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Core Concepts Part 1
Tools of Geography
Several Maijuna
people study a map.
A Peruvian toucan overlooks
mountains and rain forest. The
Maijuna live in a rain forest area.
2
Jason
Young
Story by Miles Lemaire for myWorld
T
here were a number of things that took some
getting used to for Jason Young when he first
traveled to Peru. There was no electricity in the
village where he was living, which meant that there
was no place to charge his cell phone. The same was
true for his computer, which he could not use much
since there was no Internet connection.
He was alone in a foreign country, eating food
that the hunters of the village provided for him.
He ate toucan and piranha. “It is an entirely different world,” Jason says. “The people there are living
off the rainforest, so they go hunting and whatever
they catch is what I eat.”
Nothing about this place on the edge of the
Amazon jungle felt like home to Jason. However, it
was home to the people of the Maijuna (mai HU na)
tribe and he was going to help them prove it.
According to Jason, the Maijuna “do not own
the land where they live, and it is being threatened
by things like logging. The Peruvian government
wants to construct a road right through some of
their traditional territory.”
Fortunately, there is a way for the Maijuna to
keep their land if they can prove their ownership of
it. To do this, they need accurate maps of the area.
That is where Jason comes in. Jason studies
geography, which deals with the human and
nonhuman features of Earth. Using his geography
skills, he has created maps to help the Maijuna
prove their case. He used a GPS device, which uses
satellites to locate places on Earth’s surface.
Jason says, “I went down there and worked with
them for four months over different field seasons. I
worked with them to do what is called participatory
mapping. It is where you have them draw what they
believe is their territory on their traditional land.
You use that to go out with a GPS unit and collect [data] points from each of the different spots.
I actually took video interviews of them talking
about the history of the spots that we went to.”
Maijuna people took pictures of the spots, and
Jason is working on putting them online in an
interactive map. Eventually, users will be able to
click on traditional sites to view videos or pictures.
“We are hoping to use that mostly as a teaching
tool for safeguarding the Maijuna’s traditions, as
well as using it as a tool with which to speak to the
government.”
Jason’s involvement with the Maijuna came to
an end in 2009. Still, his bond with the Maijuna is
so strong that he wants to revisit his new friends
as often as he can. He feels that he has learned a lot
from his experience.
“The level of poverty opened my eyes to how
privileged I have been and how much potential I
have to give back to the world,” Jason says.
3
Core Concepts Part 1 Tools of Geography
Maijuna men use
a GPS device.
Core Concepts 1.1
Geography: The Study of Earth
Key
Ideas
tGeographers use directions to help locate points on Earth’s surface.
tGeographers have drawn imaginary lines around Earth, dividing it into
parts to help pinpoint locations.
Key Terms t geography
t degree t cardinal direction
t hemisphere G
t sphere
t longitude
t latitude
eography is the study of the human and nonhuman
features of Earth, our home. Geographers try to answer
two basic questions: Where are things located? Why are they
there? To answer these questions, geographers study oceans,
plant life, landforms, countries, and cities. Geographers also
study how Earth and its people affect each other.
Directions
In order to study Earth, geographers need to measure it
and locate points on its surface. One way to do this is with
directions. Geographers use both cardinal and intermediate
directions. The cardinal directions are north, east, south,
and west. Intermediate directions lie between the cardinal
directions. For example, northwest is halfway between north
and west.
Latitude
Earth is an almost perfect sphere (sfeer), or round-shaped
body. Geographers have drawn imaginary lines around
Earth to help locate places on its surface. One of these is
the Equator, a line drawn around Earth halfway between
the North and South Poles. The Equator is also known as
the 0-degree (0°) latitude line. Latitude is the distance north
or south of the Equator. It is measured in degrees. Degrees
are units that measure angles. Minutes (') measure smaller
units. On this map, lines are drawn every 20° of latitude.
Lines of latitude form east-west circles around the globe.
Lines of latitude are also called parallels, because they are
parallel to one another. That means they never cross.
4
North Pole
60° N
40° N
Northern Hemisphere
20° N
EQUATOR
0°
20° S
Southern Hemisphere
40° S
60° S
South Pole
Core Concepts Part 1
The Equator divides Earth in half. Each half of Earth is called a
hemisphere. The half of Earth north of the Equator is known as the
Northern Hemisphere. The half of Earth south of the Equator is the
Southern Hemisphere.
Longitude
90° N
Greenwich, England
PRIME MERIDIAN
20° E
40° E 60° E
Eastern
Hemisphere
Latitude and longitude form a
global grid. You can describe
the location of any point on
Earth’s surface using degrees
of longitude and latitude. For
example, Greenwich, England,
is located at 0° longitude and
about 51°29’ north latitude.
