Download Fall 2016 Chapter 8 Pt. 1

 Memory
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Chapter 8
 Memory
The Phenomenon of Memory
Learning that has persisted
Memory is not defined
in terms of the length
that the learning has
persisted. We can
remember some
information for a
lifetime, but other
information for only a
few seconds.
Credit: U.S. Navy Photo by Journalist 1st Class Preston Keres
Memory is not defined
in terms of the length
that the learning has
persisted. We can
remember some
information for a
lifetime, but other
information for only a
few seconds.
Memory is the
foundation of identity
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwigmktix2Y
 Memory
Studying Memory: Information
Processing Models
Credit: Worth
To remember any event, we must get the information into
our brain (encoding), retain that information (storage),
and later get it back into consciousness (retrieval).
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Classic Model
Credits: Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works & Frank Wartenberg/The Image Works
 Memory
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Credits: Bananastock/Alamy & Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit
We use automatic
processing to encode
information such as the
sequence of the day’s
events, and the
frequency of events
such as the number of
times we run into a
friend. Automatic
processing occurs
unconsciously.
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
But for other information,
we must use effortful
processing. We must
consciously attend to
and process it to form
durable and accessible
memories.
Credits: Bananastock/Alamy & Spencer Grant/PhotoEdit
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Credit: Bettmann/Corbis
Rehearsal is a form of effortful processing that involves
conscious repetition of material. Ebbinghaus, a pioneer of
the study of memory, studied the impact of rehearsal by
teaching himself nonsense syllables (e.g., JIH, BAZ, etc.).
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Ebbinghaus found that the
more times he practiced the
list of nonsense syllables on
Day 1, the fewer repetitions
he required to relearn it on
Day 2. The bottom-line:
The more time we spend
learning novel information,
the better we learn it.
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
Credit: LWA-Dann Tardiff/Corbis
But we retain information better if our rehearsal is
distributed across time—a phenomenon called the
spacing effect.
 Memory
Encoding: Getting Information In
What We Encode
Levels of Processing
Sample Question to Elicit Processing
Word Flashed
1. Is the word in capital letters?
CHAIR
2. Does the word rhyme with train?
brain
3. Would this word fit in this sentence?
car
The girl put the ___ on the table.
How we engage information also has an impact of memory.
Encoding information in terms of its meaning (deep
processing) leads to better memory than encoding it in
terms of a superficial characteristic (shallow processing).
Levels of Processing
Organizing Information for Encoding
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Method of Loci
Organizing Information for Encoding
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
Vegetables
Starches
Salads
Dressings
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
Vegetables
Starches
Salads
Dressings
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
Vegetables
Starches
Salads
Dressings
C
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
C
Vegetables
A
Starches
Salads
Dressings
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
C
Vegetables
A
Starches
P
Salads
Dressings
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
C
Vegetables
A
Starches
P
Salads
E
Dressings
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
C
Vegetables
A
Starches
P
Salads
E
Dressings
R
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
Entrees
C
Vegetables
A
Starches
P
Salads
E
Dressings
R
+
Mnemonic–a strategy
for improving memory for
some material, which
makes use of imagery
(mental pictures) or
chunking (organizing
items into familiar,
manageable units).
Organizing Information for Encoding
“Mental Athletes”
http://www.ted.com/talks/joshua_foer_feats_of_memory_anyone_can_do?language=en
 Memory
Storage: Retaining Information
Sensory Memory
Credits: Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works & Frank Wartenberg/The Image Works
Iconic memory–sensory memory for visual information,
which lasts about 200 ms.
 Memory
Storage: Retaining Information
Working Memory
Credits: Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works & Frank Wartenberg/The Image Works
Working memory–the memory system responsible for
holding information in an active, conscious state.
Working memory has
a limited capacity
(about 7 items) and a
limited duration (about
20 seconds).
 Memory
Storage: Retaining Information
Long-Term Memory
Credits: Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works & Frank Wartenberg/The Image Works
Long-term memory–the memory system responsible for
permanent storage of information with a theoretically
limitless capacity.
However, this isn’t to say
that memories we store
in long-term memory are
always accurate! They’re
often not. Flashbulb
memories are extremely
vivid recollections of
surprising events, but
even they be inaccurate.
8:46
American Airlines, Flight 11,
crashes into WTC North
8:46
American Airlines, Flight 11,
crashes into WTC North
9:03
United Airlines, Flight 175,
crashes into WTC South
8:46
American Airlines, Flight 11,
crashes into WTC North
9:03
United Airlines, Flight 175,
crashes into WTC South
9:38
American Airlines, Flight 77,
crashes into the Pentagon
8:46
American Airlines, Flight 11,
crashes into WTC North
9:03
United Airlines, Flight 175,
crashes into WTC South
9:38
American Airlines, Flight 77,
crashes into the Pentagon
10:03
United Airlines, Flight 93,
crashes in Pennsylvania
 Memory
Storage: Retaining Information
Storing Memories in the Brain
Synaptic Changes
Source: N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25, 1999. Courtesy: Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation–the prolonged strengthening of
potential neuronal firing which provides a basis for learning
and remembering associations. Above, one receptor site
(gray) before LTP, and two receptors sites after.
