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European Middle Ages,
500–1200
Connect History and Geography
In 771, Charlemagne took charge of the Frankish kingdom and
began building an empire. By the time of his death in 814, the
empire had reached its height. The map at the right shows
Charlemagne’s empire, and the way it was divided 29 years after
his death. Use the map to answer the questions below.
1. What bodies of water form the borders of
Charlemagne’s empire?
2. What island is part of
Charlemagne’s empire?
3. How and when was the
empire divided?
For more information about the Middle
Ages in Europe . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
From 771 to 814,
Charlemagne ruled
a vast kingdom
later called the
Holy Roman Empire.
While serving as pope from 590
to 604, Gregory the Great wore
only a monk’s robe. He humbly
called himself “the servant of
the servants of God.”
511
Clovis unites Franks
under Christian rule.
314
732 Charles
Martel stops
Muslim invasion.
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10°W
Europe About
843
20°E
0°
Scandinavians
ea
SWEDEN
S
DENMARK
North
Sea
lt
Ba
Danes
British
I sles
Baltic Peoples
SAXONY
ENGLAND
SLAVIC
STATES
Elbe
R
i ve
e
Rhi n
Aachen
R.
50°N
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
ic
EAST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
r
Slavs
Bohemians
Danu
be
(Louis the
Riv e
r
German)
BAVARIA
Paris
BRITTANY
Tours
10°W
250 Miles
0
AL
0
Avars
WEST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
Charlemagne's Empire, 814
Division by Treaty of Verdun, 843
(Charles
the Bald)
250 Kilometers
PS
LOMBARDY
Venice
CENTRAL KINGDOM
A
(Lothair)
Robinson Projection
Serbs
d
ri
PYRE
o
Ebr
40°N
Ri
ve
NE
ES
Corsica
ac
Rome
r
CALIPHATE OF
CORDOVA
Ba
lea
ric
ti
c
Se
a
Is.
20°E
Sardinia
N
Cordoba
anean
Mediterr
0°
800
Charlemagne crowned
emperor by the pope.
900s
Outside invasions spur
growth of feudalism.
Sea
Sicily
Muslim Africa
962
Otto the Great
crowned emperor.
1190
Holy Roman
Empire weakens.
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Interact with History
Y
ou are living in the countryside of western Europe during
the 1100s. Like about 90 percent of the population, you
are a peasant working the land. Your family’s hut is located in a
small village on your lord’s estate. The lord provides your basic
needs, including housing, food, and protection.
Opportunities to leave the estate are rare. Within your
lifetime, you will probably travel no more than 25 miles from
your home.
Peasants retreat behind the castle
walls during attacks.
What is good
and bad about
the small
world of a
peasant’s life?
EXAMINING
the
ISSUES
• What is secure about your world?
• How do you view the world beyond
your estate?
• How is your life limited?
• How do you cope with the many
hardships?
Peasants owe their lord two
or three days’ labor every
week farming his land.
As a class, discuss these questions. In your
discussion, think about other people who
have limited power over their lives.
As you read about the lot of European
peasants in this chapter, see how their living
arrangements determine their role in society
and shape their beliefs.
This peasant feels
the right to stay on
his lord’s land is
more important than
his freedom to leave.
316
This peasant woman
cannot marry without her
lord’s consent.
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TERMS & NAMES
Germanic Kingdoms
Unite Under Charlemagne
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Many Germanic kingdoms that
succeeded the Roman Empire were
reunited under Charlemagne’s empire.
Charlemagne spread Christian
civilization through northern Europe,
where it had a permanent impact.
•
•
•
•
•
Middle Ages
Franks
monastery
secular
Carolingian
Dynasty
• Charlemagne
SETTING THE STAGE The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in an era of
European history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It spanned from
around 500 to 1500. During these centuries, new institutions slowly emerged to
replace those of the fallen Roman Empire. Unified civilizations flourished in China
and Southwest Asia. Medieval Europe, though, remained fragmented.
Invasions Trigger Changes in Western Europe
By the end of the fifth century, invaders from many different Germanic groups overran the western half of the Roman Empire. Repeated invasions and constant warfare
sparked new trends. A series of changes altered government, economy, and culture:
• Downfall of Cities With the fall of the Roman
Empire, cities were abandoned as centers of
administration.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Recognizing
Effects How did the
fall of the Roman
Empire lead to
disorder in western
Europe?
A. Answer Strong
government vanished,
economic life was in
turmoil, cities were
abandoned, and learning declined.
• Population Shifts As Roman centers of trade and
government collapsed, nobles retreated to the rural
areas. Roman cities were left without strong leadership. Other city dwellers also fled to the countryside,
where they grew their own food. The population of
western Europe became mostly rural.
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
The Decline of Learning The Germanic invaders who
stormed Rome could not read or write. Among Roman
subjects themselves, the level of learning sank sharply as
more and more families left for rural areas. Few people
except priests and other church officials were literate.
Knowledge of Greek, long important in Roman culture, was almost lost. Few people could read Greek works
of literature, science, and philosophy. The Germanic
tribes, though, had a rich oral tradition of songs and legends. However, they had no written language.
Loss of a Common Language As German-speaking
Vocabulary
dialects: various
ways words from the
same language are
pronounced or used in
different regions.
Population of Three Roman Cities
Population (in thousands)
• Disruption of Trade Merchants faced invasions
from both land and sea. Their businesses collapsed.
The breakdown of trade destroyed Europe’s cities
as economic centers. Money became scarce.
0
Rome
Lyon
Trier
(in France)
(in Germany)
City Populations around A.D. 100
City Populations around A.D. 900
SKILLBUILDER:
Interpreting Graphs
1. How much did Rome’s population
decrease from around A.D. 100 to 900?
2. What does the bar graph suggest about
trends that occurred after the fall of the
Roman Empire?
peoples mixed with the Roman population, Latin began
to change. It was no longer understood from region to region. Different dialects developed as new words and phrases became part of everyday speech. By the 800s, French,
Spanish, and other Roman-based languages had evolved from Latin. The development
of various languages mirrored the continued breakup of a once unified empire.
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Germanic Kingdoms Emerge
In the years of upheaval between 400 and 600, small Germanic kingdoms replaced
Roman provinces. The borders of those kingdoms changed constantly with the fortunes of war. The Church was an institution that survived the fall of the Roman
Empire. During this time of political chaos, the Church provided order and security.
The Concept of Government Changes Along with shifting boundaries, the entire
concept of government changed. Loyalty to public government and written law had
unified Roman society. Family ties and personal loyalty, rather than citizenship in a
public state, bound Germanic society together. Unlike the Romans, Germanic peoples
lived in small communities. These were governed by unwritten rules and traditions.
Every Germanic chief led a band of warriors who had pledged their loyalty to him.
