
stigmas are usually freely exposed.
In most parts of the world, bees are the most important group of
insect pollinators, noted for their precision, complexity and diligence of
operation. Advanced groups of bees are lacking in New Zealand, and
the 40 species of native bees are short-tongued and primitive. However,
beetles, moths, flies, spiders and ants are all important pollinators.
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 39
39
18/7/08 8:44:33 AM
White climbing
rata (Metrosideros
perforata)
5IJTSBUBIBTSBEJBMMZTZNNFUSJDBM
¿PXFSTQSFTFOUFEJOCVODIFT
JEFBMMZTVJUFEUPBSBOHFPGOPO
TQFDJBMJTFEQPMMJOBUPST5IF
QFUBMTBSFNVDISFEVDFEJOTJ[F
Pittosporum
cornifolium
'FNBMF¿PXFSTPG1JUUPTQPSVN
DPSOJGPMJVNUIF¿PXFSPOUIF
SJHIUIBTCFFOGFSUJMJTFECZ
UIFNBMFµTQPMMFO5IFQFUBMT
IBWFQFSGPSNFEUIFJSGVODUJPO
PGBUUSBDUJOHUIFQPMMJOBUPS
BOEIBWFGBMMFOBXBZ5IF
PWBSZJTCFHJOOJOHUPTXFMM
BOEXJMMGPSNUIFDBQTVMF
DPOUBJOJOHNBOZTFFETUIBU
XJMMCFSFMFBTFEUIFGPMMPXJOH
ZFBS5IF¿PXFSPOUIFMFGUJT
TUJMMSFDFQUJWFXJUIUIFTUJDLZ
TUZMFQSPUSVEJOHBUUFNQUJOHUP
DBQUVSFQPMMFO1JUUPTQPSVNJT
capture pollen.
EJDPUZMFEPOPVTXJUI¿PXFSQBSUT
JOEFOPNJOBUJPOTPGUXPPS¾WF
40
P l A N T H e r i TAg e N e w Z e A l A N D
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Plant gender
Plants that have flowers of both sexes on the same plant are known as
monoecious; that is, all individuals produce male pollen and female eggs
and seed. Monoeciousness is the norm in the majority of the world’s plants.
Male flowers are those whose gametes (pollen) leave the flower, while
female flowers are those whose gametes (ova) remain in the flower and are
receptive to the male gamete.
Coprosma grandifolia,
female
Each of the inconspicuous
flowers has two stigmas and two
ova. The berry has two seeds.
Coprosma grandifolia,
male
The anthers hang loose from
the small flower. The petals
are small, white or dull green.
Coprosma are pollinated by the
wind or small insects.
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
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An intriguing feature of the New Zealand flora is the high proportion
of plants that have separate male and female individuals. While this is
the norm in animals, plants that have male and female sex organs on
different individuals is unusual. These plants are known as dioecious
plants. Approximately 12–13 percent of New Zealand’s flora is of this
type, compared with, for example, 2–5 percent in Britain and 3.9 percent
in South Australia.
Dioeciousness ensures that fertilisation occurs by another individual
so that no individual can breed with itself. This strategy enhances
variation in the offspring and is responsible in some measure for the
large number of species some genera exhibit.
Dioeciousness is connected with non-specialised pollinators (such as
bees, flies and other insects). It is likely that non-specialised pollinators
encourage self-pollination; however, the offspring of self-pollination
show little variety. Separation of the sexes (dioeciousness) is a means of
countering this, as having male and female flowers on separate plants
ensures cross-pollination is established.
Houpara (Pseudopanax lessonii)
With this small coastal shrub, the male flower shows
symmetry of form with the anthers holding an
abundant supply of pollen. These flowers are ideally
suited to many non-specialised pollinators. They
display another distinctive New Zealand feature —
green petals. Petals need not be showy to attract
small insects.
42
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Dioeciousness accounts for the variability in seeding from year to
year that some species exhibit, because seeding will be determined by
synchronising the time at which the male and female parts are functional.
Environmental conditions, such as degree of wind chill, sunlight hours
and water levels in the flowers, can influence the strength and timing of
flowering. If male and female members of the same species are living in
different microclimates (such as dry ridge or damp gully), the male flowers
may not be synchronised with the receptive females, as the environmental
conditions of flowering produce a slightly different response in time of
flowering. Rimu, for example, may go seven to 12 years before seed on
females is produced in abundance. These years are termed ‘mast’ years.
The distance between a male tree from a female tree increases the
chance of unsuccessful pollination. Logging of a population and a
reduction in total density of the adult trees and total gamete production
will also reduce the likelihood of fertilisation. This seems to be the case
in monoao, a dioecious species of conifer that grows in Northland’s kauri
forests. Monoao has become relatively rare in the wild with its natural
range vastly reduced to remnant populations in Coromandel, Northland
and Little Barrier Island.
Another factor that determines the degree of successful fertilisation is
the relative numbers of males and females. An excess of one or the other
may exist in the natural populations of many plants.
Puawhananga
(Clematis paniculata)
Puawhananga, the native
clematis, is dioecious. Males
usually have larger and more
prolific flowers.
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Seed dispersal
Botanists use the word ‘fruit’ to describe any structure that holds a seed.
Fruits have a method or structure in their design that aids in the dispersal
OFTHESEEDS)NMANYPLANTSBERRIESANDDRUPESAREFAVOUREDASANEFlCIENT
way to disperse the seed.
Kanono
(Coprosma
grandifolia)
grandiflora)
'SVJUTPOBGFNBMFUSFF'PSB
MBSHFOVNCFSPGQMBOUTJODMVEJOH
UIJTPOFCJSETQSPWJEFUIFTFFE
EJTQFSTJOHNFDIBOJTN
On dioecious plants only females produce fruits. Half the genera in
New Zealand that have separate sexes also have fleshy fruits. A dioecious
species produces greater fruit crops (more seed, not larger fruits) than
similar sized and structured monoecious species. This is because in
dioecious plants nearly all seed produced is viable as it has been formed
BY CROSSPOLLINATION WHEREAS IN MONOECIOUS SPECIES SUCH AS mAX AND
cabbage trees) a percentage of seed produced is unviable as it is the result
OFSELFPOLLINATIONANDVIABLESEEDWILLNOTBEFORMED
Pittosporum
cornifolium
5IFGSVJUPGUIJTFQJQIZUFPG
OPSUIFSOGPSFTUTIBTBCSJHIUMZ
DPMPVSFEJOOFSDBQTVMFUIBU
DBUDIFTUIFCJSEµTFZFUIF
TUJDLZTFFETBSFQSFTFOUFEGPS
EJTQFSTBM
44
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The bird is attracted by the bright colours of the fruit and consumes
the sweet, nutritious berry. When flying away, the bird digests the skin
and pulp of the berry (which may have chemicals in it that inhibit
germination), but excretes the seed — usually with a little dollop of
fertiliser — hopefully some distance from the parent plant. The seed’s
passage through the gut effectively cleans the seed and prepares it for
germination.
Some seeds are enclosed in dry capsules or pods. These seeds are
often wind dispersed, but Pittosporum have a sticky glue surrounding
the seeds inside the capsule. As the bird eats the seeds (as roughage or
as gizzard stones, storing them in their throat where they are used in
grinding and mashing food), other seeds attach themselves to the bird’s
feathers. The sticky seeds eventually dislodge themselves some distance
from the parent tree.
Rhabdothamnus
solandri
"TISVCGPVOEJOTIBEZBSFBT
The brightly coloured flowers
JUJTUZQJDBMPGCJSEQPMMJOBUFE
are ideal for attracting birds.
QMBOUTXJUICSJHIUMZDPMPVSFE
¿PXFSTBUUSBDUJOHCJSET
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 45
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Parapara (Pisonia brunoniana) also has sticky seeds which aid dispersal,
but the sticky substance is so efficient that insects and even small birds and
reptiles (geckos and skinks) are sometimes trapped in the gelatinous mass
surrounding the seeds and eventually die of exhaustion. This is beneficial
for the plant as the decomposing animal releases its nutrients into the
soil and eventually the plant absorbs them. Parapara is a plant of coastal
headlands where the soils are generally poor and shallow.
Few deciduous plants
Only 11 New Zealand species completely lose their leaves over winter.
They include kowhai (Sophora species), lacebark and ribbonwood
(Hoheria species) and native fuchsia or kotukutuku (Fuchsia excorticata).
In Northland, these species are only deciduous for a week or two, but in
colder districts and the high country, they may remain deciduous for four
months over winter. The vast majority of New Zealand’s trees and shrubs
hold on to their leaves for the entire year.
46
Lacebark
(Hoheria populnea)
Lacebark loses its leaves over
winter.
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Regional endemism/biological hotspots
As mentioned previously, the present-day distribution of native plants
is due to past climatic and geological processes, with time and isolation
leading to forms and species uniquely adapted to the environment of these
islands. From the mountains to the coast, the New Zealand landscape is
variable and diverse, with a range of microclimates to which a number of
plants have successfully adapted.
Hotspots of plant biodiversity include north-west Nelson, the Three
Kings Islands and the islands off Northland’s east coast. Each of these
areas possesses plants endemic to their region. The smaller the area, the
more the individual species are at risk due to chance events.
Tecomanthe speciosa
This climber, endemic to the
Three Kings Islands, was reduced
to a single specimen when
discovered, but thanks to today’s
propagation methods is now
common in gardens throughout
the North Island — an example
of preservation through
domestication.
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
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Plants that grow on offshore islands occasionally show larger forms
than those found on the mainland. Small populations and high sunshine
hours tend to favour those individuals with large leaves.
Macropiper excelsum
subsp. peltatum
This shrub from Northland’s
offshore islands has larger and
glossier leaves than the mainland
forms.
Hybridism
The offspring of two genetically dissimilar individuals is called a hybrid.
Hybrids, though usually sterile, are common, and in some genera it is
difficult to tell species apart. To confuse matters, many species show so
little uniformity in their leaf shape — on the same plant as well as others
of the same species growing near by — that it is virtually impossible to
know which are the result of cross-pollination and which are the result of
natural variability.
48
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Karapapa
(Alseuosmia banksii)
This shrub, common in northern
forests, is an example of a
species that shows a variety
of leaf forms. These leaves are
taken from individuals all within
50 m of each other.
Larger forms
Many plants show larger forms in New Zealand compared with similar
plant families in other countries. This difference is compounded as the
plants of New Zealand’s offshore islands also show larger forms than those
on the mainland.
Variation in leaf parts: heterophylly
The variation in structural parts such as leaves is termed ‘phenotype
plasticity’. ‘Heteroblasty’ is a term botanists use to describe different forms
in developmental stages, such as the lancewood (Pseudopanax species)
exhibiting different leaf shapes in juvenile and adult plants. ‘Heterophylly’
describes the plant exhibiting different leaf shapes or growth forms
dependent upon the environment in which the plant grows.
Another good example of leaf variation and growth habit is
hangehange (Geniostoma ligustrifolium). In a shady river edge, the leaf
The characteristics of New Zealand’s flora
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 49
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is large and soft; however, in full sunlight the leaf becomes glossy and
leathery. This characteristic of plasticity can make New Zealand plants
difficult to identify.
Hangehange (Geniostoma
ligustrifolium) variation in
leaf size and growth habit is
dependent on the environment in
which it survives.
50
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3
What’s in a name?
Classifying plants
Taxonomy
The scientific naming of all plants and animals is based upon conventions
devised by Carl von Linné, who was born in Sweden in 1707. He set
about classifying plants and animals into a hierarchical structure based
upon observable characteristics. Latin was chosen because it was then
the international language of science. He even Latinised his own name
to Carolus Linnaeus. All organisms, he proposed, should be classified
according to their shape and structure, their physiology and their
distribution. Kingdoms were divided into Classes and they, in turn, into
Orders, which were further divided into Genera and Species. In the process
he recognised that for plants it was their sexual parts that held most merit
in placing them into similar groups or families.
The science of classifying all forms of life is called taxonomy. Over
the years research and new discoveries have led to the expansion of
the groupings and, with modern tools such as DNA sequencing, plants’
classifications are under constant review.
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 51
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4HETABLEBELOWILLUSTRATESTHETAXONOMICCLASSIlCATIONOFSIXNATIVE
plants.
$MBTTJ¾DBUJPOPGTJYOBUJWFQMBOUT
$PNNPO
OBNFT
5JUJLPVLB
DBCCBHFUSFF
,PXIBJ
,BVSJ
1POHB
TJMWFSGFSO
/JLBV
OJLBVQBMN
/FX;FBMBOE
¿BY
,JOHEPN
1MBOUBF
%JWJTJPO
.BHOPMJBQIZUB
.BHOPMJPQIZUB
1JOPQIZUB
1UFSJEPQIZUB
.BHOPMJPQIZUB
$MBTT
-JMJPQTJEB
.BHOPMJPQTJEB
1JOPQTJEB
Magnoliopsida
-JMJPQTJEB
0SEFS
"TQBSBHBMFT
'BCBMFT
1JOBMFT
$ZBUIFBMFT
Arecales
"TQBSBHBMFT
'BNJMZ
Asparagaceae
-BYNBOOJBDFBF
'BCBDFBF
"SBVDBSJBDFBF $ZBUIFBDFBF
1BMNBF
Arecaceae
)FNFSPDBMMJEBDFBF
Xanthorrhoeaceae
(FOVT
$PSEZMJOF
4PQIPSB
"HBUIJT
$ZBUIFB
3IBQBMPTUZMJT 1IPSNJVN
4QFDJFT
$BVTUSBMJT
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$EFBMCBUB
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This table shows the hierarchical structure of plant nomenclature.
Cordyline is a member of the laxmanniaceae Family that is part of
the Order Asparagales that belongs to the Class liliopsida of the
Magnoliaphyta Division within the Plant Kingdom. By knowing the
SCIENTIlCBINOMIALGENUSANDSPECIESNAMEONECANlNDWHERETHEPLANT
sits in relation to its order, class and division. Similarities and differences
with other plants can be ascertained. This system avoids the confusion
often prevalent with common names, as there may be several plants with
the same common name.