40° N
20° E
0°
40° E
60° E
0
PRIME MERIDIAN
20° W EQUATOR
0°
The Global Grid
20°
40° W
60° W 40° W 20° W
80° N
60° N
60° W
Western
Hemisphere
Lesson 1
Geographers have also drawn imaginary north-south lines that run
between the North Pole and the South Pole on Earth’s surface. One of
these lines is the Prime Meridian, which passes through Greenwich,
England. The Prime Meridian and the other north-south lines
measure longitude, or the distance in degrees east or west of the Prime
Meridian. Lines of longitude are also called meridians.
The half of Earth east of the Prime Meridian is known as the Eastern Hemisphere. The half of Earth west of the Prime Meridian is the
Western Hemisphere.
20°
Assessment
1. What do geographers study?
40° S
2. Based on the diagrams shown here,
in which two hemispheres do you
live?
60° S
90° S
80° S
5
1st
St
NW
Core Concepts 1.2
Av
e
St
Yo
rk
7th
tUsing five themes can help you make sense of geography.
NW
Ne
w
Key
Ideas
NW
Geography’s
Five Themes
tThe theme of location is used to describe where a place is found, while
the other themes describe features of a place.
e NW
NW
tts Av
t relative location
t place
t region
chuse
Massa
t human-environment interaction
Av
e
Key Terms t absolute location
t movement
Yo
r
k
G
Ne
w
eographers use five different themes, or ways
of thinking. These themes are location, place,
region, movement, and human-environment
interaction. They can help answer the geographer’s
two basic questions: Where are things located?
Why are they there? You can see how the five
themes work by looking at the example of our
nation’s capital, Washington, D.C.
Place
Geographers also study place. Place refers to the mix of
human and nonhuman features at a given location. For
example, you might talk about how many people live in a
place and the kinds of work they do. You might mention that
a place is hilly or that it has a wet climate. As a place, Washington, D.C., is on the Potomac River. It has a humid climate
with cool winters and hot summers. It is a major city and the
center of government for the United States.
6
hS
tN
W
iles
1.5 m
White House
14t
hS
17t
Location
Geographers begin to study a place by finding where it is, or
its location. There are two ways to talk about location.
Absolute location describes a place’s exact position on Earth
in terms of longitude and latitude. Using degrees of longitude and latitude, you can pinpoint any spot on Earth. For
example, the absolute location of the center of Washington,
D.C., is at the intersection of the 38°54’ north latitude line
and the 77°2’ west longitude line. Relative location, or the
location of a place relative to another place, is another way
to describe location. For example, you can say that Washington, D.C, is about 200 miles southwest of New York City.
12t
hS
W
Washington
Monument
tN
W
NW
tio
itu
st
on
ve
nA
tN
C
Ti d al
B a sin
SW
ve
A
nce
de
en
p
e
Ind
Lincoln
Memorial
Lincoln Memorial
6th
to Frederick
NE
270
495
267
McLean
495
66
1
95
495
ve r
50
Landover
Washington
Maryland
395
Virginia
Springfield
295
95 495
4
Oxon
Hill
1
0
to Richmond
0
5 mi
5 km
SW
395
Geographers use the theme of region to group places
that have something in common. A region is an area
with at least one unifying physical or human feature
such as climate, landforms, population, or history. Washington, D.C., is part of a region called the Washington
Metropolitan Area, which includes the city of Washington and its suburbs. This region shares a job market and
a road and rail network. New technology, such as highspeed railroads, may give places new unifying features
and connections. This can change the way people see
regions.
Movement
Wa shin g ton Chan nel
Jefferson
Memorial
The theme of movement explores how people, goods,
and ideas get from one place to another. A daily movement of trucks and trains supplies the people of Washington with food, fuel, and other basic goods.
Human-Environment
Interaction
Potomac Riv e r
The theme of human-environment interaction considers
how people affect their environment, or their natural
surroundings, and how their environment affects them.
The movement of water from the Potomac River into
Washington’s water system is an example of humanenvironment interaction.
Assessment
1. What are the five themes of geography?
2. What is the difference between your hometown’s
location and your hometown as a place?