In peacetime, these followers lived in their lord’s hall. He gave them food, weapons,
and treasure. In battle, warriors fought to the death at their lord’s side. They considered it a disgrace to outlive him.
Germanic warriors willingly died for a leader they respected. Yet they felt no obligation to obey a king they didn’t even know. Nor would they obey an official sent to
collect taxes or administer justice in the name of an emperor they had never met. The
Germanic stress on personal ties made it impossible to establish orderly government
for large territories.
In the Roman province of Gaul, a Germanic people called the Franks held power.
Their leader, Clovis (KLOH vihs), would eventually bring Christianity to this region.
•
The Franks Under Clovis Clovis’s wife, Clothilde, urged him to convert to her faith.
She believed in a traditional form of Christianity. In 496 Clovis led his warriors into
battle against another Germanic army. Fearing
defeat, Clovis appealed to the Christian God.
“For I have called on my gods,” he prayed, “but
I find they are far from my aid . . . Now I call on
Thee. I long to believe in Thee. Only, please
deliver me from my enemies.” The tide of the
battle shifted and the Franks triumphed.
Afterward, Clovis and 3,000 of his warriors
asked a bishop to baptize them.
The Church in Rome welcomed Clovis’s conversion and supported his military campaigns
against other Germanic peoples. By 511, Clovis
had united the Franks into one kingdom. The
strategic alliance between Clovis’s Frankish kingdom and the Church marked the beginning of a
special partnership between two powerful forces.
This ivory carving
shows Clovis’s
conversion to
Christianity in 496.
A bishop baptizes
him as his wife,
Clothilde, looks on.
Germanic Peoples Adopt Christianity
Politics played a key role in spreading Christianity. By 600, the Church, with the help
of Frankish rulers, had converted many Germanic peoples. These new converts had
settled in Rome’s former lands.
Missionaries also succeeded in spreading Christianity. These religious travelers
often risked their lives to advance their beliefs. During the fourth and fifth centuries,
they worked among the Germanic and Celtic groups that bordered the Roman
Empire. In southern Europe, the fear of coastal attacks by Muslims also spurred
many people to become Christians.
Monasteries and Convents To adapt to rural conditions, the Church built religious
communities called monasteries. There Christian men called monks gave up all their
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Background
Convents gave unmarried women opportunities for learning that
were unavailable to
them in the outside
world.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences What
valuable role did
monasteries play during this time of
chaos?
B. Possible
Answers
Represented an
orderly, religious way
of life; kept learning
alive.
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private possessions. Monks became servants of God. Nuns, women ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■
who also followed this religious way of life, lived in convents.
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Around 520, Benedict, an Italian monk, began writing a book
describing a strict yet practical set of rules for monasteries. Benedict’s
sister, Scholastica (skuh LAS tik uh), headed a convent. There she
adapted the same rules for women. These guidelines became a
model for many other religious communities in western Europe.
Monks and nuns devoted their lives to prayer and good works.
Monasteries also became Europe’s best-educated communities.
Monks opened schools, maintained libraries, and copied books. In
731, Venerable Bede, an English monk, wrote a history of England.
Scholars still consider it the best historical work of the early Middle
Ages. In the 600s and 700s, monks made beautiful copies of religious
writings, decorated with ornate letters and brilliant pictures. The
Benedict
480?–543
monks’ illuminated manuscripts preserved at least part of Rome’s
At 15, Benedict left school and hiked
intellectual heritage.
•
•
•
up to the Sabine Hills, where he
lived in a cave as a hermit. After
learning about Benedict’s deep
religious conviction, a group of other
monks persuaded Benedict to lead
their monastery. Benedict declared:
Gregory I Expands Papal Power In 590, Gregory I, also called
Gregory the Great, became pope. As head of the Church in Rome,
Gregory broadened the authority of the papacy, or pope’s office,
beyond its spiritual role. Under Gregory, the papacy also became a
secular, or worldly, power involved in politics. The pope’s palace was
the center of Roman government. Gregory used Church revenues to
raise armies, repair roads, and help the poor. He also negotiated
peace treaties with invaders such as the Lombards. Gregory had
begun to act as the mayor of Rome. Yet his influence extended
beyond the city’s boundaries.
According to Gregory, the entire region from Italy to England,
from Spain to western Germany, fell under his responsibility.
Gregory strengthened the vision of Christendom. It was a spiritual
kingdom that fanned out from Rome to the most distant churches.
This idea of a churchly kingdom, ruled by a pope, would become a
central theme of the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, secular rulers set
their sights on expanding their own political kingdoms.
We must prepare our hearts
and bodies for combat under
holy obedience to the divine
commandments. . . . We are
therefore going to establish a
school in which one may learn
the service of the Lord.
In his book describing the rules
for monastic life, Benedict
emphasized a balance between
work and study. Such guidelines
turned monasteries into centers of
order, stability, and learning.
A European Empire Evolves
After the Roman Empire dissolved, small kingdoms sprang up all over Europe. For
example, England splintered into seven tiny kingdoms. Some of them were no larger
than the state of Connecticut. The Franks controlled the largest and strongest of
Europe’s kingdoms in an area that was formerly the Roman province of Gaul. The
Franks’ first Christian king, Clovis, laid down the foundations for this kingdom.
By the time Clovis died in 511, he had extended his rule over most of what is now
France. Clovis greatly strengthened the Merovingian (mehr uh VIHN jee uhn) Dynasty,
which was named after his legendary ancestor.
•
•
•
•
Clovis’s Descendants By 700, an official known as the major domo, or mayor of the
palace, had become the most powerful person in the kingdom. Officially, the mayor of
the palace had charge of the royal household and estates. Unofficially, he commanded
armies and made policy. In effect, the mayor of the palace ruled the kingdom.
In 719, a mayor of the palace named Charles Martel (Charles the Hammer) held
more power than the king. Charles Martel extended the Franks’ reign to the north,
south, and east. He also defeated a Muslim raiding party from Spain at the Battle of
Tours in 732. The outcome of this battle held great significance for Christian
Europeans. If the Muslims had won, western Europe might have become a part of
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800 Pope Leo III
crowns Charlemagne
(below) emperor.
Frankish Rule
730
740
732 Charles Martel defeats the
Muslims at the Battle of Tours.
760
751 Pepin the Short becomes the
first king ever anointed by the pope.
780
800
771 Charlemagne becomes the
sole king of the Franks and continues his conquest of Europe.
the Muslim Empire. Charles Martel’s victory at the Battle of Tours halted the
Muslim invasion. This conquest made him a Christian hero.
At his death, Charles Martel passed on his power to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepin
wanted to become king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of the
Church, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards. They were invading central Italy and
threatening Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin “king by the grace of God.”