4VCTQFDJFTWBSJFUJFTBOEIZCSJET
… 4VCTQFDJFT5IFDMBTTJ¾DBUJPOTVCTQFDJFTJTHJWFOBGUFSUIFTQFDJFTOBNFUPTJHOJGZBQPQVMBUJPOUIBU
NBZCFTMJHIUMZTJNJMBSUPUIFNBJOTQFDJFTCVUXIJDIWBSJFTJOTPNFTUSVDUVSBMXBZBOEJTSFQSPEVDUJWFMZ
JTPMBUFEGSPNUIFNBJOTQFDJFT0GUFOQMBOUTGPVOEPOUIFPGGTIPSFJTMBOETIBWFTVCTQFDJFTDMBTTJ¾DBUJPO
5IFZIBWFUIFQPUFOUJBMUPCSFFEXJUIUIFNBJOMBOEQPQVMBUJPOCVUEVFUPUIFJSJTPMBUJPOBSFVOBCMFUP5IFZ
BSFHJWFOUIFTBNFTQFDJFTOBNFCVUUIFJSSFQSPEVDUJWFJTPMBUJPOJTTJHOJ¾FECZCFJOHBTVCTQFDJFT
… 7BSJFUJFT5IFUFSNWBSJFUZJTVTFEUPEJGGFSFOUJBUFQMBOUTPGUIFTBNFTQFDJFTPSTVCTQFDJFTUIBUIBWFB
EJTUJODUTUSVDUVSBMIBCJU"QMBOUNBZIBWFBSFE¿PXFSXIFOUIFVTVBM¿PXFSGPSNJTXIJUFPSNBZCF
QSPTUSBUFFHTJHOJ¾FECZWBSQSPTUSBUB
JOTUFBEPGUIFOPSNBMVQSJHIUGPSN.BOZIPSUJDVMUVSBMWBSJFUJFT
BSFCSFEBOETFMFDUFEGPSEFTJSBCMFRVBMJUJFT5IFZBSFDBMMFEDVMUJWBSTDVMUJWBUFEWBSJFUJFT
BOEEFTJHOBUFE
CZIBWJOHUIFJSDVMUJWBSOBNFQMBDFEJOTJEFJOWFSUFEDPNNBTBOEVTVBMMZDBQJUBMJTFEFH´#SPO[F,JOHµ
… )ZCSJET5IFTFBSFDSPTTFTCFUXFFOUXPTQFDJFT5IFZNBZPDDVSXIFSFUXPTQFDJFTNFFUJOUIFJSSBOHF
GPSFYBNQMFXIFSF$PSPLJBDPUPOFBTUFSBOE$CVEEMFJPJEFTDSPTTCSFFEUIFIZCSJE$WJSHBUBPDDVST
)ZCSJETTFMEPNNBLFWJBCMFTFFE5IFVTVBMNFUIPEPGIPSUJDVMUVSBMSFQSPEVDUJPOJTCZDVUUJOH
52
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Plant names may change when botanists review the classification
within a plant group. When this happens a synonym may be added;
for example, mingimingi has at times been Cyathodes juniperina and
Leucopogon juniperina, so its name may be presented as Cyathodes
juniperina syn Leucopogon juniperina. Synonyms are sometimes denoted
by the symbol = , thus Cyathodes juniperina = Leucopogon juniperina.
Taxonomy, more than any other branch of natural science, is open
to interpretation and opinion. As such, some of the classifications and
groupings of plants by one group of botanists are regarded by others as
doubtful. This is just the nature of botany, and it is often what motivates and
stimulates plant scientists to keep on making observations and mounting
expeditions to try to unravel the perplexities of the living world.
Common names
The names of plants — whether they be scientific, English, Maori or
common names — have origins and meanings that reveal much about the
plants’ traditional uses, people’s perceptions and local mythologies. But,
in most cases, plant names reflect important features and assist in making
them easier to remember. A name often describes one or more of the plant’s
characteristics.
Sometimes the stories behind the plant are fanciful and figuratively
rich. They may be metaphorical or allegorical, relating to an important
aspect of human endeavour and spirit. Plants can be seen in a beautiful
or scenic context that inspires an appreciation of their majesty and the
mysteries of nature. They can sometimes warn of the harsh realities of
life and even predict the qualities of the coming seasons.
Plants of special importance to Maori received a number of different
names recognising their varieties, or important parts of the plant or
growth stages. Flowers or fruits were given descriptive phrases rather than
true names. As a consequence, names vary from one part of the country
to the other as regional communities named plants after local uses and
observations. James Beever lists 85 names for flax and its varieties or
parts, and 14 names for bracken fern. Lawrie Metcalf, in his Cultivation
of New Zealand Plants, lists 36 horticultural varieties of flax.
Both Europeans and Maori gave names to plants based on similarities
with plants found in their homelands. Many Maori names for plants echo
similar species found in eastern Polynesia, and those along the earlier
route of Polynesian migration eastwards across the Pacific Islands.
New Zealand’s pukatea is a forest tree with spreading buttressed
roots which help to support the trunk in swampy ground where it grows
best. Pukeka is also a buttressed tree in the Cook Islands, where, as in
New Zealand, kiekie is a climber, ngaio and rata are trees and ponga and
wheki are tree ferns.
Nikau is the name for the coconut palm in Mangareva of the Gambier
Islands (French Polynesia), while manuka occurs as a tree name in parts
New Zealand’s plants in the landscape
Plant Heritage Part 1.indd 53
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of Fiji. Konini is a name used to identify the native tree fuchsia, and this
name also occurs in the Marquesas. Miro is also known as toromiro, and
this tree name occurs at Easter Island, Tahiti and the Cook Islands. The
name tawa is similar to tava in Futuna, Tonga, Samoa and Niue, and to
dawa in Fiji. The intoxicating drink kava is made throughout the Pacific
from the kava plant, so similar in leaf shape to the endemic and nonintoxicating (but medicinal) kawakawa, yet it is a different species.
Kawakawa and kava
The New Zealand kawakawa
(Macropiper excelsum), left,
and the Samoan kava
(Piper mythisticum), right.
In 1834 the missionary William Yates commented:
It will scarcely be credited . . . that the New Zealanders have
a distinct name for every tree and plant in their land . . . I was
personally astonished, though I ought not to have been so, when
a celebrated Austrian Botanist, Baron Heugal, paid us a visit and
made a large collection of plants. We had a native tell us their
names: he gave names to all without exception, and that with
little hesitation. Some of these plants were so small that it might
have been supposed that they would have escaped the notice of an
individual. But it was not so; not one could be introduced, however
minute or wherever the hidden situation in which it had thriven,
but a name was found for it: and lest it should be thought that
this man was coining the names, another native was called in the
following evening, just as the plants were being placed in fresh
paper; with one single exception, out of three hundred specimens,
he gave the same to each as had been given the night before.
European settlers searched for names for these new plants and naturally
adopted many Maori names. Other names were coined to describe some
obvious characteristic, especially if there was a similarity to a familiar
plant from home, such as mountain daisy, pink broom, wineberry, New
Zealand hydrangea, marbleleaf, New Zealand oak, and so on.
54
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4
Maori and the
plant world
Nga whakapapa o nga rakau:
genealogy of the trees
The forest world of the Maori
In Maori tradition, the plants of Aotearoa are the children of Tanemahuta,
the guardian and creator of the forests. Tane mated with various female
personifications and the offspring of these couplings are the trees and
shrubs, ferns and mosses, reptiles and birds.
The central concept in Maori reality is that of whakapapa, genealogy
or lineage. Tane is the child of Ranginui, the sky father, and Papatuanuku,
the earth mother. Tane was responsible for creating all the plants,
animals, birds and creatures of the forest, including people. Through
the chain of creation and whakapapa, humans are intimately linked to
all forms of life, including plants. These connections are embodied in
the traditions, thoughts, behaviour and culture of Maori as part of their
mauri, life force or essence.
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In the traditional world, there was no demarcation between the living
world of plants, animals and people and the non-living world of rocks,
sea, winds and water. All facets of the universe had a mauri. This term
can be applied to objects that act as a medium or a talisman. A small
shrub or a blade of tussock could be employed as a temporary talisman
to ascertain what fate lay in store for people. In such a case the object or
plant was termed an aitua, and held a mauri or life force of its own.
The concept of tapu (sacredness), and its practical manifestation of
appeasing the guardian Tanemahuta, was the motivating force in the way
that Maori personally interacted with elements of the world in which they
lived, including plant life, bird and animal life, the earth, the mountains,
and everything they could see and hear.
An individual tree sits face down, feeding from the earth mother
using its roots, as an infant feeds from the breast of the mother. The
trunks or pillars hold up the sky father, separating the two parents. The
reproductive organs are displayed at the top of the tree, pollen and seeds
being abundantly spread. The manifestation is Tane the male element
being upright and above the receptive female element.
Tane mating with a variety of females of different personifications
accounts in its simplest interpretation for the different physical
characteristics of the plants, the uses to which they could be put and the
customs and rituals associated with their uses, as well as explaining the
position in the landscape in which they may be found.
Ko te whakapapa tuatahi tenei: the first genealogy
This explanation of the creation of the world and its plants is taken from
a talk by Te Tawhaa Tioke of Ngai Tuhoe. Te Tawhaa was a student of the
‘whare wananga’ (house of learning), this creation story being passed on to
him by his uncle. I am grateful for his permission to publish it here.
Ko te whakapapa tuatahi ko te poutokomanawa kei waenganui ia
Papatuanuku raua ko Ranginui e tu ana. Ko tenei poutokomanawa he
rakau me nga wehewehenga.
The first genealogy was the main pillar standing between Papatuanuku
and Ranginui. This main pillar was a tree and all its components.
Harakeke, New
Zealand flax
(Phormium tenax)
In Maori tradition, the plants
of Aotearoa are the children of
Tanemahuta, the guardian and
creator of the forests.
Tuatahi ko te Putake
Tuarua ko te More
Tuatoru ko te Weu
Tuawha ko te Aka
Tuarima ko te Rea
Tuaono ko te Wao-nui
Tuawhitu ko te Kune
Tuawaru ko te Whe
Tuaiwa ko te Kore
Tekau ko te Po
(original roots)
(taproots)
(rootlets)
(climbing plant rootlets)
(growth)
(the forest)
(shapes and forms)
(sound of the trees and leaves, by the wind)
(nothingness, non-existing, the unknown)
(the world of night/silence)
Maori and the plant world
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Ko enei wehenga e pa ana ano ki a tatou ki te tangata.
Ko te whakaahuatanga mai o tenei whakapapa ko Ranginui e tu iho nei —
ko Papatuanuku e hora nei.
These components apply to us the human race. The manifestation of this
genealogy is Ranginui standing erect and Papatuanuku lying openly
beneath.
The first genealogy describes the formation of the world: the area between
the earth (a mother image) and the sky (a father image).
Life begins as small roots that grow and become taproots, vines, stems
and eventually trees that form forest associations; it is a gradual growth
from simple to complex.
The last lines above recognise the world that surrounds us, which is
all-encompassing. The atmosphere, the unknown and the silent, also fills
the world but is defined as an absence of the living, but nonetheless still
a component of the world.
Ko te whakapapa tuarua tenei: the second genealogy
Ka moe a Tane ki a Apunga ka puta ko nga rakau iti katoa o te Ngahere,
me etahi o nga ngarara o te whenua, me nga manu o te ngahere, nga rakau
iti katoa, ko Manono, ko Koromiko, ko Hanehane, ko Karamuramu, ko
Ramarama, ko Putaweeta me etahi atu o nga rakau iti ote ngahere.
Tane married Apunga and begat all the small trees, the insects and birds of
the forest. Among the small trees were included the Manono, the Koromiko,
the Hangehange, the Karamuramu, the Ramarama, the Putaputaweta and
a number of other shrubs of the forest.
Tane mated with Apunga. The
offspring are many of the small
trees and shrubs of the forest.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Mumuhanga kia puta ko Totara nui, ko Totara poriro,
ko Totara torowhenua, ko Tawini.
Tane married Mumuhanga and begat Totara nui, Totara poriro, Totara
torowhenua and Tawini.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Tukapua ka puta ko Tawai, ko Kahikawaka, ko
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Mangeao, me etahi atu o nga rakau nunui o te ngahere.
Then Tane married Tukapua and begat Tawai [beech], Kahikawaka,
Mangeao and others of the larger trees of the forest.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Hine wao riki kia puta ko Kahikatea, ko Matai, ko
Rimu, Pukatea, Ko Kauri, ko Tanekaha.
Then Tane married Hine wao riki and begat Kahikatea, Matai, Rimu,
Pukatea, Kauri and Tanekaha. [These are the large forest trees that produce
useful solid woods. All are conifers with the exception of Pukatea.]
Ka moe a Tane i a Mangonui kia puta ko Hinau, ko Tawa, ko Pokere, ko
Kararaka, ko Miro, ko Taraire.
Then Tane married Mangonui and begat Hinau, Tawa, Pokere, Kararaka,
Miro and Taraire. (These are the large broadleaf forest trees with edible
berries.)
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Ruru-tangi-akau kia puta ko Kahikatoa, ko Kanuka,
Ko te Kahikatoa te rakau e kia nei e te korero whakatauki ‘he tao huata te
karo, he na aitua, tu tonu e kore e taea te karo’.
Then Tane married Ruru-tangi-akau and begat Kahikatoa [manuka] and
Kanuka. It is from the Kahikatoa that comes the proverb: ‘The thrust of a
spear can be parried, but that of death stands forever.’
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Rerenoa, kia puta ko Rata, ko Tataramoa, ko Kareao,
ko Akaaka, ko Poananga, ko Piki-arero and Kaweaka.
Tane then married Rerenoa and begat Rata, Tataramoa, Kareao, Akaaka,
Poananga, Piki-arero and Kaweaka. [These are the climbing plants that
scramble for life on the trunks of other plants.]
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Puwhakahara kia puta ko Maire, ko Puriri.
Tane then married Puwhakahara and begat Maire and Puriri.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Punga kia puta ko Kaponga, ko Mamaku, ko Punui,
ko Wheki, ko Kotukutuku, ko Patate me etahi ano o nga ngarara.
Tane then married Punga and begat Kaponga, Mamaku, Punui, Wheki,
Kotukutuku, Patate, and more ferns (plants found in gullies and damp and
dark spots) as well as insects.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Tutoro-whenua kia puta ko Raruhe (ko te aruhe tenei
e kainga nei e o tatou maatua. Ko nga putake rahuruahu e kainga ana e o
tatou maatua, engari ko nga mea e tupu ana i nga whenua tahoata anake.)
Again, Tane married Tutoro-whenua and begat Raruhe [aruhe — bracken
fern]. (These edible fern roots grew in the pumice lands and were consumed
by our ancestors.)