7
Lesson 2
e
Av
nce
College Park
Region
e
nd
pe
e
Ind
W
Ave N
Silver
Spring
District of
Ri Columbia
Alexandria
95
ania
495
29
Annandale
495
sylv
Penn
295
Arlington
50
Capitol Building
(38°54‘ N, 77°2‘ W)
95
S
Bethesda
ch
Massa
E
29
66
W
Ave N
usetts
W
Potomac
ac
tom
Po
2
dS
The absolute location of the nCapitol
tN
Building is 38°54’ N, 77°2’ W. The E
N C location of the Capitol Building
relative
ap
ito from the White House.
is 1.5 miles
l St
to Baltimore
N
Core Concepts Part 1
St
Core Concepts 1.3
Ways to Show Earth’s Surface
Key
Ideas
tGlobes, photographs, computer images, and maps are all ways to show
and view Earth’s surface.
tEach way of showing Earth’s surface has advantages and disadvantages.
Key Terms t scale
t aerial photograph
t satellite image
t geographic information system (GIS) t distortion
t projection
G
eographers use a number of different models to represent Earth’s
surface. Each model has its own strengths and weaknesses.
Globes
A globe is a model of Earth with the same round
shape as Earth itself. With a globe, geographers can
show the continents and oceans of Earth much as
they really are. The only difference is the scale, or the
area a given space on the map corresponds to in the
real world. For example, one inch on a globe might
corespond to 600 miles on Earth’s surface.
A globe would have to be hundreds of feet high to show the streets of
your town. Such a globe would be impossible to carry around. Instead,
people use flat maps to help them find their way.
Photographs
Geographers use photographs as well as maps. Aerial photographs are
photographic images of Earth’s surface taken from the air. Satellite
images are pictures of Earth’s surface taken from a satellite in orbit. They
show Earth’s surface in great detail. However, it can be hard to find
specific features, such as roads, on a photograph. For this reason, maps
are still the main way to show information about Earth’s surface.
Geographic Information Systems
An aerial photo taken
in Antactica (top) and a
satellite image of Antarctica
(above).
8
Geographic information systems (GIS) are computer-based systems that
store and use information linked to geographic locations. GIS is useful
not only to geographers and mapmakers but also to government
agencies and businesses. It offers a way to connect information to places.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
SOUTH
AMERICA
INDIAN
ANTARCTICA OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
This projection shows the
size and shape of Antarctica
nearly correctly.
The Equal-Area Projection
The Mercator Projection
An equal-area map shows the correct
size of landmasses. However, their
shapes are distorted.
The Mercator (mur KAYT ur) projection shows correct shapes and directions but not true distances or sizes.
Mercator maps make areas near the
poles look bigger than they are.
Lesson 3
Flat maps and photos have one major problem. Earth is round.
A map or photo is flat. Can you flatten an orange peel without
stretching or tearing it? There will be sections that are stretched or
bent out of shape.
Showing Earth on a flat surface always brings some distortion, or
loss of accuracy in the size or position of objects on a map. Something is going to look too large, too small, or out of place.
To show a flat image of Earth’s round surface, mapmakers have
come up with different projections, or ways to map Earth on a flat
surface. A few examples show how they differ.
Core Concepts Part 1
Map Projections
The Robinson Projection
The Robinson projection shows nearly the correct
size and shape of most land areas. However, even
a Robinson projection has distortions, especially
in areas around the edges of the map.
Assessment
1. How are maps different from globes?
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each of
the three projections in showing Antarctica?
9
Core Concepts 1.4
Understanding Maps
Key
Ideas
tMaps have parts that help you read them.
tThough different maps show different things about a place, you can
use the same tools to help understand them.
Key Terms t key
t locator map
t scale bar
t compass rose
L
ook at the maps on these two pages. One is a physical map of the
state of Colorado. The other is a road map of Colorado. These
maps cover the same area but show different kinds of information.
Despite their differences, both maps have all of the basic parts that
you should find on any map.
The map has a title
that tells you the
subject of the map.
110°
0° W
108°
108
10
08° W
10
106
106°
06°
6° W
104° W
Parts of a Map:
Map
Wyoming
Wyom
Wyo
yomin
mPhysical
mi
ing
102° W
KEY
40° N
N
W
Roan
Plateau
E
iver
Col
o
R
do
ra
S
S
Utah
So
uth
Platte
River
40 N
40°
Denver
This map comes with a locator map.
A locator map shows a larger
area
v
Ri
n
than the main map.
It
shows
where
a
c
bli
pu
the area on the
Re map is located
rk
within this
Folarger area.
.
Aurora
Mount Elbert
14,
4,4 ft (4,399 m)
14,433
O
Colorado Springs
Kansas
N
ge
Pikes Peak
14,110 ft
(4,301 m)
U
Ran
A compass rose is a
diagram of a compass
showing direction.