Thus began the reign of Frankish rulers called the Carolingian (kar uh LIHN juhn)
Dynasty. It lasted from 751 to 987.
•
•
•
Charlemagne Extends Frankish Rule Pepin the Short died in 768. He left a greatly
strengthened Frankish kingdom to his two sons, Carloman and Charles. After
Carloman’s death in 771, Charles, known as Charlemagne (SHAHR luh mayn), or
Charles the Great, quickly seized control of the entire kingdom.
Charlemagne was an imposing figure. He stood six feet four inches tall. His admiring secretary, a monk named Einhard, described Charlemagne’s achievements:
•
•
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
[Charlemagne] was the most potent prince with the greatest skill and success in different countries during the forty-seven years of his reign. Great and powerful as was the
realm of Franks, Karl [Charlemagne] received from his father Pippin, he nevertheless so
splendidly enlarged it . . . that he almost doubled it.
EINHARD, from Life of Charlemagne
Charlemagne Takes Center Stage
Charlemagne built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. Each summer Charlemagne led his armies against the enemies that surrounded his kingdom.
He fought the Muslims in Spain and tribes from other Germanic kingdoms.
Charlemagne conquered new lands to both the south and the east. Through these
conquests, Charlemagne spread Christianity. He reunited western Europe for the first
time since the Roman Empire. By 800, the Carolingian empire exceeded the
Byzantine Empire. It included two-thirds of Italy, all of present-day France, a small
part of Spain, and all of German Saxony. Charlemagne had become the most powerful
king in western Europe.
In 800, Charlemagne traveled to Rome to crush an unruly mob that had attacked
the pope. In gratitude, Pope Leo III crowned him emperor. The coronation was historic. A pope had claimed the political right to confer the title “Roman Emperor” on a
European king. This event signaled the joining of Germanic power, the Church, and
the heritage of the Roman Empire.
Charlemagne’s Government Charlemagne strengthened his royal power by limit-
ing the authority of the nobles. To govern his empire, Charlemagne sent out royal
agents. They made sure that the powerful landholders, called counts, governed their
counties justly. Charlemagne also regularly visited every part of his kingdom. He
320 Chapter 13
Background
After his successful
military campaign in
Italy, Pepin gave the
conquered territory
around Rome to the
pope. This gift of land
was called the Papal
States.
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Charlemagne's Empire, 768–843
820
8°W
Frankish Kingdom before
Charlemagne, 768
Areas conquered by
Charlemagne, 814
Division by Treaty
of Verdun, 843
840
813 Louis the Pious inherits the throne from
Charlemagne.
50°N
North
Sea
0
R.
ENGLAND
R h i ne
R.
EAST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
Tours
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
WEST
FRANKISH
KINGDOM
(Charles
the Bald)
(Louis
the German)
SLAVIC
STATES
Danube R.
CENTRAL
KINGDOM Pavia
(Lothair)
42°N
ro
Eb
Corsica
R.
Cultural Revival One of Charlemagne’s
C. Evaluating What
were Charlemagne’s
most notable achievements?
C. Answer Reuniting
Western Europe for
the first time since the
Roman Empire,
spreading Christianity,
encouraging learning,
governing effectively.
500 Kilometers
Elbe
Aachen
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
250 Miles
0
Paris
judged cases, settled disputes, and
rewarded faithful followers. He also kept
a close watch on the management of his
huge estates. They were the source of
Carolingian wealth and power.
16°E
843 Treaty of Verdun divides
Charlemagne’s empire among
his three grandsons.
8°E
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PAPAL
STATES
Mediterranean
SPAIN
greatest accomplishments was his encourRome
Sea
agement of learning. Charlemagne surrounded himself with English, German,
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER:
Italian, and Spanish scholars. For his
Interpreting Maps
many sons and daughters and other chil1. Region By 814, what was the extent of Charlemagne’s
dren at the court, Charlemagne opened a
empire (north to south, east to west)?
2. Region Based on the map, why did the Treaty of
palace school. He ordered monasteries to
Verdun signal the decline of Charlemagne’s empire?
open schools that trained future monks
and priests. Monasteries expanded their
libraries. Monks labored to make handwritten copies of Latin books.
Charlemagne’s Heirs Are Weak Rulers A year before Charlemagne died in 814,
he crowned his only surviving son, Louis the Pious, as emperor. Louis was a devoutly
religious man. He might have fared better as a monk. Louis proved an ineffective ruler.
Louis left three sons: Lothair (loh THAIR), Charles the Bald, and Louis the German.
Louis’s sons fought one another for the empire. The civil war ended in 843 when the
brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun. This pact divided Charlemagne’s empire into
three kingdoms. After the treaty, Carolingian kings lost power. As central authority
broke down, the lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding.
•
Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Middle Ages
• Franks
• monastery
• secular
• Carolingian Dynasty
• Charlemagne
2. TAKING NOTES
Create a chart like the one below
to summarize how each person
listed helped spread Christianity.
Method of
Spreading Christianity
Clovis
Benedict
Gregory I
Charles Martel
Charlemagne
3. SYNTHESIZING
4. ANALYZING THEMES
After the fall of the Roman Empire,
learning declined. How was this
trend offset during the early
Middle Ages?
Empire Building How does
THINK ABOUT
THINK ABOUT
• the establishment of
monasteries
• Charlemagne’s accomplishments
• the extent of the empire
• the spread of Christianity
• how long each empire endured
Charlemagne’s empire in medieval
Europe compare with the Roman
Empire?
Which of these people do you
think was the most influential in
spreading Christianity? Why?
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Feudalism in Europe
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Europeans developed feudalism, a
political and military system of
protective alliances and relationships.
The rights and duties of feudal
relationships helped shape today’s
forms of representative government.
TERMS & NAMES
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
lord
fief
vassal
knight
serf
manor
tithe
SETTING THE STAGE After the Treaty of Verdun, Charlemagne’s three feuding
grandsons broke up the kingdom even further. Part of this territory also became a
battleground as new waves of invaders attacked Europe. The political turmoil and
constant warfare led to the rise of feudalism—a military and political system based on
land ownership and personal loyalty.
New Invasions Trouble Western Europe
Between 800 and 1000, invasions completely destroyed the Carolingian Empire.
Muslim invaders from the south seized Sicily and raided Italy. They sacked Rome in
846. Magyar invaders struck from the east. Like the earlier Huns and Avars, the
Magyar warriors terrorized Germany and Italy. And from the north sailed the most
dreaded attackers of all—the Vikings.
Vikings: Raiders, Traders, and Explorers The Vikings set sail from a wintry,
wooded region called Scandinavia (skan duh NAY vee uh). The Vikings, a Germanic
people, were also called Northmen or Norsemen. They worshiped warlike gods. The
Vikings took pride in nicknames like Eric Bloodaxe and Thorfinn Skullsplitter.