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Hine-mahanga kia puta ko Tupaatiki, ko Kakaho,
Maori and the plant world
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Gully fern – kiokio
(Blechnum novaezelandiae)
Tane mated with various
female personifications and the
offspring of these couplings are
the trees and shrubs, ferns and
mosses, reptiles and birds.
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ko Toetoe, ko Wiwi, ko Raupo, ko Parapara me etahi atu o nga tamariki a
Tane kei te repo e tupu ana.
Then Tane married Hine-mahanga and begat Tupaatiki, Kakaho, Wiwi,
Raupo, Parapara and others of Tane’s children that grew in the swamp
(the rushes and sedges).
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Tawake-toro kia puta ko Manuka.
Then Tane married Tawake-toro and begat Manuka.
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Huna kia puta ko Harakeke, ko Kouka, ko Tikapu,
ko Toi.
Then Tane married Huna and begat Harakeke, Kouka, Tikapu and Toi.
(These are the flax and cabbage trees.)
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Tawhara-nui kia puta ko Kiekie, ko Tuawhiti, ko
Patanga, ko Mokomoko, ko Kiekie-papa-toro.
Then Tane married Tawhara-nui and begat Kiekie, Tauwhiti, Patanga,
Mokomoko and Kiekie-papa-toro (all names for kiekie).
Ka moe ano a Tane i a Hine-tu-maunga kia puta ko Para-whenua-mea,
ko te wai whaka-maakuukuu tenei i nga putake o nga tamariki a Tane.
Then Tane married Hine-tu-maunga and begat Para-whenua-mea, which
are the waters that moisten the roots of Tane’s children.
Me mutu i noei nga korero kia mau ai te tapu. He kupu whakamarama,
kaua e wehi ki enei whakapapa, kua oti ke te whakamaamaa kia ngawari
ai, ki a tatou, me a tatou whakatupuranga.
We close now, that the sacredness may be respected. As a clarification, do
not be afraid of these genealogies, they have been relaxed and subdued to
protect future generations and us.
Similar genealogies
A variation of the second genealogy above was recorded by Elsdon Best,
referring to it in Maori Mythology and Religion as a fireside myth.
Tane is said to have mated with many different kinds of female
beings . . . Tane mated with Hine-tu-maunga, the mountain maid,
and she produced Para-whenuamea (personified form of water).
He then mated with Hine-waoriki, who produced kahika and
matai (two trees, Podocarpus dacrydioides and P. spicatus); and
with Tukupua, who produced the tawai (Fagus fusca, Beech) and
with Mangonui, who produced the tawa and hinau (Beilschmiedia
tawa and Elaeocarpus dentatus); and with Pu-whakahara, who
produced the maire (Olea spp.); and with Rerenoa, who produced
the rata (Metrosideros robusta); and with Ruru-tangi-akau,
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who produced the aka (Dodonaea viscosa) and with Punga, who
produced all insects and vermin, and with Tu-toro-whenua, who
produced aruhe (edible rhizome of Pteris aquilina); and with
Parauri; who produced the tui (bird) and with Haere-awaawa who
produced weka (bird).
So were trees, plants, birds and insects generated.
Many other variations, names and plant genealogies exist in whakapapa.
In some areas of Aotearoa the tree ferns are viewed as the offspring of
Tangaroa (the guardian of the oceans). The tree ferns, such as mamaku,
have large ‘scales’ on their trunks (scars left by fallen fronds), bearing
witness to their descent from hapuku (groper).
In the northern tribes, kauri, with its smooth grey bark and immense
size, is seen as the offspring of the large sea mammal, the sperm whale.
Another account of Tane
The following account appeared in Te Ao Hou (No. 52, September 1965),
and was attributed to ‘a member of the Ngati Hau tribe of Wanganui
and is among the manuscripts collected by John White, which are in the
Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington’.
The main pillar that separates Ranginui, the sky father, from
Papatuanuku, the earth mother, is a tree, the symbolic personification of
Tanemahuta, the male element, the progenitor.
Tane is also the ancestor of the birds, and it is he who caused the
trees to grow. He has many names which refer to his various tasks:
thus, he is known as Tane-tuturi (Tane with the bent knees) after
the time he lay with bent knees in order to thrust apart Rangi and
Papa.
He is known as Tane-pepeke (Tane with his limbs drawn up) for
he lay with his limbs drawn up as he made ready to stretch his legs
to their full length, thereby thrusting Rangi upwards, and forcing
him to live apart from Papa.
He is also called Tane-ua-tika (Tane with the straight backbone)
because he is so erect, standing upright and strong. It is because his
backbone is straight that trees grow straight.
His name Tane-te-wai-ora refers to the moon gaining new life
by bathing in the lake created by Tane. Trees, plants, birds, animals,
lizards and insects also gain life by drinking fresh water.
The name Tanemahuta refers to the canoes that men paddle; they
embark, cross the ocean, then they land (‘mahuta’); they go ashore,
joyfully arriving at whatsoever place they wish, and are not wet
from the water. As though they were merely crossing a wide path,
they travel dry-shod across the ocean. Now this is due to Tane,
because canoes come from the trees of the forest; it is for this reason
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Tane ‘is also called Tane-ua-tika
(Tane with the straight backbone)
because he is so erect, standing
upright and strong. It is because
his backbone is straight that
trees grow straight.’
that a canoe is known as ‘Riu o Tane’ — The Trunk of Tane.
Tu-wai-rora is the origin of the straight, tall trees from which
canoes are made, that is the totara and the kauri trees. Here are
more sayings about canoes:
‘Ko Tu-te-nganahau, ko te kiri o te kahikatoa, hei whare e noho
maru a Kahukura’ — The narrow path of Tane, and ‘Ko te ake ko te
kahikatea, nga uaua o Tu mata-uenga’ — The daring of Tane. There
is a proverb about the bark of trees that is used to thatch houses:
‘Tu-te-nganahau, the bark of the kahikatoa, makes a house fit to
shelter Kahukura (god of the rainbow)’.
Another proverb is: ‘The ake and the kahikatea are the sinews
of Tu-mata-uenga’. This refers to the spear, the taiaha and the
wahaika.
In addition, as Tane is the ancestor of birds, the owl is his bird;
this is why the owl is known as ‘the hidden bird of Tane’. The same
expression is used of the kiwi.
Tane is also the ancestor of the trees of the forest, for he
took Mumuwhango, and by her he fathered the totara; he took
Puwhakahara, and by her he had the kahikatoa (Leptospermum)
and the akerautangi tree; he took Tuwairore, and by her he had the
kahikatea and the rimu; and he took Atatangirea, and by her he
had the maire.
Tane had other wives also; whose descendants were the quick,
fluttering creatures of this world, the birds. With Parauri, he had
the tui, with Papa, he had the kiwi, and with Haereawaawa, he had
the weka.
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Maori and the plant world
Insights into the botanical world
Many of these genealogies and whakatauki (proverbs, stories), reveal a
number of powerful insights into the botanical world. For example:
• The importance of sexual reproduction in creating variation in the
offspring. The male (Tane) brings the quality of virility and growth;
the female brings the characteristic form or shape, which is related to
the habitat the plant survives in.
• Some plants were formed before others. The first formed plants
were small shrubs. The plants last formed were those most useful to
people.
• The interrelationships and connectedness of the living world. Apunga
was the mother of all the creatures that lived in damp, sheltered spots,
such as tree ferns, pate, schefflera, ground ferns and weta (insects).
• Tane was also the progenitor of humans. He links humans with the
same processes as all living things. This acknowledges a common
mauri or life force shared by all.
• Names given for varieties and cultivars of commonly used plants.
This reflects the notion of plants being closely related in a family
relationship (whanaungatanga); for example, flax and cabbage trees
have the same mother, Huna.
• The living environment is sustained by sacred water, which also
maintains a mauri.
Uses and significance
Karaka (Corynocarpus
laevigatus) berries
Maori learnt to process karaka
fruit to separate the poisonous
parts from the edible flesh.
As in other societies elsewhere, Maori explored their new land and, by
observation and experimentation, learnt the uses and qualities of the
plant world around them. Many had immediate use in providing easily
obtained food; others could be cultivated for this purpose. Many others
provided decorative, ornamental or medicinal resources, or were put to
industrial uses as tools, implements, containers, or in clothing and house
construction, weaving and dyeing.
A great deal of chance discovery as well as purposeful experimentation
would have enabled Maori to discern which plants were edible, palatable
and efficacious in medicine and which were not. Sometimes a process
was required to render unpalatable or poisonous plants fit to eat.
The taking of plant material was governed by Maori law and ritual,
as with every other aspect of existence. The plant world of Aotearoa thus
assumed a great importance, not just for survival, but for its role in Maori
identity and culture.
Many of the uses and significance attached to the various plants are
detailed when discussing individual species in Part 2.
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Part 2
The plants
Conifers
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5
Conifers
New Zealand’s conifers are ancient plants. In the New Zealand flora they
represent the eternal that can be termed ‘Gondwana’. These species, or ones
similar to them, would have been a dominant feature of the Gondwanaland
ecosystems 180 million years ago. At that time, flowering trees and shrubs
had not yet appeared.
Me te uru ngahere tera.
Like a forest grove.
As a grove contains many trees, this simile is used for a
large gathering of people.
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Class Gymnospermae
Gymnosperms (gymno meaning ‘naked’ and sperm meaning ‘seed’) are seedbearing plants in which the seeds are exposed and seldom found inside a
berry. They are regarded as the most primitive form of the seed habit.
These evergreen trees reproduce by means of cones, termed strobili.
Leaves are linear or small, and scale-like.
The Order Pinales is the most widespread of all the groups of
gymnosperms and are common at high altitudes and in the colder regions
of the temperate zones of the world. They are much less common in
the tropics. The conifers are of significant economic importance, used
extensively for timber (as a group, their wood is termed hardwood). Their
growth form is frequently pyramidal, the main trunk being the source of
timber. They can attain remarkable age and size.
Families of gymnosperm found in New Zealand are Podocarpaceae,
Araucariaceae and Cupressaceae.
Kauri
Other names: kauri pine, koare (sapling)
Agathis australis (australis = southern)
Family: Araucariaceae
In all its aspects and characteristics kauri is one of the world’s most
impressive trees. It is a large tree, growing to 30 m and rarely to 60 m.
The trunk is up to 3 m in diameter, occasionally to 7 m. There are many
records of trees yielding logs 7 m in diameter and 24 m long. The bole
is always straight, often branch-free, columnar, with little or no taper;
occasionally, there may be a reverse taper from the crown to the roots.
The bark is ash-grey, smooth and scales off in large flakes, revealing a
brown inner bark while the scar is fresh. Large mounds of shed bark and
litter collect at the base of the trunk.
The leaves and branches are arranged in whorls. In mature trees
the branches become massive (up to 80 cm) in diameter and are deeply
impregnated with resins that produce timber of superior lustre and
grain. Gnarly burrs can create wood of great character. The crown in
young trees is narrowly conical, in mature trees massive, flat-topped or
fan-shaped, spreading to a diameter of 30 m.
The root system serves the functions of anchoring the massive structure
and feeding this living body. Long lateral roots, which usually exceed the
mature crown in spread, radiate outwards; from those grow strong peg
roots that anchor the tree. Fine lateral roots are prominent near the surface
and feed the plant by absorbing the nutrients of the decomposing litter.
The leaves of young trees measure up to 10 cm by 1.2 cm, are lanceshaped and in the open may have a reddish-brown tint. The thick, leathery
adult leaves are smaller, to 3.5 cm, and are blunt-tipped.
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More than any other New Zealand tree, kauri imposes its
awesome size over all who enter its domain.
The massive trunk may be up to 7 m in diameter.
Kauri produces a distinctive litter. Spent male cone with
bracts from a disintegrated female cone.
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The kauri is monoecious, with separate male and female flowers and
cones on the same tree. The female flowers are small, green and spherical,
and develop into ripe cones 18 months later (in March–April). In the
cone a winged seed is attached to each scale, with the exception of the
top and bottom scales, with 50–110 seeds per cone. The heavier seeds
are generally found in the centre of the cone. The scales disintegrate,
allowing seeds to be wind-dispersed. Cones are up to 8 cm in diameter,
carried at the end of short branches. The kauri fruits annually after the
age of about 15 years.
Kauri’s natural distribution is lowland and hilly forests in the northern
parts of New Zealand, no further south than latitude 38°, a line from
Kawhia to Opotiki. Its present distribution in the warm north appears to
be the result of previous climates.
The tree is tolerant of a wide range of soils from mild swamp to
shallow, stony soils of steep hill country or heavy clays. As rain falls
on the decaying kauri leaf litter acids are washed into the soil. These
acidic conditions stimulate leaching of soil minerals and the formation
of a tough impenetrable dark pan. Soils on which kauri once grew are
notoriously difficult for farming. However, these soils (known as podzol
soils) have produced clays that are among the whitest in the world, still
mined at Matauri Bay, near Whangaroa.
Kauri has left its presence in the Northland soil in other surprising
ways: in some regions peat swamps conceal kauri stumps and logs some
45,000 years old. Swamp kauri is regarded as the oldest workable timber
in the world. (The timber is preserved particularly well and exhibits
qualities determined by the soils it has been buried in. Although heavier
and weaker, the greyish discolouration tends to enhance the grain. This
Kauri seeds are wind-dispersed.
The heavy embryo is attached
to a wing, which also acts as a
‘wick’ to absorb water and aid
in germination.
‘Like gigantic columns of wood’
‘A little before noon Messrs. Williams and Davies walked with me to part of a neighbouring forest, to show
me the famous kauri pine. I measured one of the noble trees, and found it thirty-one foot in circumference
above the roots . . . These trees are remarkable for their smooth cylindrical boles, which ran up to a height of
sixty, and even ninety feet, with a near equal diameter, and without a single branch. The crown of branches at
the summit is out of all proportions small to the trunk; and the leaves are likewise small compared with the
branches. The forest here was almost composed of the kauri; and the largest trees from the parallelism of
their sides, stood up like gigantic columns of wood.’
– Charles Darwin, The Voyage of the Beagle
(Written from Waimate, Northland)
Kauri, father of the sperm whale
Northern Maori believe kauri to be the father of the sperm whale. They are both rangatira (masters) of their
environments, and they have ‘skin’ of the same colour and texture. Kauri gum is similar to the ambergris
formed in the intestines of the sperm whale, and found cast up on beaches.