T
San
Jua
n
M
S Mountai
I N risto
C
A re de
de
an
ng
Sa
38° N
Rio
Gr
ou
ta
This map uses a grid showing lines
of longitude
n
and latitude that can help you find locations.
ns
in
s
10
Nebraska
Fort Collins
er
State border
M
K Y
tch
R O C
awa
A map’s key explains the symbols
and shading on the map. This key
shows the shades that correspond
to elevations, or different heights.
S
3,048
1,829
914
R a n g e
Meters
F r
o n
t
Feet
10,000
6,000
3,000
ge
Park Ran
Elevation
Pueblo
A map’s scale bar shows how much
s River
Arkansarepresents
space on the map
a
given distance on the land.
0
50 mi
m
0
50 km
Albers Conic Equal-Area Projection
38°° N
Reading a Map
Look at the map below. It is a highway
map of the state of Colorado. This map
looks different from the physical map
of Colorado that you have just studied.
However, it has the same parts that can
help you read it. In fact, you can read
most maps using the key, scale bar, and
other map tools that you have learned
about.
Core Concepts Part 1
Find the key on this map. Using the
key, can you find the route number of the
Interstate highway that connects Denver
and Colorado Springs, Colorado? Using
the scale bar, estimate the number of
miles between these two cities. Using
the compass rose, find the direction that
you would need to travel from Denver to
Colorado Springs. Now you have learned
to read a highway map!
N
Map Key
Freeway
Urban area
U.S. highway
191
109° W
107° W
108° W
WYOMING
41° N
105° W
.
Roosevelt
Natl. For.
Gree
nR
Routt
Natl. For.
40° N
R
do
U TA H
70
6
34
85
Grand
Junction
San
Isabel
Natl.
24
For.
50
nR
Black Canyon
of the Gunnison
Natl. Park Gunnison
Natl. For.
.
Uncompahgre
Natl. For.
50
Pike
Natl. For.
85
Florissant
Fossil Beds
Natl. Mon.
Rio Grande
Natl. For. 160
160
and
Rio Gr e
37° N
285
84
160
491
109° W
108° W
107° W
287
70 24
385
40
39° N
40
40
Security-Widefield
287
87
N E W ME X I C O
106° W
385
50
Arkan
s as
R.
50
50
38° N
287
Great
Sand Dunes
Natl. Park
and Preserve
285
160
385
Colorado Springs
San Isabel
Natl. For.
160
550
70
40
36
287
50
191
Mesa Verde
Natl. Park
e R.
kare
Ari
85
38° N
San Juan
Natl. For.
36
25
50
550
36
24
Pueblo
Canyons of
the Ancients
Natl. Mon.
40° N
87
Pueblo West
491
34
25
24
285
385
KANSAS
R.
ores
Dol
191
Colorado N.M.
i so
Gunn
39° N
76
6
6
Centennial
Parker
Castle Rock
85
Grand Mesa
Natl. For.
385
Brighton
285
70
76
hP 6
ut
So 76
Westminster Thornton
Aurora
Arvada
70
DENVER Englewood
Co
lor
a
White River
Natl. For.
Greeley
34
Boulder
Broomfield
.
138
6
Rocky
Mtn. Longmont
Natl. Park 36 287
40
102° W 80
41° N
80
25
87 85 Pawnee Natl. Grassland
Loveland
34
te R.
Whi
103° W
NEBRASKA
Fort Collins
40
50 mi
50 km
0
104° W
Cheyenne
S
0
Town, 25,000–100,000
80
287
Dinosaur
Natl. Mon.
Town, 100,000 or more
Greeley
106° W
E
State capital
R.
Interstate highway
34
W
DENVER
Pueblo
National park
or forest
lat
te
U.S. highway
25
Lesson 4
Parts of a Map: Road Map
350
25
385
Assessment
Comanche
Natl. Grassland
160
85
1. What can you learn from a scale bar?
287
87
385 to shop in your
2. If you made 160
a map of places
37° N key?
area, what might you put in the map’s
OKLAHOMA
104° W
103° W
102° W
11
Core Concepts 1.5
Types of Maps
Key
Ideas
tMaps can show many different kinds of information.
tPolitical, physical, and special-purpose maps are the main types of
maps.
Key Terms t physical map
t elevation
t political map
t special-purpose map
T
he map projections, or ways to represent Earth’s surface, that you
have studied can be used to show different things about the area
they cover. For example, they might represent the physical landscape,
political boundaries, ecosystem zones, or almost any other feature of
a place. People use different kinds of maps in different situations.
United States: Physical
N
E
W
0
E
S
Rio
G
de
ran
C
O
IN
UN
MO
Mississip
pi R
.