The Vikings carried out their raids with terrifying speed. Clutching swords and heavy
wooden shields, these helmeted warriors beached their ships. They struck and then
quickly shoved out to sea again. By the time local troops arrived, the Vikings were gone.
Viking warships were awesome. The largest of these long ships held 300 warriors.
They took turns rowing the ship’s 72 oars. The prow of each ship swept grandly upward,
often ending with the carved head of a sea monster. A ship might weigh 20 tons when
fully loaded. Yet it could sail in a mere three feet of water. Rowing up shallow creeks,
the Vikings looted inland villages and monasteries.
The Vikings were not only warriors but also traders,
farmers, and outstanding explorers. Vikings ventured far
beyond western Europe. They journeyed down rivers into
the heart of Russia, to Constantinople, and even across
the icy waters of the North Atlantic. A Viking explorer
named Leif (leef) Ericson most likely reached North
America around 1000, almost 500 years before Columbus.
About the same time Ericson reached the Americas,
the Viking terror in Europe faded away. As Vikings gradually accepted Christianity, they stopped raiding monasteries. Also, a warming trend in Europe’s climate made
farming easier in Scandinavia. As agricultural settlements
in Iceland and Greenland prospered, fewer Scandinavians
adopted the seafaring life of Viking warriors.
•
This curled
oak prow is a
model of a magnificent Viking ship found
in Oseberg, Norway.
Up to 30 Vikings rowed
such ships, which
were over 70 feet
long.
322
•
•
•
Background
The Vikings in Russia,
called Varangians,
settled down to
become traders and
nation builders. Their
earlier invasions of
Russia led to the
establishment of the
first Russian state, in
the mid-800s. (See
Chapter 11.)
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To Iceland
Viking invasion routes
58°
Magyar invasion routes
N
Muslim invasion routes
Viking areas
Magyar areas
Muslim areas
V o l g a R.
SCANDINAVIA
North
Sea
a
W. D
Se
50°
Age of Invasions, 700–1000
N
IRELAND
vi n a
R.
ENGLAND
R.
London
Rhône R
.
NE
ES
CALIPHATE
OF CÓRDOBA
E
CAR
PAT
H
S
LP
Ca
IA
N
M
Genoa
Pisa
Corsica
Black
Rome
Med
8° E
Sea
Crete
40°E
ean
32°E
ra n
24°E
0°
Sicily
iter
16°E
8°W
500 Miles
1,000 Kilometers
S
48°E
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
0
n
Constantinople
N
0
ia
Sea
Sardinia
34°
sp
S.
RE
A
b e R.
T
PY
anu
ea
FRANCE
R.
.
IN
RH
UN
RG
BU
Tours
Volg
a
Kiev
Aachen
Rhin LAND
eR
R.
DY
Paris
ine
D
N
Se
42°
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
RUSSIA
ieper
Dn
tic
Bal
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
1. Location What lands did the Vikings raid?
2. Movement Why were the Viking, Magyar, and Muslim invasions so threatening to Europe?
Magyars and Muslims As the Viking invasions declined, Europe became the target
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Recognizing
Effects What was
the impact of Viking,
Magyar, and Muslim
invasions on medieval
Europe?
A. Answer Left villages and monasteries in ruins; weakened
authority of central
rulers; spurred people
to rely on local leaders for protection
of new assaults. The Magyars, a group of nomadic people, attacked from the east.
They were superb horseback riders. The Magyars swept across the plains of the
Danube River and invaded western Europe in the late 800s. The Magyars did not settle conquered land. Instead, they captured people to sell as slaves. They attacked isolated villages and monasteries. The Magyars overran northern Italy and reached as far
west as the Rhineland and Burgundy.
The Muslims struck from the south. From there, they controlled the Mediterranean
Sea, and disrupted trade. In the 600s and 700s, the Muslims tried to conquer and settle in Europe. By the 800s and 900s, their goal was also plunder. The Muslims were
excellent sailors. They attacked settlements on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts
and as far inland as Switzerland.
The invasions of Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder and
suffering. Most western Europeans were living in constant danger. Central authority
proved powerless. They no longer looked to a central ruler for security. Instead, many
turned to local rulers with their own armies. Leaders who could fight the invaders
attracted followers and gained political strength.
Feudalism Structures Society
In 911, two former enemies faced each other in a peace ceremony. Rollo was the
head of a Viking army. He had been plundering the rich Seine (sayn) River valley for
years. Charles the Simple was the king of France but held little power. Charles
granted the Viking leader a huge piece of French territory. It became known as
Northmen’s land, or Normandy. In return, Rollo placed his hands between the king’s
hands and swore a pledge of loyalty.
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A New Social Order The worst years of the invaders’ attacks roughly spanned from
850 to 950. During this time, rulers and warriors like Charles and Rollo made similar
agreements in many parts of Europe. The system of governing and landholding called
feudalism had emerged in Europe. A similar feudal system existed in China under the
Zhou Dynasty that ruled from around the 11th century B.C. until 256 b.c. Feudalism
in Japan began in a.d. 1192 and ended in the 19th century.
The feudal system was based on mutual obligations. In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief. The person receiving a fief was called a vassal. Charles the Simple, the lord, and Rollo, the
vassal, showed how this two-sided bargain worked. Feudalism depended on the control of land.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Summarizing
What are the key
characteristics of
feudalism?
B. Answer System
of government based
on landholding;
alliances based on
loyalty, military service, and land grants
The Feudal Pyramid To visualize the structure of feudal society, think of a pyramid.
At the peak reigned the king. Next came the most powerful vassals—wealthy
landowners such as nobles and bishops. Serving beneath these vassals were knights.
Knights were mounted warriors who pledged to defend their lords’ lands in exchange
for fiefs. At the base of the pyramid were landless peasants who toiled in the fields.
Peasants
Peasants
Knights
Knights
Church
Official
Noble
King
In practice, the feudal system did not work so simply. Relationships between various
lords and their vassals were never clear-cut. The same noble might be a vassal to several different lords. The feudal pyramid often became a complex tangle of conflicting
loyalties. Both lords and vassals tried to use these relationships to their own advantage.
Social Classes Are Well Defined In the feudal system, status determined a per-
son’s prestige and power. Medieval writers classified people into three groups: those
who fought (nobles and knights), those who prayed (men and women of the Church),
and those who worked (the peasants). Social class was usually inherited.
In Europe during the Middle Ages, the vast majority of people were peasants. Most
peasants were serfs. Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place where
they were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves. Their lords could not
sell or buy them. The wealth of the feudal lords came from the labor of peasants.
324 Chapter 13
Vocabulary
status: social
ranking.
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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Fine Ar t
This medieval painting shows a noble
and two workmen who live on a manor.