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makes it much sought-after for wood turning.)
Kauri’s outstanding timber has a world reputation. The even-grained
wood is suitable for all but the most specialised needs. It used to be New
Zealand’s pre-eminent timber tree, with Maori using it for crafting large
canoes (often from a single log). In the nineteenth century it was prized
for ship spars and was greatly used in house and boat construction,
joinery and furniture.
Maori used the soot of old, hard kauri resin (kapia) in making tattooing
ink. Clean gum was scraped to form a powder and applied with oil to
burns. Kauri resin spawned a whole colonial industry in the nineteenth
century as gumdiggers extracted old resin from soils, to be used chiefly
in varnish manufacture.
Kahikatea
Other names: katea, kahikatoa, white pine (formerly),
kike (informal)
Dacrycarpus dacrydioides (Dacrycarpus from Greek Dacron = tears, carpus = fruit,
meaning ‘tear-shaped fruit’; dacrydioides = resembling dacrydium (oides = resembling)
= Podocarpus dacrydioides
Family: Podocarpaceae
The fleshy receptacle holds aloft
the seed. Podocarp means ‘a
seed with a foot’.
The tallest of New Zealand’s forest trees, kahikatea reaches 25–50 m
or more, with a straight trunk up to 1.5 m in diameter, often fluted or
buttressed at the base, and branchless for a considerable height. The
smooth, dark grey bark scales off in flakes. As is common with many New
Zealand trees, the juveniles differ markedly from the adults, with semimature trees having a conical shape. Juvenile leaves are 4–6 mm, adults
2–3 mm, and both are small and scale-like, and pressed flat against the
branchlets. The small fruits consist of a solitary black seed sitting on a
swollen red or orangey footstalk (or receptacle; the fleshy ‘berry’), which
has a high water content.
Kahikatea is distributed throughout New Zealand on the three main
islands in lowland and some hilly forest, and is often dominant in swamp
forests. Once among the most common trees, swamp drainage, land clearance
and milling have reduced its habitats, though some stands can still be seen
on farmland, especially on the Hauraki Plains and in Westland.
To Maori kahikatea was one of the most revered trees, valued for its
long straight timber (used in canoe making), its fruit (known as koroi)
and its associated birdlife. Bird snares were set for New Zealand pigeon
at the tops of the trees. Although its limbless trunk made it difficult to
climb, men scaled the trunk in autumn with baskets to gather fruit or
shook the berries onto mats on the ground. The berries were washed and
eaten raw. Resin from the bark was also chewed, and it is recorded that a
decoction of kahikatea leaves was taken for urinary complaints.
Conifers
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Kahikatea form large stands on
swampy lowlands. The crowns
often support astelias and
kiekie vines.
The danger of fruit gathering
The whakatauki ‘He toa piki rakau kahikatea, he kai na te pakiaka’ reminds us that the expert climber of
kahikatea will eventually become food for its roots. This reflects the high risk of falling when climbing the tree
to gather the fruit.
Origins of the kahikatea
It is said that a chief Pourangahua was once blown out to sea in his canoe and was wrecked on the island of
Hawaiiki. He longed to return to his home but as his canoe was destroyed, he had no means of returning. He
convinced a large bird, Tawhaitari, to fly with him to Aotearoa. On reaching his homeland, Pou pulled out from
under the wings of the great bird some of the finest and downiest feathers, which he threw into the ocean.
From these plumes grew a lofty tree, capable of surviving in water. From this tree, a branch was broken off by
the wind and cast ashore. From this branch grew the kahikatea of New Zealand. Pou carried with him on his
flight two baskets of kumara, which were unknown in New Zealand at the time.
(From Ngati Porou)
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Rimu
Other names: red pine (formerly), huarangi (the fruits)
Dacrydium cupressinum (= cypress-like)
Family: Podocarpaceae
Rimu is a graceful and stately tree at 18–35 m tall, rarely to 50 m, with a
straight trunk up to 1.5 m or more in diameter. The bark is dark brownishgrey, falling off in thick flakes, with the wood dark red and hard. The young
tree has a pyramidal form with pendulous branchlets. Juvenile leaves
overlap around the branchlets, are sharply pointed, and 4–7 mm long by
0.5–1 mm wide. The juvenile form lasts for a considerable period before the
tree starts to take on the adult form, when leaves become smaller (2–3 mm
long), stiffer, more closely set and more flattened against the branchlets.
The fruit is an ovoid nut 2 mm long, seated on a red, fleshy base or
receptacle. Every three or four years a bulk setting of seed occurs (called
mast years).This could be due to climatic factors such as cool temperatures
a couple of years before seed fall when the seed is being set, or warm
temperatures in the summer of seed fall. The reproductive efficiencies
associated with synchronising male and female reproductive effort on
trees some distance from each other may favour masting in this dioecious
species. Seed fall is from mid-March to the end of April, and there is
often a high rate of empty or undeveloped seed. The seed is adapted well
to bird dispersal. The sweet-tasting fleshy receptacle is swallowed with
the seed and passes through the gut, excreted some distance from the
parent tree. Birds that have been observed eating rimu berries include
tui, bellbird, whitehead and New Zealand pigeon, blackbirds, starlings
and thrushes.
Rimu is the most widely occurring of all native forest trees, prominent
in many types of forest from North Cape to Stewart Island, often the
main canopy tree, or it can also be scattered.
Second only to kauri, rimu produces New Zealand’s finest wood,
and the tree was formerly relentlessly milled for timber. Heart rimu is
preferred for fine furniture manufacture. It has a dark red/brown streaky
Rimu forms a stately and
attractive tree.
Male and female
rimu show sexual
dimorphism, or
variation in shape and
form, between male
and female trees. The
male’s leaves on the
right are smaller and
sharper, feeling rough
to the touch, compared
to the longer and
softer female.
Conifers
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grain and is harder than timber from other parts of the tree. Knots can
produce wood of rich character. Maori favoured the wood for adze hafts
and occasionally in canoe manufacture.
Dry branches of rimu were often lit by Maori for emergency lighting,
while the resinous heart timber was used for torches. Rimu bark was
reportedly infused and used to treat burns, scalds, sores, ulcers and other
skin complaints. The bruised inner bark was also beaten to a pulp and
applied to a burn or scald.
‘The Rimu is one of the most graceful trees of the country. The wood is tough and brittle: the grain very
beautiful when polished and will be much admired by future connoisseurs in ornamental woods.’
– J. Polack, New Zealand: being a narrative of travels and adventure in that country between the years 1831
and 1837
Rimu beer
Captain Cook, on his second voyage to New Zealand (1772–75), made a beer brewed from a mixture of rimu
and manuka leaves. The manuka made the beer less astringent.
Monoao
Dacrydium kirkii (after botanist Thomas Kirk, 1828–98) = Halocarpus kirkii
Family: Podocarpaceae
Monoao is a handsome northern conifer, a canopy tree reaching 25 m in
height with a trunk up to 1 m in diameter. From a distance it looks not
unlike a kauri. The bark is greyish-brown and the wood pale brownishred. Monoao is perhaps New Zealand’s most confusing conifer as it has
markedly different juvenile and adult leaf forms. Sometimes the juvenile
and adult leaves can be found on a mature tree, appearing to have different
leaf forms on the same plant. Leaves of the juvenile tree are 15–40 mm long,
while the adult leaf is no more than 2–3 mm long. Monoao is dioecious. The
seed is striated and 3–8 mm long, resting in a yellow to orange berry.
The species is sparsely distributed in lowland to montane forests from
Hokianga harbour to the southern Coromandel Range and on Great
Barrier Island.
Monoao was one of the woods used by Maori for adze hafts.
The light greyish-brown bark
of monoao.
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Totara
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The totara is a noble tree to 30 m tall, with an often massive trunk up to
2–3 m in diameter, making it one of the largest New Zealand forest trees. A
noticeable feature is the thick, stringy, vertically furrowed bark. The small,
sharply pointed leaves are straight to slightly curved, and measure 20 mm
long by 4 mm wide, longer in juveniles. Juvenile leaves may be a dull blue
or brownish-green to darker green on adults. The tree is dioecious, with
male and female flowers appearing on separate trees. The fruit is a red,
swollen, succulent receptacle with a 5 mm nut-like seed. Some seed is
Totara: a durable timber tree that
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Conifers
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borne most years with good seed years once or twice in every 10 years. The
seed has a natural dormancy period of three to four months.
Totara is found from North Cape to Bluff in lowland, montane and
lower subalpine forests. Totara is generally a tree of warmer climates
despite its southern distribution. In southern latitudes, the totara stands
are almost all ancient trees and little regeneration is apparent. These old
trees are thought to be relicts from a warmer period. Traces of ancient
totara forests are found in abundance in the pollen records of Central
Otago, in districts now occupied by grasslands and at altitudes well
above the present timberline. In the north, totara behaves as a coloniser
and sometimes forms large stands. It is tolerant of dry soils and seasonal
drought, but intolerant of poorly drained waterlogged soils.
Totara produces a high-grade, pinkish-brown timber of outstanding
durability, evenness of texture and high stability. Neither borer nor the
marine teredo worm will attack it. It splits very easily. In construction,
totara makes a better post than a beam due to its brittleness. It was
commonly used for farm fencing, house piles, railway sleepers, bridges
and telephone poles.
To Maori totara was the noblest tree. It was readily available and
its qualities were ideal for canoe and house building, as well as for
implements such as adze hafts and bird-snaring troughs. It was prized
as a carving wood. It was known as the rakau rangatira, ‘the chiefly tree’,
and its felling was preceded by the appropriate karakia (prayers) and
conducted with reverence. The bark was woven into food baskets and
also used for making fire; layers of the bark could also be used as splints
for broken limbs. Smoke from a fire of totara wood was said to efficacious
in treating certain skin ailments.
The stringy bark is
vertically furrowed.
The fruit’s succulent receptacle is
palatable to birds and humans.
A tree revered
Many Maori sayings regarding totara are concerned with its value, mostly metaphors for the admirable spirit
of people. For example:
Ka hinga te totara o te wao nui a Tane.
The totara of the great forest of Tane has fallen.
This metaphor is frequently used at the death of an important man.
Ka whati ra ia taku mahuri totara.
My totara sapling has broken off.
This is a bereaved mother’s expression of grief at the death of her son. (No greater tribute could be paid to a
young chief than to call him a totara sapling.)
Collecting totara fruit
The red base of the totara fruit, ripe in autumn, was collected by Maori men with ladders, filling baskets, or
breaking off branch ends from which women and children on the ground collected the berries. After being
washed they were eaten raw. Eating too many berries was said to be constipating.
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Miro
Other names: toromiro, brown pine (formerly)
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Prumnopityaceae
Miro is a tall, round-headed tree reaching 25–30 m with a trunk up to 1 m
wide. The bark is greyish-brown to dark brown and falls off in thick flakes.
The pretty dark green leaves are 15–25 mm long, but longer on juvenile
plants. Miro produces reddish-purple fruits, 12–15 mm in diameter,
consisting of a fleshy drupe-like fruit containing a hard, woody seed. The
pink to red seed is ripe from early autumn to midwinter. Fair seed crops are
borne most years with heavy seeding (mast years) about every five years.
Miro seeds are slow and variable in their germination, up to 18 months
after ripeness. The fruit is a preferred food of the New Zealand pigeon,
which gorge on them in March–April.
Miro is a common forest tree found throughout New Zealand, in
lowland and lower montane forests, often wherever rimu occurs.
Maori drank an infusion of the bark to treat stomach-ache. Oil from
the berries was given to those recovering from fever. The gum, which
exudes from the bark, was applied to wounds, and to stop blood flow.
Since European arrival, the beautiful hard, straight-grained timber has
been used for flooring and in-house building.
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Conifers
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 79
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Matai
Other names: mai, black pine (formerly)
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Prumnopityaceae
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Matai is a statuesque forest tree reaching 25–30 m and with a trunk up to
1.25 m in diameter, but with a marked decrease in height from north to
south in the country. it is notable for being one of the new Zealand trees
that undergoes a distinct juvenile stage, which differs radically from that
of the adult. Juvenile plants are divaricating in habit, with long, slender,
spreading and flexuous interlacing branches and sparsely carried brown
leaves. this growth habit can persist until the tree attains a height of around
6 m. there is then a gradual change to the adult form, with leaves of 1–2
cm long, blunt or shortly pointed, arranged in two flattened rows on the
branchlet, dark green above and greyish-green below. Matai is dioecious,
producing succulent, black drupe-like fruit with a waxy bloom, looking
like a very small plum, enclosing a hard nut 10 mm across. Seed fall is in
autumn, the second year after flowering, and seed years are infrequent.
Matai is a common forest tree found throughout new Zealand, in
lowland and lower montane forests. it commonly occurs on the pumice
lands of the central volcanic plateau and elsewhere on free-draining or
alluvial soils.
the wood of matai is dense, even in texture, and easy to split. it is a
rich dark-brown colour, once used for flooring and weatherboards. early
europeans tapped matai sap with an auger for use as a drink, called
‘matai beer’.
Maori used this hardwood in a similar way to totara, especially for
vessels such as bowls and troughs, funnels or adze hafts.
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80
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Taku kiri kai matai o Tapui-ropa, ka tokia e te hau.
At Tapui-ropa, a fire of matai warmed my skin, but now it tingles with the cold wind.
The speaker is comparing his present situation of discomfort with the happier times of plentiful firewood and
shelter from the winter’s winds.
Matai and miro compared
Matai and miro demonstrate a fascinating element of the New Zealand flora — the markedly dissimilar form
of the juvenile leaves and branching between two closely related species. Miro as a juvenile is very similar
to its adult form (differing only in the juvenile’s longer leaves). However, matai adopts a strongly divaricating
habit as a juvenile. Why should obviously closely related and environmentally similar plants differ so greatly,
but only while young?
The explanation could be based on the idea that matai and miro show different strategies to bird browsing.
Matai’s small, hard, brown twiggy leaves are difficult to browse, while miro’s more fleshy and green leaves are
rich in turpentine-like flavours and presumably unpalatable to birds. Or maybe the difference in juvenile form
can be explained by the two species having different survival strategies during an ice age. The turpentine
flavenoids of miro act as antifreeze, preventing the leaf cells from freezing in cold conditions. Matai’s strategy
is reducing leaf area and adopting a self-protecting shape.