A
S
AP
T
A
P
L
P
L
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
KEY
Elevation
110° W
20° N
TROPIC OF CANCER
PACIFIC
OCEAN
20° N
160° W
Same scale as main map
100° W
Feet
10,000
6,000
3,000
1,000
500
Sea level
Meters
3,048
1,829
914
305
152
Sea level
National border
12
N
IAN
r
er
30° N
PACIFIC
P
OCEAN
O
i
oR
Ohi
P L A I N S
AINS
This is a physical map of the United States.
It is similar to the physical map of Colorado
you have just seen. Physical maps show
physical, or natural, features. Study the key
and then find the areas of high and low
elevation, or height above sea level, on the
map. Now look at the compass rose. Are
the areas of highest elevation in the eastern or western half of the United States?
Find the major rivers on the map. Notice
that the rivers flow from areas of higher
elevation down to large bodies of water.
Red
Riv
S
TA
Mi
ssi
s
iv
pi R er
sip
e
iv
oR
d
a
Color
Physical Maps
400 km
Conic Equal-Area
t Albers
L a Projection
ke
I
iver
e R iv e r
Great
Salt Lake
0
ea
s
iR
ak
600 mi
600 km
Missour
E A T
G R
Columbia
River
NT
OU
Y M
0
0
a Rang
e
Sn
A le
utian
Islands
k
las
CK
Bering
Sea
Gr
A
Mt. McKinley
20,320 ft (6,194 m)
400 mi
CH
CL
LA
CI R
140° W
A
IC
160° W
RO
°N
180°
ve
r
60
CT
A
AR
80° W
0
CA N A D A
0
Washington
N
Wisconsin
South
Dakota
Idaho
Mi
ch
i
Minnesota
Oregon
New
Hampshire
New
Massachusetts
York
n
ga
40°
North
Dakota
Montana
PACIFIC
OCEAN
400 mi
400 km
Albers Conic Equal-Area
Projection
Vermont Maine
Wyoming
Political Maps
Iowa
Nebraska
Utah
Colorado
California
Arizona
New Mexico
120° W
E
A R C T I C C IR C L
Alaska
CANADA
N
M EX ICO
0
180°
160° W
0
400 mi
400 km
E
S
20° N
100° W
Same scale
as main map
90° W
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Florida
W
60° N 160° W
Hawaii
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New Jersey
Delaware
Maryland
District of
Columbia
Lesson 5
Indiana Ohio
West
Illinois
Virginia
Virginia
Kansas
Missouri
Kentucky
North
Carolina
Tennessee
Oklahoma Arkansas
South
Carolina
Alabama
Georgia
Mississippi
Texas
Louisiana
Nevada
130° W
This is a political map of the
United States. Political maps show
political units, such as countries or
states. They may also show capitals
of countries, or centers of govern30°
N
ment, and other major cities. Study
the key and compass rose of this
map. Now look at the map. Which
state is directly west of Georgia?
How many states border Canada?
Pennsylvania
TROPIC OF
R
CANCE
80° W
United States: Election 2008
N
Washington
W
Montana
E
Oregon
S
N
South
Dakota
Idaho
Vermont
Mi
Minnesota
ch
i
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Nebraska
Nevada
130° W
Utah
PACIFIC
OCEAN
Arizona
30°
N
Colorado
California
New Mexico
120° W
AR
CT
IC
C IR
CL E
Iowa
Maine
New
Hampshire
New
York Massachusetts
n
ga
40°
North
Dakota
Pennsylvania
Indiana Ohio
West
Illinois
Virginia
Virginia
Kansas
Missouri
Kentucky
North
Carolina
Tennessee
South
Oklahoma Arkansas
Carolina
Alabama
Georgia
Mississippi
Texas
Louisiana
Rhode Island
Connecticut
New Jersey
Delaware
Maryland
District of
Columbia
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
KEY
McCain
Obama
Florida
Alaska
0
0
180°
60° N 160° W
400 mi
Hawaii
20° N
400 km
160° W
140° W
Same scale
as main map
0
Gulf of Mexico
100° W
90° W
C
TROPIC OF
Special-purpose Maps
Maps can show many different kinds of information. Special-purpose
maps show the location or distribution of human or physical features. This
map shows the results of the 2008 presidential election. A highway map
is another kind of special-purpose map. Other special-purpose maps may
show a region’s weather patterns or other features. Study this map’s key.
Which presidential candidate won your home state in the 2008 election?
ANCER
80° W
Core Concepts Part 1
United States: Political
200 mi
0 200 km
Albers Conic Equal-Area
Projection
Assessment
1. What are the elements of a physical
map?
2. What are the elements of a political
map?
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