During the Middle Ages, “fashion
police” made sure that people dressed
according to their social class.
Peasants could not lawfully wear the
clothes of a noble.
Connect
to History
Contrasting How does the
clothing of the three people in
the painting reflect their status
and responsibilities in medieval
society?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R20
Connect
to Today
Comparing How would you
visually show that today’s styles,
especially among teenagers, blur
the distinctions among various
social classes?
March: Two Workmen in a Garden by Simon Bening (about 1515)
Manors: The Economic Side of Feudalism
Background
Farming was the chief
economic activity during the Middle Ages.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Analyzing
Causes How might
the decline of trade
during the early
Middle Ages have
contributed to the
self-sufficiency of the
manor system?
C. Answer The limited amount of outside goods available
led to communities
that produced everything they needed.
The manor was the lord’s estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor system was the
basic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obligations between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, strips of
farmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lord’s lands, cared
for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate. Peasant women
shared in the farmwork with their husbands. All peasants, whether free or serf, owed
the lord certain duties. These included at least a few days’ labor each week and a certain portion of their grain.
A Self-Contained World Peasants rarely traveled more than 25 miles from their
own manor. By standing in the center of a plowed field, they could see their entire
world at a glance. A manor usually covered only a few square miles of land. It typically
consisted of the lord’s manor house, a church, and workshops. Generally, 15 to 30
families lived in the village on a manor. Fields, pastures, and forests surrounded the
village. Sometimes a stream wound through the manor. Streams and ponds provided
fish, which served as an important source of food.
The manor was largely a self-sufficient community. The serfs and peasants raised or
produced nearly everything that they and their lord needed for daily life—crops, fuel,
cloth, leather goods, and lumber. The only outside purchases were salt, iron, and a
few unusual objects such as millstones. These huge stones were used to grind flour.
The Harshness of Manor Life For the privilege of living on the lord’s land, peasants paid a high price. They paid a tax on all grain ground in the lord’s mill. Any
attempt to dodge taxes by baking bread elsewhere was treated as a crime. Peasants
also paid a tax on marriage. Weddings could take place only with the lord’s consent.
After all these payments to the lord, peasant families owed the village priest a tithe,
or church tax. A tithe represented one-tenth of their income.
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Fallow Field
A Medieval Manor
Forest
Spring Planting
Field
Fall Planting
Field
Serfs’ Cottages
This diagram shows
the arrangement of
a typical medieval
manor. These selfcontained communities dotted the
countryside
throughout western
Europe. Manors
included farmland
usually ranging in
size from 900 to
3,000 acres.
Pond
Meadow
Church
Blacksmith
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Making
Inferences What
does this excerpt suggest about the problems peasant families
faced?
Oven
Well
Orchard
Mill
D. Possible
Answers Hunger,
poverty, underfed children
Lord’s Manor House
Serfs lived in crowded cottages with only one or two rooms. They warmed their
dirt-floor houses by bringing pigs inside. At night the family huddled on a pile of
straw that often crawled with insects. Peasants’ simple diet consisted mainly of vegetables, coarse brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup.
Piers Plowman, written by William Langland in 1362, reveals the hard life of
English peasants:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
What by spinning they save, they spend it in house-hire,
Both in milk and in meal to make a mess of porridge,
To cheer up their children who chafe for their food,
And they themselves suffer surely much hunger
And woe in the winter, with waking at nights
And rising to rock an oft restless cradle
WILLIAM LANGLAND, Piers Plowman
Despite the hardships they endured, serfs accepted their lot in life as part of the
Church’s teachings. They, like most Christians during medieval times, believed that
God determined a person’s place in society.
Section 2 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• lord
• fief
• vassal
• knight
• serf
• manor
• tithe
2. TAKING NOTES
Create a cause-and-effect chart
like the one below. Show the
reasons why feudalism developed
and its consequences.
Causes
Rise of
Feudalism
Effects
326 Chapter 13
3. EVALUATING
What benefits do you think a
medieval manor provided to the
serfs who lived there? What were
the drawbacks?
THINK ABOUT
• the duties and rights of serfs
• serfs’ living conditions
• the diagram of the medieval
manor on this page
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Power and Authority Work
with a partner to draw up a
contract between a lord and a
vassal, such as a knight, or
between the lord of a manor and a
serf. Include the responsibilities,
obligations, and rights of each
party. Refer to information
mentioned in the text.
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The Age of Chivalry
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The code of chivalry for knights
glorified combat and romantic love.
Chivalry has shaped modern ideas of
romance in Western cultures.
TERMS & NAMES
• chivalry
• tournament
• troubadour
SETTING THE STAGE During the Middle Ages, nobles constantly fought one another.
Their feuding kept Europe in a fragmented state for centuries. Through warfare, feudal lords defended their estates, seized new territories, and increased their wealth.
Lords and their armies lived in a violent society that prized combat skills. By the
1100s, a code of behavior arose. High ideals guided warriors’ actions and glorified
their roles.
Background
The Muslims who
invaded Spain in the
700s and established
a civilization there
were called Moors.
Warriors on Horseback
Mounted soldiers became valuable in combat during the reign of Charlemagne’s
grandfather, Charles Martel, in the 700s. Charles Martel had observed that the
Muslim cavalry often turned the tide of battles. As a result, he organized Frankish
troops of armored horsemen, or knights.
Saddles and Stirrups The leather saddle was developed on the Asian steppes
around 200 b.c. Stirrups were developed in India around the same time. Both
changed the technology of warfare in Europe during the 700s. The saddle kept a warrior firmly seated on a moving horse. Stirrups allowed him to stand up while riding
and to maneuver heavier weapons. Without stirrups to brace him, a charging warrior
was likely to topple off his own horse.
Frankish knights, galloping full tilt, could knock over enemy foot soldiers and riders
on horseback. Gradually, mounted knights became the most important part of an army.
The horses they owned were status symbols. Warhorses played a key military role.
The Warrior’s Role in Feudal Society By the 11th century, western Europe was a
battleground of warring nobles vying for power. To defend their territories, feudal lords
raised private armies. In exchange for military service, feudal lords used their most
abundant resource—land. They rewarded knights, their most skilled warriors, with fiefs
from their sprawling estates. Wealth from these fiefs allowed knights to devote their
lives to war. Knights could afford to pay for costly weapons, armor, and warhorses.
As the lord’s vassal, a knight’s main obligation was to serve in battle. From each of
his knights, a lord typically demanded about 40 days of mounted combat each year.
Knights’ pastimes also often revolved around training for war. Wrestling and hunting
helped knights gain strength and practice the skills they would need on the battlefield.
These two-inch
high iron spikes,
called caltrops,
were strewn over
a battlefield or in
front of a castle.