As adults, the trees can be difficult to tell apart. The leaves and fruit are similarly sized (although the fruit of
the miro may have a pink tinge, while the matai’s drupe is purple-black). The simplest way to separate the
two species is by the pattern of the bark: miro has a scaly, flaky bark and matai is stamped with rounded
scars as if hit repeatedly with a hammer. Both are dioecious. Their distribution is similar, though matai can be
scarce in some areas.
Matai juveniles, three years old, in the nursery.
Miro juveniles, three years old, in the nursery.
Conifers
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Tanekaha
Other names: celery pine, niko, tawaiwai, toatoa, ahotea
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Phyllocladaceae
tanekaha is a graceful, symmetrical forest tree reaching 21–25 m high. the
light grey bark is usually smooth but often lichen-covered.Young trees are
pyramidal in shape, but older trees have a more spreading form. the leaf
branchlets are 2.5–7.5 cm long and whorled. what appear to be the plant’s
leaves are in fact flattened photosynthetic stems called phylloclades. their
characteristic celery-leaf shape gives the tree its european common name.
the female flowers and then fruit are found on the edge of the phylloclades,
near branch tips.
tanekaha is found in lowland and montane areas from north Cape
to taranaki, and sparsely in north-west nelson. it prefers ridges and
dry terrain. the species is sometimes a pioneer species forming pole and
sapling stands.
tanekaha’s branches are very supple and do not break if bent over,
making the wood ideal for any function that involves bending, such as
yacht masts and fishing rods. the Maori name tanekaha means ‘the strong
and upright man’. the tannin-rich bark provided Maori with a reddish
dye, and the supple timber was carved into musical wind instruments.
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Kawaka
Other names: kaikawaka, New Zealand cedar
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Kawaka is a tall, pyramidal-shaped tree reaching 25 m with a trunk up to
1 m or more in diameter. Stringy bark falls off in long, narrow strips. the
small leaves are compressed, up to 4 mm long, and somewhat triangular.
the female cones are about 12 mm long and woody when ripe. the tree sets
seed inconsistently, usually one year in five. the winged seeds are carried
on the wind.
Kawaka shows a perplexing distribution: it is found in lowland
forests from Mangonui in the Far north to Hawke’s Bay and taranaki,
then is absent further south until seen again in the north-western corner
of the South island. (However, it can be grown silviculturally throughout
the country.) this sporadic distribution is viewed as being remnants
of ancient populations. Possibly, in previous times kawaka was more
common and widely distributed. Past climatic or volcanic events may
have destroyed large areas of it.
82
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6
Angiosperms:
dicotyledons
(flowering trees,
shrubs and climbers)
Class Angiospermae
The angiosperms are plants that bear the seeds in a case. Angiosperm (angio
= beauty; sperma = reproductive part) refers to the beautiful flowers of this
most abundant and widely distributed class of vascular plants. They are
herbaceous shrubs or trees, usually with spreading branches.
The plant body can be regarded as being composed of stem, leaf and
root, with the reproductive structures being flowers, of various sizes,
shapes and colours, which often have evolved to directly facilitate
pollination from birds, small animals or insects. The seeds are usually
dispersed in pericorps — commonly termed fruits — which also show
large variation including berries, drupes, dry capsules and many other
forms of dispersal intricately linked with bird, animal and wind dispersal
of the plants’ seeds.
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Dicotyledons
The dicotyledons are a group of flowering plants with two embryonic seed
leaves (cotyledons) and broad leaves with a central midrib and veins that
run from it. The group includes large woody trees as well as minute herbs.
They are the most abundant plant group (almost 200,000 species worldwide)
and show much diversity in growth form and structure. The trunks and
branches are often curved, seldom straight; the wood is termed ‘softwood’.
Taraire
Other name: New Zealand oak (formerly)
Beilschmiedia tarairi (after Beilschmied, Polish botanist, 1793–1848)
Family: Lauraceae
Taraire is a handsome broad-leaved, evergreen forest tree to 22–25 m high
with a trunk to 1 m in diameter. The bark is dark brown and smooth. The
glossy, leathery leaves are ovoid, with prominent depressed veins, and
measure 4–15 cm long by 3–6 cm wide. They are bright dark green above
and greyish-blue below. The leaf stalks are covered in a brownish-gold
‘wool’ of hairs. The small flowers, 5 mm in diameter, occur in panicles from
September to December. Ovoid blue-purple drupes, 25–35 mm long, carry
a single seed. The fruit is a favoured food of the New Zealand pigeon.
Taraire is found from North Cape south to Raglan and East Cape in
coastal and lowland forests. It occurs in greatest abundance between
Kaipara and the Bay of Islands.
The flesh of the kernel was eaten by Maori, after steaming the kernels
in an oven for about two days.
Taraire’s large drupe changes
colour, from red to purple, as it
ripens.
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Tawa
Other names: mariri (unripe fruit), pokere (cooked kernel)
Beilschmiedia tawa (after Beilschmied, Polish botanist; 1793–1848)
Family: Lauraceae
Tawa is a tall forest tree, reaching to 24–25 m, with a trunk to 1.2 m in
diameter and a smooth, even-textured, dark-greyish bark. The leaves are
5–10 cm long by 1–2 cm wide and are light green, sometimes yellowishgreen, with greyish-blue undersides, on slender stalks up to 10 mm long.
The small greenish flowers, 2–3 mm wide, are carried in panicles. The
fruit is a drupe around 2–3 cm long and dark purple, which ripens in late
summer and early autumn. Tawa is the most abundant hardwood tree
in the North Island lowland and mid-altitude forests, and also occurs
around the top of the South Island.
As with the taraire, Maori ate the raw flesh of the drupe, and steamed
and ate the kernels, which could also be stored for periods. An infusion
of the inner bark of tawa served as a refreshing drink and was also used
to treat stomach-aches. The very light, straight-grained sapwood was
fashioned into long (4–6 m but up to 10 m) bird spears, usually cut out of
a tree in a long, laborious process.
Tawa foliage is bright green
above and greyish-blue below.
Tawa in whakatauki
He tawa para, he whati kau tana.
The pulp of the tawa berry is easily crushed.
The soft flesh of the tawa berry is compared to the weak spirit of a coward.
Ko te ahi tawa hai whakarite.
It can be compared to a noisy tawa fire.
A term expressing noisiness, often said of a small child. Tawa kernels, when roasted, make a popping sound.
No te mea ra ia, he rakau tawhito, e mauana te taitea i waho ra, e tu te kohiwi.
In a very old tree you can be certain that the sapwood is on the outside while the heartwood is in the middle.
This is indicative of a well-organised group, with the older, reliable chiefs in the centre and the young warriors
providing the external defence.
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
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Titoki
Other names: titongi (fruit), topitopi (fruit),
New Zealand ash
Alectryon excelsus (Alectryon = a cock, from the resemblance of the scarlet arils to a
rooster’s comb; excelsus = attractive)
Family: Sapindaceae
Titoki is an attractive tree reaching 10–15 m tall with a trunk up to 60
cm in diameter and a slightly roughened bark that is nearly black. The
leaves may be 10–40 cm long, each with four to six pairs of leaflets, which
may be 5–10 cm long by 2–5 cm wide. Tiny flowers are borne in panicles.
The fruit is enclosed in a brown, furry capsule. When ripe in spring, the
capsule splits open to reveal the hard black, lustrous seed in its red fleshy
receptacle or base.
Titoki is found in coastal and lowland forests, especially on alluvial
soils, from North Cape to Banks Peninsula.
With its large glossy leaves and attractive form, the titoki makes the
perfect shade and specimen tree. There are excellent examples in most
northern towns.
Maori used the wood for adze hafts and ate both the cooked flesh and
the kernel of the titoki; cooked and dried kernels could be stored for
periods. (The flesh contains a poison, however, and should not be eaten
raw.) Titoki oil pressed from the seeds and leaves was prized for mixing
with flowers to make a perfumed oil, usually reserved for chiefly persons.
The oil was also used externally for sores, chafed skin and wounds, aching
ears and as an insect repellent.
The large, handsome leaves
of titoki.
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Titoki: insect repellent
Maori used the dry leaf of titoki, rubbed on the skin, to ward off sandflies and mosquitoes. The oil was also
rubbed over the body for this purpose.
Titoki in whakatauki
Apa he peka titoki te tangata.
Man is not like the branch of the titoki.
Unlike the titoki branch that dies and decays, the human branch lives on in its descendants.
Te peka titoki.
Like the branch of the titoki tree.
A metaphor for a tribe difficult to conquer, or anything hard to break. (Titoki branches are springy and difficult
to break.)
Hei te tau titoki.
Put off until the titoki berries appear.
The berries, from which grooming oil was obtained, did not appear in the same amounts every year. The
saying refers to an indefinite postponement.
He rangatira no te tau titoki.
A chief of the titoki season.
Titoki oil used for grooming was usually reserved for high-ranking people. When the seed was abundant,
lower-ranked people could use it too.
(The last two sayings refer to the variation in seed production.)
Akeake
Dodonaea viscosa (after Rembert Dodoens, 1518–85, Belgian physician; viscidus = viscid,
sticky, a characteristic of the young branches)
Family: Sapindaceae
The paper-like capsule of akeake.
Akeake forms a shrub or small tree to a height of 7–10 m. The conspicuous
bark is red-brown and peels off in long strips. The bright green leaves are 10
cm long, 3 cm wide, thinly and leathery. The species is dioecious, although
some trees are self-fertile. The small flowers (4 mm across) are produced
in dense panicles. The capsules, 15 mm in diameter, have distinctive broad,
compressed wings.
Akeake is found in dry parts of coastal and lowland scrub and
forest from North Cape to Banks Peninsula and Greymouth. (It is also
widespread in subtropical regions including Australia.) The tree grows
best in well-drained soils and survives salt spray well.
Being so heavy and hard, the wood was used by Maori for clubs and
spears and also in the making of ornamental objects because of its colour
— reddish with streaks of yellow. The seed capsules are useful today for
floral work.
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
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The flowers of akeake in an
ornamental situation: the
red variety (var. purpurea)
adds contrast to other
greener shrubs.
Durable timber
Akeake means ‘for ever and ever’, and refers to the wood’s durability. Maori used it for various implements,
including fighting clubs.
Karapapa
Other names: horopito, matukuroimata, northern karapapa
Alseuosmia (‘perfume of the grove’ from the Greek alsos = grove of trees; eu = well;
some = perfume, scent)
Family: Alseuosmiaceae
Alseuosmia is endemic to New Zealand, but debate exists among botanists
as to the correct classification of this variable genus. Two species are
generally recognised; both are straggly shrubs that grow to about 2 m. The
seeds of both species are found within a red-crimson berry, with up to 10
seeds per berry. Plants prefer a shaded position, as they are intolerant of
strong sunlight. The big surprise is the strength of the scent from such an
inconspicuous flower, without doubt the most fragrant of any in the New
Zealand flora.
In many New Zealand genera, it is difficult to draw the line between
one species and the next. The variable shapes of the leaves in both
species, on the same plant as well as neighbouring plants, hint at
hybridism being common. Some botanists classify Alseuosmia into five
or more separate species.
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This is a glossy-leaved, much-branched shrub to 2 m. The
leaves, to 4 cm wide by 10 cm long, often vary in shape on
the same plant and nearby plants; they are sometimes lobed
or slightly toothed on the margins. Single tubular flowers to
4 cm long are produced in winter or early spring. They are
crimson, with tattered margins of petals, and very fragrant.
Reddish berries ripen during February–April. The plant occurs
in undergrowth of lowland and montane forests from North
Cape to Marlborough.
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Known as northern karapapa, this forms an untidy shrub up to 1 m with
broad leaves to 3 cm long. Creamy-red flowers to 3 cm across are followed
by crimson berries 8–12 mm long. The species occurs from North Cape to
Marlborough in undergrowth of lowland and montane forests.
Alseuosmia banksii (northern karapapa). The corolla tube spreads to
four or five broadly triangular and
fringed lobes.
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Angiosperms: dicotyledons
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Wineberry/Makomako
Aristotelia serrata (named for Aristotle; and serrate = serrated leaf )
Family: Elaeocarpaceae
Wineberry or makomako is an attractive shrub/small tree reaching 10 m,
with a trunk up to 30 cm in diameter. The bark of young branchlets is
reddish or pinkish, but older bark is greyish-brown. The leaves are broadly
ovate, 5–12 cm long, and have a long stalk. The leaf blade is broad and
rose-coloured, and leaves are soft, brittle and easily torn. The tree is partly
deciduous; in southern latitudes, the period of deciduousness is longer than
in the north. Wineberry’s rose-coloured flowers are produced in panicles,
and the berry is 5 mm broad by 4 mm long and reddish-black, looking
similar to a bunch of grapes. The seeds are angular, up to eight per berry.
The berry can be eaten straight from the tree.
Wineberry grows best in a sheltered situation, although it prefers
light. It occurs almost everywhere in New Zealand in coastal to montane
regions, and is a tree of forest margins and stream edges, especially
common after forest disturbance or fire.
Wineberry berries were eaten by Maori; being easily picked, they were
a favourite of children. The fruit was also squeezed (which strained out
the small seeds) to make a sweetish drink. The bark produced a blueblack dye. Early settlers burnt the wood for charcoal.
The petals on first opening are
white and change to bright red as
pollination occurs.
The deltoid vein patterns of
white to pink leaf underside,
and leaf stalks to 15 cm long, are
identifying features.
Healing leaves
Makomako leaves were picked by Maori, boiled with water and the fluid used on burns, boils and abscesses,
and for sore eyes. The leaves were also warmed on hot coals and then wrapped around burns.
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Hinau
Elaeocarpus dentatus (elaeo, a form of olea = olives; carpus = seed, after the drupe’s
similarity to the olive; dentatus = toothed)
Family: Elaeocarpaceae
The bark of hinau was used
by Maori to extract a dye for
colouring flax garments.
Hinau is a tall forest tree to 18–20 m with a trunk to 1 m in diameter, and
rough, greyish bark. The long, narrow leaves, 12 cm long by 3 cm wide,
have stout stalks up to 25 mm long. The leaves have characteristic domatia
pits along the midrib vein on the underside of the leaf. The greenish-white
flowers (looking like lily-of-the-valley) droop in racemes, up to 15 cm long.
The characteristic purplish drupes, 15 mm in diameter, look similar to an
olive. The fruit has a hard, dry skin without much pulp.