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories:
What Brain Regions are Involved?
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories:
What Brain Regions are Involved?
Credit: Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
We know about what brain regions are involved in forming
new memories from brain imaging studies, as well as
observations of patients such as H.M., who had most of his
hippocampus removed.
http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97877920
 Memory
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval Cues
Credit: LWA-Dann Tardiff/Corbis
When you encode into
memory a target piece of
information, you associate
it with other bits of
information about your
surroundings, mood,
location, etc. These bits of
information can serve as
retrieval cues.
Context Effects
Credit: Fred McConnaughey/
Photo Researchers
Putting yourself back in the context where you experienced
something can prime memory retrieval (“awaken”
associations between what you are trying to recall and your
surroundings).
 Memory
Forgetting
If we remembered
everything, we should
on most occasions be
as ill off as if we
remembered nothing.
- William James
Credit: Monika Suteski
 Memory
Forgetting
Whenever I see a date flash
on the television…I
automatically go back to that
day and remember where I
was, what I was doing, what
day it fell on, and on and on
and on and on. It is nonstop, uncontrollable, and
totally exhausting.
Credit: Robert Hanashiro/USA Today
- Jill Price
http://www.youtube.com/watch_popup?v=SoxsMMV538U&vq=medium
 Memory
Forgetting
Encoding Failure
Encoding Failure
Test your memory:
Which one of these
pennies is the real
thing?
Encoding Failure
The answer is A.
Most people get this
question wrong,
indicating that much of
what we sense, we fail
to encode, and what we
fail to encode, we will
never remember.
Encoding Failure
 Memory
Forgetting
Storage Decay
Even after encoding something well, we sometimes later
forget it. Hermann Ebbinghaus, who you learned about
earlier, learned lists of non-sense syllables and then
attempted to re-learn them.
Credit: Andrew Holbrooke/Corbis
This same forgetting curve is found for other types of
material: The course of forgetting is initially rapid and levels
off with time. This could be because of decay of the
physical memory trace.
 Memory
Forgetting
Retrieval Failure
Interference
Credit: heartbeaz
Credit: LWA-Dann Tardiff/Corbis
Proactive interference occurs when something you
learned earlier disrupts your recall of something you
experience later. Retroactive interference occurs when
new information makes it harder to recall something you
learned earlier.
Interference
Interference
Sleep may provide some protection against retroactive
interference.
The bottom-line is that
forgetting can occur at
any memory stage. As
we process information,
we filter, alter, or lose
much of it.
http://www.psychology.iastate.edu/~glwells/theeyewitnesstest.html
 Memory
Memory Construction
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
A trial at the Old Bailey in London, as drawn by Thomas
Rowlandson and Augustus Pugin for Ackermann's
Microcosm of London (1808-11).
In over two thirds of the first 138 postconviction
DNA exonerations, mistaken eyewitness
identification played a major part in the
wrongful conviction. Modern technology is
proving what scientists, psychologists, and
legal scholars have noted for years:
eyewitness identification is often faulty and
is the major cause of wrongful convictions.
Identifications are even more problematic
when they are based on observations made
under stress or in less than ideal
conditions(e.g. darkness, from a distance).
Source: The Innocence Project
Source: InnocenceProject.org
Year of incident—1982 (Virginia)
Sentence—210 years
Charges—Rape, Abduction, Sodomy, Robbery
Year of Conviction—1982
Year of Exoneration—2001
Sentence Served—15 years
Real Perpetrator Found? Yes
Marvin Anderson
Because Anderson had no criminal record, the officer went to Anderson's employer
and obtained a color employment photo identification card. The victim was shown
the color identification card and a half dozen black-and-white mug shots and then
asked to pick the perpetrator. The victim identified Anderson as her assailant.
Within an hour of the photo spread, she was asked to identify her assailant from a
lineup…She identified him in the lineup as well.
Source: InnocenceProject.org
Year of incident—1984 (North Carolina)
Sentence: Life, plus 54 years
Charges—Rape
Year of Conviction—1987
Year of Exoneration—1995
Sentence Served—10.5 years
Real Perpetrator Found? Yes
Ronald Cotton
Arising from this case is the incredible story of Jennifer Thompson, the victim who
had identified Cotton. An aspiring college student at the time of the crime, she
made it her purpose to study the assailant's face so that he would be brought to
justice. She identified the wrong man. Today, Ms. Thompson speaks out about
her experiences and the dangers of relying solely upon single eyewitness testimony
to convict.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u-SBTRLoPuo&feature=fvsr
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFRiDtUbeAQ&feature=fvsr