They could maim
galloping warhorses
or enemy foot
soldiers.
2 inches
0
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Education of a Knight
PAGE The education of a young noble began early.
At age 7, his parents sent him off to the castle of
another lord. As a page, he waited on his hosts and
learned courtly manners. He played chess to
learn war strategies. To develop fighting
skills, the page practiced sword fighting.
KNIGHT At around age 21, a squire became
a full-fledged knight. An English squire
might have heard his lord say these words
during the knighting ceremony: “In the
name of God, Saint Michael, and Saint
George, I dub thee knight. Be valiant.”
SQUIRE At around age 14, the page was
raised to the rank of squire. A squire acted
as a servant to a knight. The squire took
care of the knight’s armor, weapons, and
warhorse. The squire also escorted the
knight to battles.
Knighthood and Chivalry
Early in the Middle Ages, knights were expected to display courage in battle and loyalty to their lord. By the 1100s, the code of chivalry (SHIHV uhl ree), a complex set
of ideals, demanded that a knight fight bravely in defense of three masters. He
devoted himself to his earthly feudal lord, his heavenly Lord, and his chosen lady. The
chivalrous knight also protected the weak and the poor. The ideal knight was loyal,
brave, and courteous. Most knights, though, failed to meet these high standards. They
treated the lower classes brutally.
A cowardly knight who disregarded the code of chivalry faced public shame. First,
his armor was stripped off, and his shield was cracked. Next, his spurs were cut off, and
his sword was broken over his head. People then threw the knight into a coffin and
dragged him to church. There a priest would chant a mock funeral service.
•
•
War Games for Glory Sons of nobles began training for knighthood at an early age
and learned the code of chivalry. After being dubbed a knight, most young men traveled with companions for a year or two. The young knights gained experience fighting
in local wars. Some knights took part in mock battles called tournaments.
Tournaments combined recreation with combat training. Two armies of knights
charged each other. Trumpets blared, and lords and ladies cheered. Like real battles,
tournaments were fierce and bloody competitions. Winners could usually demand
large ransoms from defeated knights.
Background
The word chivalry
comes from the
French words cheval
(horse) and chevalier
(horse-riding knight).
A. Possible
Answers Contests
of athletic skill; large,
cheering audiences;
financial profit for the
winners
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Comparing How
do medieval tournaments resemble
modern sports
competitions?
Brutal Reality of Warfare The small-scale violence of tournaments did not match
the bloodshed of actual battles, especially those fought at castles. By the 1100s, stone
castles were encircled by massive walls and guard towers. These castles dominated
much of the countryside in western Europe. The castle was the home of the lord and
lady, their family, knights and other men-at-arms, and servants. It also was a fortress,
designed for defense.
A castle under siege was a gory sight. Attacking armies used a wide range of strategies and weapons to force castle residents to surrender. Defenders of a castle poured
boiling water, hot oil, or molten lead on enemy soldiers. Expert archers were stationed
on the roof of the castle. Armed with crossbows, they fired deadly bolts that could
pierce full armor.
328 Chapter 13
Vocabulary
siege: a military
blockade staged by
enemy armies trying
to capture a fortress.
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&TECHNOLOGY
Castles and Siege Weapons
Attacking armies carefully planned how to capture a castle. Engineers would inspect
the castle walls for weak points in the stone. Then enemy soldiers would try to ram
the walls, causing them to collapse. At the battle site, attackers often constructed the
heavy and clumsy weapons shown here.
Siege Tower
• had a platform on top that
lowered like a drawbridge
• could support weapons
and soldiers
Trebuchet
• worked like a
giant slingshot
• propelled objects
up to a distance
of 980 feet
Battering Ram
• made of heavy timber
with a sharp metal tip
• swung like a pendulum to
crack castle walls or to
knock down drawbridge
Mantlet
• shielded soldiers
Tortoise
• moved slowly on wheels
• sheltered soldiers from
falling arrows
An Array of High-Flying Missiles
Using the trebuchet, enemy soldiers launched a wide
variety of missiles over the castle walls:
• pots of burning lime
• boulders
• severed human heads
• captured soldiers
• diseased cows
• dead horses
Connect
to History
Making Inferences How do
these siege weapons show that
their designers knew the architecture of a castle well?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R16
Connect
Mangonel
• flung huge rocks that
crashed into castle walls
• propelled objects up to a
distance of 1,300 feet
to Today
Researching Modern technology
has made warfare far less personal
than it was during the Middle Ages.
Find examples of recent weapons.
Describe how they affect the way
war is conducted.
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The Literature of Chivalry
In the 1100s, the themes of medieval literature downplayed the brutality of knighthood and feudal warfare. Many stories idealized castle life. They glorified knighthood
and chivalry, tournaments and real battles. Songs and poems about a knight’s undying
love for a lady were also popular.
Epic Poetry Feudal lords and their ladies enjoyed listening to epic poems. These
poems recounted a hero’s deeds and adventures. Many epics retold stories about legendary heroes of the early Middle Ages, such as King Arthur and Charlemagne.
The Song of Roland is one of the earliest and most famous medieval
epic poems. It praises a band of French soldiers who perished in
battle during Charlemagne’s reign. The poem transforms the
event into a struggle. A few brave French knights led by Roland
battle an overwhelming army of Muslims from Spain. Roland’s
friend, Turpin the Archbishop, stands as a shining example of
medieval ideals. Turpin represents courage, faith, and chivalry:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
And now there comes the Archbishop.
He spurs his horse, goes up into a mountain,
summons the French; and he preached them a sermon:
“Barons, my lords, [Charlemagne] left us in this place.
We know our duty: to die like good men for our King.
Fight to defend the holy Christian faith.”
Medieval musicians
often played a harp
or a lute, like the
one shown here, to
accompany recitals
of poems
celebrating
warrior-heroes.
from The Song of Roland
Love Poems and Songs Under the code of chivalry, a knight’s
duty to his lady became as important as his duty to his lord. In many
medieval poems, the hero’s difficulties resulted
CONNECT to TODAY from a conflict between those two obligations.
Troubadours were poet-musicians at the castles
Modern Love Songs
and courts of Europe. They composed short verses and
Many love songs played on the
songs about the joys and sorrows of romantic love. Sometimes
radio or cable TV share similarities
troubadours sang their own verses in the castles of their lady. They
with the love songs of troubadours
also sent roving minstrels to carry their songs to courts.
from the 1100s and 1200s. Modern
lyrics echo themes featured in
A troubadour might sing about love’s disappointments: “My
troubadours’ songs—happiness and
loving heart, my faithfulness, myself, my world she deigns to take/ Then
heartbreaks, devoted lovers and
leave me bare and comfortless to longing thoughts that ever wake.”
unfaithful lovers, trust and jealousy.