Hinau occurs in lowland forests in both main islands from near North
Cape south to the Catlins River in Otago.
Hinau fruit was one of the forest foods most valuable to Maori. The
fruit was collected where fallen but was not eaten raw. One method of
preparation was to place the fruit in a wooden trough, cover it with water
and leave to soak. The pulp was then rubbed between the hands and the
skin and seed strained out and the water carefully drained away, leaving
a kind of coarse meal which was made into a large cake and cooked for
several hours in a hangi.
The bark was used in producing a blue-black
dye, and then a decoction of the bark in hot water
was taken as a bath to treat skin complaints. The
sapwood is white and the heartwood dark brown,
heavy, tough and durable, and was used by settlers
for fence posts.
Pits on the leaf underside are a
characteristic feature of hinau.
Kia whakaoho koe i taku moe, ko te whatuturei a rua.
If you arouse me from sleep, let it be for the treasure of rua.
‘Whatuturei a rua’ is usually understood to be the honorific term for the cake made from the hinau tree fruit. It
appears possible this term was a humorous or metaphorical way of referring to sexual relations.
Hinau bark dye
‘The hinau is a handsome tree. It is much requested by the native tribes, who make use of the bark for dyeing
jet black the threads of the muka or dressed flax, of which they either wholly make, or interweave with, their
superior garments. The bark, which is comminutible, is kept some time immersed in water, and this infusion
forms the dye.’
J. Polack, New Zealand, being a narrative of travels and adventures in that country between the years 1831
and 1837
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
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Makamaka
Ackama rosaefolia (ackama, derived from the Maori name; rosaefolia = rose-like foliage)
= Caldcluvia rosifolia
Family: Cunoniaceae
Makamaka is a most attractive tree to 12 m tall with a trunk to 30–60 cm
in diameter. The bark is dark greyish-brown. The leaves of juvenile plants
are 7.5–25 cm long with up to 10 pairs of leaflets, while adult leaves are
shorter and have four or five pairs of leaflets, which are toothed on their
margins. The underside of the leaf also displays a pink tinge. Makamaka is
closely related to towai (Weinmannia silvicola) and kamahi (W. racemosa),
and can prove difficult to tell apart from towai, which shares a similar
distribution. It can be differentiated by having finer and sharper teeth on
the softer leaflets, which have domatia pits at the midrib/veins junction.
The tree in flower is a stunning sight with its 30-cm long panicles of
whitish-pink flowers, 3 mm long.
Makamaka occurs scattered among lowland forests from Kaitaia to
Whangarei, in forest margins and along stream banks.
Makamaka adult foliage.
Towai
Other names: towhai, tawhero
Weinmannia silvicola (after the German botanical artist Johann Weinmann, 1683–1741;
sylvicola = an inhabitant of forests)
Family: Cunoniaceae
Towai forms an attractive tree to 15 m tall with a trunk to 1 m in diameter,
seldom straight. The leaves of seedlings, juveniles and adults are diverse:
adults have up to three leaflets, juveniles up to 10. Adults leaflets are
Flowers are borne on racemes.
Leaves are compound on this
individual.
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variable, generally 4–7 cm long by 2–3 cm wide, thick and leathery.
Sometimes they are simple, not compound. They are coarsely and bluntly
toothed on the margins. White to pale rose flowers, 3 mm diameter, occur
in racemes up to 10 cm long. The flowers are sweet-scented and produced
in profusion in November and December. Most of the capsules ripen and
open by March, and by the end of April little seed remains on the tree.
The seed of this genus is light, produced in profusion in late autumn. The
small seeds are fitted with small tufts of hair, making them well adapted
for wind dispersal. The large number of seeds produced and the ease with
which they germinate ensures the species’ success in many environments.
To confuse matters, however, hybrids exist where this species and
Weinmannia racemosa (kamahi) meet, around Auckland’s Hunua and
Waitakere ranges. As well, the juvenile leaf of towai looks a lot like
makamaka (Ackama rosaefolia), though the latter has softer, more graceful
foliage, domatia pits on the underside and often a red tinge to the leaves.
Towai is found in lowland forest from Mangonui to Waikato and the
Bay of Plenty, especially in regenerating areas.
Maori once used to the bark to produce a dye.
Kamahi
Weinmannia racemosa (after the German botanical artist Johann Weinmann, 1683–1741;
racemosa = raceme, an inflorescence)
Family: Cunoniaceae
Kamahi is a large and handsome forest tree to 25 m with a trunk up to
1.2 m in diameter. Juvenile leaves are simple or have three leaflets. The
thick, leathery adult leaves are simple, 3–10 cm long by 2–4 cm wide, and
coarsely and bluntly toothed on the margins. Flowers occur in racemes up
to 12 cm long, and are white to pale red.
Kamahi is a very common tree in lowland to montane
forest from around Auckland southwards. In the South
Island it can form almost entire communities. It is a
common species to arise in regenerating forest.
Adult kamahi foliage
showing simple leaves with
their toothed margins.
Kamahi honey
When in flower, almost no foliage is visible on the kamahi, and the magnificent floral display attracts bees to
the abundant nectar. From this, apiarists produce a popular distinctively flavoured honey.
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 93
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New Zealand leafless broom
Other names: maakaka, maukoro, tawao, neinei,
tarangahape, tainoko
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the genus Carmichaelia consists of shrubs and small trees of diverse
habits, noticeable for their flattened and photosynthetic stems with an
absence of leaves; however, small leaves may be present on new growth. the
individual species are difficult to identify due to their natural plasticity
and variability, their small (or absence of) leaves and the similarity of their
flowers. the seedpods tend to be the most distinguishing feature: the sides
of the pods fall away, exposing the brightly coloured seeds.
new Zealand leafless broom is an erect shrub or tree to 10 m. the
branches are much flattened, finely grooved, and up to 1 cm wide. leaves
may appear on branches and have five to seven leaflets, up to 12 mm long.
Flowers vary in colour and size.
this broom is found throughout new Zealand in forest and shrubland
in a variety of habitats, but is more common north of taranaki. they are
among the plants that begin regeneration of burnt or disturbed areas.
this is a very plastic species with many forms.
Carmichaelia make excellent pot plants. they can survive the toughest
conditions and with their stark, erect or spreading branchlets create a
distinctive and unique display. the flowers are another beautiful quality
of these endemic plants.
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94
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Kaka beak
Other name: kowhai ngutu-kaka
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Named after the keel-shaped beak of the kaka, this soft-wooded shrub
with spreading branches grows to 2 m high. Its compound leaves, to 15
cm long, have up to 20 pairs of leaflets. Pendulous racemes hold up to 15
scarlet, pink or white flowers, each to 8 cm long, occurring profusely from
October to December.
The species’ natural distribution was the islets off the east coast from
the Bay of Islands to Tolaga Bay, and at various places on the adjacent
mainland, also near Thames and in the vicinity of Lake Waikaremoana.
However,
allall
but
a few
However, it is now
now considered
consideredextinct
extinctin
inthe
thewild
wildinin
but
onelocations.
location:
Fortunately,
it is veryitcommon
in cultivation.
Kaipara. Fortunately,
is very common
in cultivation.
The kaka beak’s continued survival is due to its very successful
reproductive strategy of producing many large, brightly coloured flowers.
Humans have been taken with its floral display and have maintained
plant popularity by growing it as an ornamental since Maori times,
particularly on the North Island’s east coast.
The plant is not long lived. Slugs and snails, caterpillars and mites
can attack the soft palatable leaf.
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Angiosperms: dicotyledons
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 95
95
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Kowhai
Sophora (sophora = from the Arabic sufayra, a member of family Fabaceae)
Family: Fabaceae
There are 30 species of Sophora found in temperate and subtropical regions
of both hemispheres. The eight New Zealand species are endemic, though
debate continues as to their correct botanical classification. There are two
common trees and species status has been given to a number of distinct
divaricating shrubs, all confined to localised areas within New Zealand.
All are deciduous to some degree.
Sophora microphylla is widespread in both main islands. S. tetraptera
and the other six species have a much more limited range. These species
show variation in leaf size and form, best adapted to the particular soil
type or environment in which they occur.
Sophora microphylla (micro = small; phyla = leaves)
This kowhai forms a tree to about 10 m tall, with a trunk to 60 cm in
diameter and with rough, greyish-brown bark. The leaves are 7.5–15 cm
long with 20–40 pairs of leaflets. The small size of these leaflets, up to 1 cm
long, distinguishes this species from S. tetraptera. The flowers are slightly
smaller as well, and are coloured pale to golden yellow. The species usually
has a divaricating juvenile stage, which may last five to 10 years or so, and
varies according to area, lasting the longest in the eastern South Island.
The beautiful flowers, up to 4.5 cm long, occur in racemes of four to 10
flowers. The long seedpods, 7.5–15 cm long, are very conspicuous.
S. microphylla is distributed throughout New Zealand in lowland and
lower montane forests, along rivers, forest edges and open places; it is
also greatly cultivated.
Sophora tetraptera (tetra = four; pteron = wing, referring to the wing
along the seedpod)
This kowhai forms a tree up to 12 m tall with a trunk to 60 cm in diameter
and rough, greyish-brown bark. The leaves can be up to 15 cm long with
leaflets 8 mm long by 3.5 mm wide. The golden-yellow flowers are up to
5 cm long. Unlike S. microphylla, there is no divaricating juvenile form. Its
distribution is on lowland streamsides and forest margins on the eastern
side of the North Island, from East Cape south to the Ruahine Range.
Other Sophora species
Sophora prostrata (prostrate = to lie down) and its varieties form a
prostrate or bushy shrub up to 2 m tall. Leaves may be up to 2.5 cm long,
usually smaller. Leaflets are no larger than 4 mm.
S. godleyi (after New Zealand botanist E.J. Godley), papa kowhai, is a
tree to 20 m tall, limited to forests on siltstones, sandstones and mudstones
(papa). It occurs in northern Manawatu, Taranaki and Upper Wanganui.
S. longicarinata (carinata = keel of ship; long keel, referring to floral
architecture), limestone kowhai, occurs among the marble and limestone
96
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The bark and leaf of Sophora
microphylla.
Sophora prostrata, showing its
divaricating habit.
Sophora microphylla flowers.
The beak of the tui is perfectly
formed to slip between the
kowhai’s petals.
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 97
97
18/7/08 9:52:48 AM
outcrops of nelson and Marlborough.
S. fulvida
falvida is a coastal tree growing to 10 m high, found at Mt Karioi,
raglan and further north.
S. chathamica (of the Chatham islands), coastal kowhai, is a multitrunked tree to 20 m tall, found in northland, waihi, and Porirua and
Wellington harbours, and
Chatham
Islands.
Itsits
disjunct
wellington
andon
onthe
the
Chatham
islands.
wide distribution
by Maori.
Maori.
may be due to its seeds being dispersed by
S. molloyi (after new Zealand botanist B.P.J. Molloy), is a divaricating
shrub to 3 m high, found in exposed places around Cook Strait.
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Kowhai loses its leaves over winter and, in august and September, the
flowers emerge from bare branches. all new Zealanders welcome the
kowhai flowers as they signal the arrival of spring.
like all legumes, kowhai have bacterial nodules on their roots that
transfer gaseous nitrogen into soil-soluble nitrates, an excellent fertiliser.
(the seedpod is very similar in appearance to that of other legumes: peas
and beans.)
the seed is adapted for dispersal by floating, which accounts for its
abundance on streamsides, where floods carry the seeds downstream.
native birds such as new Zealand pigeons feed on the seedpods, utilising
the tough seeds as gizzard stones or roughage to masticate their food.
Pigeons have been observed eating the leaves as well.
Maori made use of various parts of the tree, particularly the bark,
for medicinal use, including applying it to bruises and to treat skin
ailments.
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98
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Putaputaweta
Other names: kai-weta (food of the weta), marble leaf
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Putaputaweta forms a small, spreading tree to 10 m tall, with a trunk to
20–30 cm in diameter, and rough, greyish bark. The distinctive juvenile
phase has zigzagging, almost divaricated branches, with leaves 3 cm long
by 2 cm wide on stalks to 1 cm long. The adult leaves, 2.5–6 cm long by 1.5–
3 cm wide, are often mottled light and dark green on the upper surfaces,
and have finely serrated margins. Flowers, 5 mm wide, with white petals,
occur in broad panicles. The small, shiny purple-black fruits are around
6 mm in diameter.
Putaputaweta is found throughout coastal to montane forests in all
three main islands, particularly on streamsides. The name derives from
the fact that holes occur in the trunk where weta often live.
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Clematis/Puawhananga
Other names: puawananga, bush clematis
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All the
theNew
NewZealand
Zealand
species
of clematis
are dioecious
and endemic.
species
of clematis
are dioecious
and endemic.
These
These
climbing
with opposite
separated
into
three
climbing
lianes lianes
with opposite
leaves,leaves,
usuallyusually
divided
into three
leaflets,
leaflets,
someZealand’s
of New Zealand’s
most stunning
spring flowers.
produce produce
some of New
most stunning
spring flowers.
Clematis paniculata is the most handsome member of this genus and is
found throughout New Zealand. It is common on the margins of lowland
and lower montane forests, where the strong, woody liane climbs to the
tree tops.
Angiosperms: dicotyledons
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 99
99
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germination to start to grow from a seed or spore.
gymnosperms a major group of plants including pines and podocarps.
The word means ‘naked seeds’.
gynodieocious having female flowers on one plant and male and female
flowers on another plant.
habitat the place in which a plant grows.
hair a thin and delicate outgrowth consisting of one cell, or a single
row of cells; it may be branched.
hermaphrodite having male and female parts within a single flower.
heteroblasty describes plants that have dramatic changes in leaf size,
shape and growth habit between juvenile and adult stages.
heterophylly having dissimilar leaves on the same plant.
hybrid a plant whose parents are different species. Usually
reproductively sterile.
indusium an outgrowth of tissue more or less covering the sorus in
some ferns.
inflorescence a collection, bunch or grouping of the flowers.
lamina the flattened part of a leaf or frond.
liane woody-stemmed, climbing vine.
linear very narrow with parallel margins.
midrib the main central vein of a frond or main division of a leaf.
monoecious having separate male and female flowers on the same
plant.
node the place on the stem where one or more leaves are attached.
opposite a pair of leaves that arise at the same level on opposite sides
of a stem.
panicle a branched flower arrangement where the flowers are on small
stalks.
pappus feathery hairs or bristles on the seed capsule, particularly in
Compositae.
pedicel the stalk supporting a single flower in a compound
inflorescence.
perfect a flower having both male and female elements present, both of
which are functional.
petiole the stem of a leaf.
photosynthesis process by which green plants capture energy from
sunlight and convert it into stored chemical energy.
phylloclade a usually flattened stem that performs the function of a
leaf, particularly on members of the genus Phyllocladus.
pinna a division of a divided leaf or frond; plural pinnae.
pinnate having the blade of a leaf or frond divided as far as the midrib
so that there are separate lobes or divisions.
plasticity influenced in shape by the environment.
podocarp a member of the Podocarpaceae family.
podzol an infertile soil of leached clay.
pollen the male gamete of flowering plants and conifers.
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pollination the transfer of pollen from the male to the female part of
the flower or cone.
prostrate lie prone or horizontal.
raceme an elongated flower arrangement as in most Hebe.
receptacle the stalk which holds the flower or flower head.
rhizome a horizontal underground stem.
senescence death or old age; leaf fall.
sepal green and leaf-like blades at the base of the flower.
serrate describes a leaf margin with teeth like a saw.
simple of leaves, in one piece and not divided into leaflets like those of
a compound leaf.
sorus a cluster of two or more sporangia on the margin or underside of
a lamina or frond blade; plural sori.
species a group of like organisms that are interbreeding naturally and
that is reproductively isolated from any similar group. The basic unit
of plant classification.
sporangium a sac or capsule that contains spores; plural sporangia.
stamen the pollen-bearing organ of a flower comprising the anther and
its supporting stalk or filament.
stigma the part of the flower receptive to pollen.
stipe the stalk from which the frond blade is produced.
stipules scale or leaf-like bract at the base of a leaf petiole, particularly
in Coprosma.
style that part of the female flower above the ovary that holds upright
the stigma.
subalpine the lower parts of the alpine zone, above the tree line but
below the zone containing herbfields, fellfields etc.
subspecies a level just below that of specific rank (species) and above
that of a variety.
tendril a slender twining part of climbing plant with the ability to coil
around objects.
tomentum densely matted, woolly soft hairs.
umbel umbrella-shaped or radiating from the centre flower
arrangement.
whorl an arrangement of leaves where three or more arise from the
same node.
xerophyte drought-tolerant plant.
Glossary
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 197
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References
Books
Allan, H.H., Flora of New Zealand, vol. 1, Government Printer,
Wellington, 1982.
Beever, J., A Dictionary of Maori Plant Names, Auckland Botanical
Society, 1991.
Best, E., Notes on the Art of War, Government Printer, Wellington, 1902.
———Forest Lore of the Maori, Government Printer, Wellington, 1908,
1977.
——— The Maori School of Learning, R.E. Owen, Government Printer,
Wellington, 1959.
Brougham, A.E and Reed, A.W., Maori Proverbs, Reed, 1975.
Buck, R., The Coming of the Maori, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1949.
Clarke, Alan, The Great Sacred Forest of Tane, Reed, 2007.
Cloher, Dorothy Urlich, The Tribes of Muriwhenua: their origins &
stories, Auckland University Press, 2002.
Cockayne, L., New Zealand Plants and Their Story, 4th edition, R.E.
Owen, Government Printer, Wellington, 1967.
Cockayne, L., and Phillips Turner E., The Trees of New Zealand,
Government Printer, Wellington, 1947.
Cowan, James, The Caltex Book of Maori Lore, A.H. and A.W. Reed,
1959.
——— Tales of the Maori Bush, Reed, 1982.
De Lange, P.T., Sawyer, J.W.D. and Rolfe, J.R., New Zealand Indigenous
Vascular Plant Checklist, New Zealand Plant Conservation Network,
July 2006.
Dieffenback, Ernest, Travels in New Zealand, vol. 11, John Murray, 1843.
Eagle, A., Complete Shrubs and Trees of New Zealand, vols 1 and 2,
Te Papa Press, 2006.
Entrican, A.R., Hinds, H.V. and Reid, J.S., Forest Trees and Timbers
of New Zealand, NZFS, Bulletin no. 12, Government Printer,
Wellington, 1957.
Grey, G., Proverbial and Popular Sayings, Trubner, London, 1857.
Gudgeon, T.D., The History and Doings of the Maoris, Brett, 1885.
Hopa, N., The Art of Piupiu Making, A.H. and A.W. Reed, 1971.
Houston, J., Maori Life in Old Taranaki, A.H. and A.W. Reed, 1965.
Johnson, P.N. and Brooke, P.A., Wetland Plants in New Zealand, DSIR
Publishing, Wellington, 1989.
Kelly, L.G., Tainui, The Polynesian Society, Wellington, 1949.
King, M., Moriori — A People Rediscovered, Penguin, 2000.
——— The Penguin History of New Zealand, Penguin/Viking, 2003.
Kohere, Rewiti, T., The Story of a Maori Chief (Mokena Kohere),
Wellington, Reed, 1949.
198
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Laing, R.M. and Blackwell, E.W., Plants of New Zealand, Whitcombe &
Tombs, 1940, 1964.
Martin, W., The Flora of New Zealand, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1961.
Mead, H.M., and Grove, N., Nga Pepeha a nga Tipuna, Victoria
University Press, Wellington, 2004.
Papakura, Makareti/Maggie, Makareti: The Old-time Maori, New
Women’s Press Ltd, 1987.
Metcalf, L.J., The Cultivation of New Zealand Trees and Shrubs, Reed,
1991.
——— The Cultivation of New Zealand Plants, Godwit, 1993.
——— The Cultivation of New Zealand Native Grasses, Godwit, 1998.
Orbell, M. Traditional Maori Stories, Reed, 1997.
Polack, J., New Zealand, Being a Narrative of Travels and Adventures
during a residence in that country between the years 1831 and 1837,
Richard Bentley, London, 1853.
Poole, A.L. and Adams N.M., Trees and Shrubs of New Zealand,
Government Printer, Wellington, 1964, 1967.
Power, Tyrone W., Sketches in New Zealand, Longman, Brown, Green
and Longman, 1849.
Prendergast, M., Maori Baskets for Beginners, Wellington, Reed, 1975.
Salmon, J.T., The Native Trees of New Zealand, Reed, 1980, 1992.
——— New Zealand Flowers and Plants in Colour, Murrell Books, Reed
Methuen, 1986.
——— Native New Zealand Flowering Plants, Reed, 1991.
Smith-Dodsworth J.C., New Zealand Native Shrubs and Climbers,
David Bateman, 1991.
Taylor, M., Meanings and Origins of Botanical Names of New Zealand
Plants, Auckland Botanical Society Bulletin 26, 2002.
Travers, W.T.L., and Stack, Rev. J.W., Stirring Times of Te Rauparaha,
Whitcombe and Tombs, 1906 (facsimile edition printed by Wilson
and Horton, Auckland).
——— The Sacking of Kaiapohia, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1906 (facsimile
edition printed by Wilson and Horton, Auckland).
Twain, Mark, Following the Equator, Harper and Brothers, 1897.
Wakefield, E.J., Adventure in New Zealand from 1839 to 1844, vol. 11,
John Murray, London, 1845 (facsimile edition printed by Wilson and
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Williams, H.W., He Whakatauki, he Titotito, he Pepeha, Gisborne, Te
Rau Kahikatea, 1908.
——— A Dictionary of the Maori Language, 7th edition, Government
Printer, Wellington, 1985.
Wilson, H. and Galloway, T., Small Leaved Shrubs of New Zealand,
Manuka Press, Christchurch, 1993.
References
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 199
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18/7/08 10:00:39 AM
Articles and manuscripts
Anderson, A., ‘The Maori as a Plant Hunter’, School Journal, part 4,
Autumn 1954.
——— ‘A Plant Hunter’s Christmas’, School Journal, vol. 48, no. 3,
Spring 1954.
——— ‘The Pioneer Plant Hunters’, School Journal, vol. 48, no. 2,
Winter 1954.
Bannister, P., ‘Seed germination in Gaultheria antipoda, G. depressa and
Pernettya macrostigma’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 28, no. 3, 1990.
Bannister, P. and Bridgeman, J., ‘Responses of seeds of three species of
Pseudopanax to low temperature stratification, removal of the fruit
flesh, and application of gibberellic acid’, NZ Journal of Botany,
vol. 29, 1991, pp. 213–16.
Beaver , R.E., ‘Self incompatibility in Cordyline pumilio’, NZ Journal of
Botany, vol. 21, 1983, pp. 93–95.
Beckett, P., 1963, ‘Some Notes on the Western Wellington Cook Strait
Coast 1888–1913’, New Zealand Archaeological Association
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Best, E., ‘The Art of the Whare Pora. Clothing of the Ancient Maori’,
Transactions of the New Zealand Institute, vol. 31, 1898, p. 633.
——— ‘Maori Agriculture’, Dominion Museum Bulletin, No. 9, 1925.
Burrows, C.J., ‘Patterns of delayed germination in seeds, NZ Natural
Sciences, vol. 16, 1989.
Clout, M.N. and Tilley, J.A.V. ‘Germination of miro (Prumnopitys
ferruginea) seeds after consumption by New Zealand pigeons
(Hemiphaga novaeseelandia)’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 30, 1992,
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Colenso, William, ‘Contributions Towards a Better Knowledge of the
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Institute, 1879.
——— ‘Early Crossings of Lake Waikaremoana’, Transactions and
Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute, 1894.
Colenso, William, Contributions Towards a Better Knowledge of the
Maori Race, T.N. 2I, 1879.
Conner, A. J. and L.N., ‘Germination and dormancy of Arthropodium
cirrhatum seeds’, NZ Natural Sciences, vol. 15, 1988.
Conner, L.N., ‘Seed germination of five sub-alpine Acaena species,
NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 25, 1987, pp. 1–4.
Conner, L.N. and A.J., ‘Seed Biology of Chordospartium stevensonii’,
NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 26, 1988, pp. 473–75.
Court, A.J. and Mitchell, N.D., ‘The germination ecology of Dysoxylum
spectabile’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 26, 1889, pp. 1–6.
Craig, J.L. and Stewart, A.M., ‘Reproductive biology of Phormium
tenax: a honey eater-pollinated species’, NZ Journal of Botany,
vol. 26, 1988, pp. 453–63.
‘Don’t keep off the grasses’, Commercial Horticulture, November 1989.
200
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Enright, N.J. and Cameron, E.K., ‘The soil seed bank of a kauri forest
remnant, near Auckland’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 26, no. 2, 1988,
pp. 223–36.
‘Flower biology in New Zealand’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 17, 1979,
pp. 441–66.
Fountain, D.W. and Couchman, K., ‘Volatiles from ripe fruits of karaka
(Corynocarpus laevigatus)’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 22, 1984,
pp. 341–43.
Fountain, D.W. and Outred, H.A., ‘Germination requirements of New
Zealand plants: a review’ NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 29, 1991,
pp. 311–16.
Fountain, D.W., Holdsworth, J.M. and Outred, H.A., ‘The dispersal
unit of Dacrycarpus dacrydioides and the significance of the fleshy
receptacle’, Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society, vol. 99, 1989,
pp. 197–207.
Godley, E.J., ‘Flower Biology in New Zealand’, NZ Journal of Botany,
vol. 17, 1979, pp. 441–66.
——— ‘Paths to maturity’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 23, 1979, pp.
687–706.
——— ‘The fruit of Vitex lucens (Verbenaceae), NZ Journal of Botany,
December 1971.
Godley, E.J. and Smith, D.H., ‘Breeding systems in New Zealand plants,
5. Pseudowintera colorata’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 19, 1981, pp.
151–56.
Hawkins, B.J. and Sweet, G.B., ‘Genetic variation in rimu — an
investigation using isozyme analysis’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 27,
1989, pp. 83–90.
Mark, A.F., ‘Narrow-leaved snow tussock, NZ Journal of Botany,
September 1965.
McFadgen, B.G., ‘Maori Occupation of the Pencarrow Survey District
as recorded on early survey records’, New Zealand Archaeological
Association Newsletter, vol. 6, 1963, pp. 118–25.
Mohan, E., Mitchell, N. and Lovell, P., ‘Environmental factors
controlling germination of Leptospermum scoparium (Manuka)’,
NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 22, 1984, pp. 95–101.
Norton, D.A., Herbert, J.W. and Beveridge, A.E., ‘The ecology of
Dacrydium cupressinum: a review’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 26,
1987, pp. 37–62.
Partridge, T.R. ‘Soil seed banks of secondary vegetation on the Port Hills
and Banks Peninsula, Canterbury, and their role in succession,
NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 27, 1989, pp. 421–36.
Partridge, T.R. and Wilson, M.D., ‘A germination inhibitor in the seeds of
Mahoe (Melicytus ramiflorus)’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 28, 1990,
pp. 475–78.
Philipson, W.R., ‘Seedling and shoot morphology of the New Zealand
species of Nothofagus’, NZ Journal of Botany, vol. 26, 1988,
pp. 401–07.
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Phillipps, W.J. ‘Making Fire and Cooking Food’, Te Ao Hou, no. 15, July
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Powlesland, Mary H., ‘Reproductive biology of three species of
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of Botany, vol. 23, 1985, pp. 581–96.