Other songs told of lovesick knights who adored ladies they would
The titles of modern love songs
probably never win: “Love of a far-off land/For you my heart is
reflect the legacy of medieval
troubadours’ songs. Here are some
aching/And I can find no relief.” The code of chivalry promoted a
examples:
false image of knights. In turn, these love songs created an artificial
• “Heartbreaker”
image of women. In the troubadour’s eyes, noblewomen were always
• ”True Love”
beautiful and pure.
• “Your Cheatin’ Heart”
The most celebrated woman of the age was Eleanor of Aquitaine
• “Power of Love”
(1122–1204). Troubadours flocked to her court in the French duchy
• “Can’t Help Falling in Love”
of Aquitaine. Later, as queen of England, Eleanor was the mother of
Richard the Lion-Hearted and King John. Richard himself composed
romantic songs and poems. Eleanor’s daughter, Marie of Champagne, turned love into
a subject of study like logic or law. She presided at a famed Court of Love. Troubled
lovers came there to air their grievances.
330 Chapter 13
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences How
was the code of
chivalry like the idea
of romantic love?
B. Possible Answer
Both presented distorted, unrealistic
images of men and
women.
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The Shifting Role of Women
MS Bruxelles, B.R. 9961–62, fol. 91v. Copyright Bibliothèque Royale Albert Ier, Brussels, Belgium.
The Church viewed women as inferior to men. In contrast, the idea of romantic love
placed noblewomen on a pedestal where they could be worshipped. A true knight
pledged to protect all women. He also might love, serve, and adore a particular lady,
preferably from afar.
Yet as feudalism developed across western Europe, women’s status actually
declined. Their roles became increasingly
limited to the home and convent.
For the vast majority of women life remained
unchanged for centuries. During the Middle Ages,
most women were still poor and powerless. Their
roles were confined to performing endless labor,
bearing children, and taking care of their families.
Women in Power Under the feudal system, a
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Summarizing
What privileges did
noblewomen have in
medieval society?
C. Answer Respect
and admiration,
power to inherit her
husband’s estate, and,
with his consent, send
his knights to war.
noblewoman could inherit an estate from her husband. Upon her lord’s request, she could also send
his knights to war. When her husband was off
fighting, the lady of a medieval castle might act as
military commander and a warrior. Noblewomen
often played a key role in defending castles. They
hurled rocks and fired arrows at attackers. Some
women even dressed in armor, mounted
warhorses, and mobilized a cavalry of knights.
However, unlike knights, women were not eligible to receive land as reward in exchange for
military service. Women also held less property.
Lords passed down their fiefs to their sons, not
their daughters.
Women’s Falling Status As the Middle Ages
progressed, noblewomen wielded less real power
than they had in earlier years. Eleanor of Aquitaine was a notable exception. As
queen of England, she ruled at times for her husband, Henry II, and later for her
sons, Richard and John. Few other women had such authority.
The Church played a part in medieval women’s declining fortunes. The Church
tried to regain control of religious appointments and organizations. It reclaimed convents and monasteries that noblewomen had founded or supported. As you will read
in Section 4, the influence of the Church was far-reaching.
Knights were not
the only warriors
glorified in medieval
paintings. These
noblewomen show
their courage and
combat skills in
defending a castle
against enemies.
Section 3 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• chivalry
• tournament
• troubadour
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a web diagram like the one
below, show ideas associated
with chivalry.
3. FORMING OPINIONS
Do you think the idea of romantic
love helped or hindered women?
Why?
THINK ABOUT
chivalry
• pros and cons of placing women
on a “pedestal”
• the Church’s view of women
• the lyrics of love songs quoted in
the text
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Religious and Ethical
Systems What positive effects
might the code of chivalry have
had on feudal society?
THINK ABOUT
•
•
•
•
the ideals of chivalry
the education of a knight
the importance of religious faith
the violence and constant
warfare during the Middle Ages
Which have remnants in today’s
society? Explain.
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The Church
Wields Power
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
Church leaders and political leaders
competed for power and authority.
Today many religious leaders still
voice their opinions on political issues.
TERMS & NAMES
•
•
•
•
clergy
sacrament
canon law
Holy Roman
Empire
• lay investiture
SETTING THE STAGE Amid the weak central governments in feudal Europe, the
Church emerged as a powerful institution. It shaped the lives of people from all social
classes. As the Church expanded its political role, strong rulers began to question the
pope’s authority. Dramatic power struggles unfolded in the Holy Roman Empire—
the scene of mounting tensions between popes and emperors.
The Scope of Church Authority
In crowning Charlemagne emperor in 800, the Church sought to influence both spiritual and political matters. Three hundred years earlier, Pope Gelasius I recognized
the conflicts that could arise between the two great forces—the Church and the
state. He wrote, “There are two powers by which this world is chiefly ruled: the
sacred authority of the priesthood and the authority of kings.”
Gelasius suggested an analogy to solve such conflicts. God had created
two symbolic swords. One sword was religious. The other was political.
The pope held a spiritual sword. The emperor wielded a political one.
Gelasius thought that the pope should bow to the emperor in political
matters. In turn, the emperor should bow to the pope in religious matters. If each ruler kept the authority in his own realm, Gelasius suggested, the two leaders could share power in harmony.
In reality, though, the Church and state disagreed on the boundaries of either realm. Clashes erupted throughout the Middle Ages.
The Church and various European governments competed for power.
This jeweled tiara,
which a pope would
wear in a procession,
reflects the wealth,
power, and authority
of his office.
Church Structure Somewhat like the system of feudalism, the
Church established its own organization. The distribution of power
was based on status. Church structure consisted of different ranks
of clergy, or religious officials. The pope headed the Church in
Rome. All clergy, including bishops and priests, fell under his
authority. Bishops supervised priests, the lowest ranking members
of the clergy. Bishops also settled disputes over Church teachings
and religious practices. For most people, local priests served as the
main contact with the Church.
Religion as a Unifying Force Feudalism and the manor system created divisions
among people. Shared beliefs in the teachings of the Church bonded people together.
During an era of constant warfare and political turmoil, the Church was a stable
force. The Church provided Christians with a sense of security and a religious community to which they might belong. The Middle Ages in Europe were aptly named
the Age of Faith. Religion at this time occupied center stage.
Medieval Christians’ everyday lives were often harsh. Still, they could all follow the
same path to salvation—everlasting life in heaven. Priests and other religious officials
administered the sacraments, or important religious ceremonies. These rites paved the
332 Chapter 13
Background
The clergy was also
part of the feudal system. In the early
Middle Ages, some
bishops, like other
vassals, owed military
service to their lord
and fought courageously in battles.
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THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Analyzing
Motives Why did
medieval peasants
support the Church?
A. Answer The
Church offered unity,
security, hope, a
social life, and order
in an unstable world.