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202
P l a n t H e r i tag e N e w Z e a l a n d
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 202
18/7/08 10:00:39 AM
Index of plants
Aciphylla 24
26
Ackama rosaefolia 92
92
Agathis australis 70
70
akeake 87 162, 173
Agavaceae
akepiro 149
akeake
87
Alectryon
excelsus 86
akepiro 149
Alseuosmiaexcelsus 86
Alectryon
banksii 89
Alseuosmia
macrophylla
89
banksii
89
Alseuosmiaceae
88
macrophylla 89
Araliaceae 138, 139
Alseuosmiaceae
88
Araucariaceae
Araliaceae
14070
Arecaceae 167 70
Araucariaceae
Aristotelia serrata 90
90
aruhe 181
184
Asparagaceae 161
Aspleniaceae
186
Aspleniaceae 186
Asplenium
Asplenium
bulbiferum 186
bulbiferum 185
oblongfolium
185
oblongfolium
184
Asteraceae
149
Asteraceae 148
Avicennia
27
Avicennia 27
beech
black 145
beechhard 146
black 145145
mountain
hard
146
New
Zealand
145
145
redmountain
145
New147
Zealand 145
silver
red 145
Beilschmiedia
silver84
147
tarairi
Beilschmiedia
tawa 85
tarairi 187
84
Blechnaceae
tawa 85
Blechnum
Blechnaceae
discolor 187
188
Blechnum
fluviatile 188
discolor 186 188
novae-zelandiae
fluviatile 187
Brachyglottis
novae-zelandiae
188
kirkii
151
Brachyglottis
repanda 151
brackenkirkii
184 151
150
broom repanda
94
bracken
181
bulrush 178
broom 94
bulrush 178
cabbage tree 162
162
dwarf
165
dwarf 166
forest
164
forest
164
mountain166
166
mountain
Campanulaceae
156
Carmichaelia australis
94
Carmichaelia
australis
94
Carpodetus serratus 99
Carpodetus
Chionochloaserratus
171 99
Chionochloa
170
Clematis paniculata
99
Clematis
Clianthuspaniculata
puniceus 99
95
Clianthus
puniceus 95 157
Colensoa physaloides
Colensoa
Coprosmaphysaloides 156
Coprosma
arborea 104
arborea 104
grandifolia
101
grandifolia
lucida 104 101
lucida 104
neglecta
107
neglecta 105
107
parviflora
parviflora
repens
102 105
repens 102105
rhamnoides
rhamnoides
robusta
103 105
robusta 104
spathulata
107
spathulata 107
Cordyline
Cordyline
australis 164
australis
banksii
165162
banksii167
164
indivisa
indivisa
166
obtecta
167
obtecta
167
pumilio 166
Coriariapumilio
arborea165
108
Coriaria
arborea
Coriariaceae
108108
Coriariaceae
108
Cortaderia 171
Cortaderia
170
Corynocarpaceae 109
Corynocarpaceae
109
Corynocarpus laevigatus
109
Corynocarpus
109
Cunoniaceae laevigatus
92
Cunoniaceae
Cupressaceae9282
Cupressaceae
82
Cyathea
Cyathea
dealbata 180
dealbata 178
medullaris
180
medullaris
Cyatheaceae
79 179
Cyatheaceae
Cyperaceae 179
178
Dacrycarpus dacrydioides 73
73
Dacrydium
cupressinum7575
cupressinum
kirkii7676
kirkii
Dennstaeditiaceae 181
Index of plants
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 203
203
18/7/08 10:00:39 AM
Desmoschoenus spiralis
dennstaeditiaceae
184 176
Dicksonia squarrosa
180 178
Desmoschoenus
spiralis
Dicksoniaceae
180
Dicksonia
squarrosa
181
Discaria
toumatou
114
dicksoniaceae 181
Dodonaea
viscosa 88114
Discaria
toumatou
Doodia australis
Dodonaea
viscosa18988
Dracophyllum
latifolium
112
Doodia
australis
189
Drosera
26
Dracophyllum latifolium 112
Dysoxylum
Drosera
26spectabile 117
Dysoxylum spectabile 117
Elaeocarpaceae 90
elaeocarpaceae
90
Elaeocarpus dentatus 91
91
Epacridaceae 112
epacridaceae
112
Fabaceae 94
Fabaceae
94
fern
Fagaceae 145
creek 188
fern
crown
creek
188188
filmy188
190
crown
hen
and
filmy 190 chickens 186
henrasp
and189
chickens 186
silver
rasp
189tree 179
Ficinia
spiralis
silver
tree 176
179
five finger 140
140
flax 173
173
coastal175
175
coastal
mountain173
173
mountain
Fuchsia excorticate
excorticata 117
118
Geniostoma ligustrifolium 118
119
Gleichenia microphylla 193
193
grass tree 112
113
haekaro 153
153
hangehange 118
119
harakeke 171
171
Hebe stricta 119
121
Hedycarya arborea 122
124
heketara 149
149
hinau 91
91
Hoheria
glabrata125
124
glabrata
populnea125
124
populnea
horopito 88,
157
88, 157
houhere 124
124
hound’s tongue 193
193
houpara 140
140
204
Hymenophyllaceae 189
189
Hymenophyllum
flexuosum193
190
flexuosum
nephrophyllum
189
nephrophyllum 192
Icacinaceae
icacinaceae 147
148
Ixerba brexioides 121
122
Ixerbaceae
121
ixerbaceae 122
kahikatea 73
73
kahikatoa 128
130
kaikawaka 82
82
kaikomako 147
147
kai-weta 99
99
kaka beak 95
95
kakaramu 103
103
kamahi 93
93
kanono 101
101
kanuka 127
128
karaka 109
109
karamu 104
104
karapapa 88
88
kareao 169
169
karo 153
153
kauri 70
70
kawaka 82
82
kawakawa 135
135
kidney fern 190
192
kiokio 188
189
Kirk’s kohuhu 154
154
Knightia excelsa 125
127
koare 70
70
kohekohe 115
115
kohuhu 152
152
kohurangi 151
151
konini
117
konehu 191
kopia
konini109
117
korimiko
119
kopia 111
koru
156 121
korimiko
kotukutuku
koru 157 117
kowaowao
kotukutuku193
117
kowhai
96 194
kowaowao
kowhai ngutu-kaka
95
96
kumarahou
114
kowhai ngutu-kaka 95
Kunzea
ericoides
kumarahou
115 127
Kunzea ericoides 128
lacebark 124
P l a n t H e r i tag e n e w Z e a l a n d
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 204
18/7/08 10:00:39 AM
Lamiaceae124
158
lacebark
lancewood 140
141
Lauraceae 84
84
Laurelia novae-zelandiae 123
124
lemonwood 152
153
Leptecophylla juniperina subsp. juniperina
113juniperina 113
Leptospermum scoparium 128
130
Leucopogon fasciculatus 111
111
Libocedrus plumosa 82
82
Loganiaceae 118
Lobeliaceae
157
Lophomyrtus 118
Loganiaceae
bullata 131
Lophomyrtus
obcordata
bullata
131 133
Lygodium
articulatum
obcordata
133 193
Lygodium articulatum 193
maakaka 94
Macropiper94
maakaka
excelsum 135
Macropiper
excelsum
subsp. excelsum 135
psittacorum 135
excelsum
subsp.
mahoePsittacorum
137
135
makamaka
mahoe
13792,193
makomako 90
makamaka
92, 193
Malvaceae 124
makomako
90
mamaku 179125
Malvaceae
mamangi 104
mamaku
180
mangemange
mamangi 104193
manuka 128 193
mangemange
mapou 142
manuka
128
marble leaf
mapou
14399
matagouri
marble
leaf114
99
matai 80
matagouri
114
matipo 80
142
matai
Meliaceae
115
matipo
143
Melicope
Meliaceae 117
simplex 137
Melicope
ternata137
136
simplex
Melicytus
ternata 137
macrophyllus 138
Melicytus
ramiflorus 137
macrophyllus
138
Meryta
sinclairii 138
138
ramiflorus
Metrosideros
Meryta
sinclairii 140
excelsa
Metrosideros 131
fulgens134
134
excelsa
perforata
fulgens
135 134
robusta 133
perforata
134
Microsorum
193
robusta pustulatum
134
mikimiki
105pustulatum 193
Microsorum
mingimingi
111, 113
mikimiki 105
prickly
mingimingi
114
mingimingi 111,
113
miro prickly
79
mingimingi 114
mirror
plant 102
miro 79
Monimiaceae
mirror plant 122
102
monoao
76
Monimiaceae 123
mouku
monoao187
76
Muehlenbeckia
astonii 35
mouku 187
Myrsinaceae
142astonii 35
Muehlenbeckia
Myrsine
Myrsinaceae 143
Myrsineaustralis 142
salicina143
143
australis
Myrtaceae
128143
salicina
Myrtaceae 128
neinei 112
New
neineiZealand
112
ash 86
New Zealand
ashcedar
86 82
honeysuckle
125
cedar
82
leafless broom
honeysuckle
12694
myrtle
130 94
leafless
broom
oak
84
myrtle 130
oakprivet
84 118
teak 119
158
privet
nikauteak
167 162
Nothofagaceae
145
nikau 167
Nothofagus
fusca145
145
fusca
menziesii147
147
menziesii
solandri
var.
solandri var.
cliffortioides145
145
cliffortioides
solandri
solandri145
145
solandri
var.var.
solandri
truncata145
145
truncata
Nyctaginaceae 151
152
Olearia
furfuracea
furfuracea
150 149
rani
rani 149 149
Onagraceae 117
118
Palmae 169
Paracryphiaceae 157
158
parapara 151
151
pate 142
142
patete 142
143
Pennantia corymbosa 148
148
Index of plants
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 205
205
18/7/08 10:00:40 AM
Phebalium nudum 38
38
Phormium
cookianum175
173
cookianum
tenax
171
tenax 173
Phylloclaceae
82
Phyllocladus trichomanoides
82
Phyllocladus
82
pigeonwood trichomanoides
122
pigeonwood
122
pine
pine black 80
black79
80
brown
brown
celery
8279
redcelery
75 82
red
pingao 17875
pingao
176 136
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
135
Pisonia brunoniana
152
Pisonia
brunoniana
Pittosporaceae
152 151
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum 152
Pittosporum
cornifolium 154
cornifolium153
154
crassifolium
crassifolium
eugenoides
152153
eugenoides
152
kirkii
154
kirkii 154 154
pimelioides
pimelioides
154
tenuifolium
subsp.
tenuifolium subsp.
tenuifolium
152 tenuifolium
152
umbellatum 153
umbellatum
153 27
Plagianthus
divaricatus
Plagianthus
divaricatus
26
Plantaginaceae
121
Plantaginaceae
Poaceae 171 119
Poaceae
170 137
poataniwha
poataniwha
137 73
Podocarpaceae
Podocarpaceae
73
Podocarpus
Podocarpus
nivalis 26
nivalis
totara
7724
totara 133
77
pohutukawa
pohutukawa
131
Pomaderris kumeraho
115
Pomaderris
ponga 179 kumeraho 114
ponga
178 180
black
black 181
179
scruffy
scruffy 123
180
porokaiwhiri
porokaiwhiri
122 156
Pouteria costata
Pouteria
costata
Proteaceae
126 154
Proteaceae
125
Prumnopitys
Prumnopityaceae
79
ferruginea 79
Prumnopitys
taxifolia 80
ferruginea 79
Pseudopanax
taxifolia 80
anomalum
142
arboreus 140
crassifolius 140
206
Pseudopanax
ferox 141
anomalum
laetum
142 141
arboreus
lessonii
140140
crassifolius
140 157
Pseudowintera colorata
ferox
140
Pteridium
esculentum
185
laetum 141
puawhananga
99
lessonii 140
puka 138
Pseudowintera
pukatea 124 colorata 157
Pteridium
185
pukupuku esculentum
189
puawhananga
99
puriri 158
puka
138
putaputaweta
99
pukatea
123
Quintinia serrata 158
pukupuku
ramarama 188
130
puriri
158 150
rangiora
putaputaweta
ranunculaceae9999
rata 134
Quintinia
serrata 157
small-leaved
white 135
raupo 176
ramarama
130
raurekau 101
rangiora
150
rewarewa 125
Ranunculaceae
Rhabdothamnus99
solandri 45
rata
133
rhamnaceae
114
small-leaved
Rhopalostylis
sapida white
169 134
raupo
175
rimu 75
raurekau
101
Ripogonum
scandens 170
rewarewa
125
rohutu 131
Rhabdothamnus
rousseacae 99 solandri 45
Rhamnaceae
114
rubiaceae 101
Rhopalostylis
rutaceae 137sapida 167
rimu
75 repens. 27
Samolus
Ripogonum
169
Sapindaceaescandens
86
Riponaceae
169
Sapotaceae 154
rohutu
130digitata 143
Schefflera
Rousseacae
Smilacaceae99170
Rubiaceae
Sophora 101
Rutaceae
137
chathamica
98
falvida 98
Samolus
repens.
godleyi
96 26
Sapindaceae
86
longicarinata
96
Sapotaceae
154
microphylla 96
Schefflera
digitata
molloyi
98 142
prostrata 96
tetraptera 96
sundew 26
supplejack 169
Syzygium maire 26
tanekaha 82
P l a n t H e r i tag e n e w Z e a l a n d
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 206
18/7/08 10:00:40 AM
Sophora
tanguru 150
98
taraire chathamica
84
98
tarata fulvida
153
taupatagodleyi
102 96
longicarinata 96
tawa 85
96
tawapoumicrophylla
156
98
tawari molloyi
122
prostrata
96
tawhairaunui
146
96
tawherotetraptera
92
Strasburgiaceae
121
tawherowhero 157
sundew
26 154
tawhirikaro
supplejack
169
tea-tree 130
Syzygium
maire 24
ti kouka 164
ti ngahere 165
tanekaha
82
ti para 165
tanguru
149
ti-rauriki 165
taraire
84
titoki 86
tarata
toatoa 152
82
taupata
102
toetoe 170
tawa
85
toi 167
tawapou
toro 143154
tawari
Toronia121
toru 127
tawhairaunui
146
toru 127
tawhero
92
totara 77
tawherowhero 157
tawhirikaro 153
tea-tree 129
ti kouka 162
ti ngahere 164
ti para 165
ti rauriki 165
titoki 86
toatoa 82
toetoe
towai 170
92
toi
tree166
daisies 149
toro
143
tree fuchsia
117
Toronia
toru
127
tupakihi 109
toru
tutu 126
108
totara
Typha 77
orientalis 176
towai
92
Typhaceae
176
tree
daisies
148
Verbenaceae 158
tree
fuchsia138
117
Violaceae
tupakihi
108 161
Vitex lucens
tutu
108
waewaekaka
192
Typha
orientalis
175
Weinmannia
Typhaceae
175 93
racemosa
silvicola 92
Violaceae
wharangi 137
137, 151
Vitex
lucens
158
wharariki 175
wheki 181
waewaekaka
192
white pine 73
Weinmannia
whiteywood 138
racemosa
93
wild Irishman
114
silvicola
wineberry
90 92
wharangi
136,150rata 135
winter flowering
wharariki
173157
Winteraceae
wheki 180
white pine 73
whiteywood 137
wild Irishman 114
wineberry 90
winter flowering rata 134
Winteraceae 157
Xanthorrhoeaceae 171
Index of plants
Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 207
207
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Plant Heritage Part 2.indd 208
18/7/08 10:00:42 AM