3:59 PM
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Page 2 of 4
way for achieving salvation. For example, through the sacrament of baptism, people
became part of the Christian community. Through confirmation, baptized people of
their own will publicly acknowledged their membership in the Church.
At the local level, the village church was a unifying force in the
Daily
daily lives of most people. It served as a religious and social center.
An Age of Superstition
People worshiped together at the church. They also met and talked
Along
with their devout Christian
with other villagers. Religious holidays, especially Christmas and
faith, many people during the
Easter, were occasions for social gatherings and festive celebrations.
Middle Ages also clung to
Life
Church Justice The scope of the Church’s authority was both reli-
superstitious beliefs. Medieval
people expected the dead to
reappear as ghosts. A friendly
goblin might do a person a good
deed, but an evil witch might cause
great harm. Medieval people
thought an evil witch had the
power to exchange a healthy child
for a sickly one.
The medieval Church frowned
upon superstitions such as these:
• Preparing a table with three
knives to please good fairies
• Making a vow by a tree, a pond,
or any place but a church
• Believing that a person could
change into the shape of a wolf
• Believing that the croak of a
raven or meeting a priest would
bring a person good or bad luck
gious and political. The Church provided a unifying set of spiritual
beliefs and rituals. The Church also created a system of justice to
guide people’s conduct. All medieval Christians, kings and peasants
alike, were subject to canon law, or the law of the Church, in matters such as marriage and religious practices. The Church also established courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of the
harshest punishments that offenders faced were excommunication
and interdict.
Popes used the threat of excommunication—banishment from the
Church—to wield power over political rulers. For example, a disobedient king’s quarrel with a pope might result in excommunication.
This meant the king would be denied salvation. Excommunication
also freed all the king’s vassals from their duties to him. If an excommunicated king continued to disobey the pope, the pope, in turn,
could use an even more frightening weapon—the interdict. Under
an interdict, many sacraments and religious services could not be
performed in the king’s lands. As Christians, the king’s subjects
believed that without such sacraments they might be doomed to eternal suffering in
hell. In the 11th century, excommunication and the possible threat of an interdict
would force a German emperor to submit to the pope’s commands.
The Church and the Holy Roman Empire
Background
The Holy Roman
Empire was located in
the region of presentday Germany.
After the death of Charlemagne, the Holy Roman Empire was the strongest kingdom that arose from the ruins of his empire. When Pope Leo III crowned
Charlemagne emperor in 800, he unknowingly set the stage for future conflicts
between popes and emperors.
Otto I Allies with the Church The most effective ruler of medieval Germany was
Otto I. He was known as Otto the Great. Otto, crowned king in 936, consciously
copied the policies of his boyhood hero, Charlemagne. Like Charlemagne, Otto
formed a close alliance with the Church. To limit the nobles’ strength, Otto sought
help from the clergy. He built up his power base by gaining the support of the bishops
and abbots, the heads of monasteries. Otto dominated the Church in Germany. He
also used his power to defeat unruly German princes.
Following in Charlemagne’s footsteps, Otto also invaded Italy on the pope’s behalf.
In 962, the pope rewarded Otto by crowning him emperor.
Signs of Future Conflicts The German-Italian empire Otto created was first called
the Roman Empire of the German Nation. It later became known as the Holy Roman
Empire. The Holy Roman Empire remained the strongest state in Europe until about
1100. However, Otto’s attempt to revive Charlemagne’s empire caused trouble for
future German leaders. Italian nobles resented German rule. Popes too came to fear
the political power that the German emperors held over Italy.
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Holy Roman Emperor Clashes with the Pope
The Church began to resent the control that kings, such as Otto, exercised over clergy
and their offices. The focus of this resentment was lay investiture—a ceremony in
which kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiture
wielded the real power in naming bishops. They were powerful clergy whom kings
sought to control. Church reformers felt that bishops should not be under the power
of any king. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.
The furious young German emperor, Henry IV, immediately called a meeting of
the German bishops he had appointed. With their approval, the emperor sent a
vicious letter to Gregory VII. Henry called Gregory “not pope, but false monk” and
ordered him to step down from the papacy. Gregory fired back and excommunicated
Henry. Afterward, German bishops and princes sided with the pope. Determined to
save his throne, Henry tried to win the pope’s forgiveness.
Showdown at Canossa In January 1077, Henry journeyed over the snowy Alps to
the Italian town of Canossa (kuh NAHS uh). He approached the castle where Pope
Gregory was a guest. Gregory later described the scene:
•
•
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
There, having laid aside all the belongings of royalty, wretchedly, with bare feet and
clad in wool, he [Henry IV] continued for three days to stand before the gate of the castle. Nor did he desist from imploring with many tears the aid and consolation of the
apostolic mercy until he had moved all of those who were present there. . . .
POPE GREGORY, cited in Basic Documents in Medieval History
16°E
8°E
0°
The Pope was obligated to forgive any sinner who begged so humbly. Still, Gregory
kept Henry waiting in the snow for three days before ending his excommunication.
The meeting in Canossa was one of the most dramatic confrontations of the Middle
Ages. Yet it actually solved nothing. A triumphant Henry rushed home to punish the
nobles who had rebelled against him. The
pope had gained an even greater victory by
humiliating the proudest ruler in Europe.
The Holy Roman Empire, 1100
The key question of lay investiture
remained undecided.
Concordat of Worms Gregory’s and
Friesland
El b e
Aachen
.
Rhine R
50°N
POLAND
Saxony
R
.
Lorraine Franconia
Worms
FRANCE
Swabia
Bohemia
Danube R
.
KINGDOM
OF
HUNGARY
Bavaria
Rhône R.
Burgundy
Carinthia
Lombardy
Po R.
ri
Tuscany
The Holy Roman
Empire
Papal States
Ad
42°N
Papal
States
Spoleto i c S
e
at
Rome
0
0
250 Miles
a
Henry’s successors continued to fight over
lay investiture until 1122. That year, representatives of the Church and the emperor
met in the German city of Worms (wurms).
There they reached a compromise known as
the Concordat of Worms. By its terms, the
Church alone could grant a bishop his ring
and staff, symbols of Church office. Yet the
emperor had the veto power to prevent the
appointment of a bishop.
During Henry’s struggle, German
princes regained much of the power they
had lost under Otto the Great. A later
German ruler, Frederick I, would resume
the battle to build up royal authority.
500 Kilometers
GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps
Mediterranean Sea
334 Chapter 13
1. Region How many states make up the Holy Roman Empire?
What does this suggest about ruling it as an empire?
2. Location How does the location of the Papal States make
them an easy target for frequent invasions by Germanic rulers?
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Making
Inferences Why
was Henry’s journey
to Canossa a political
maneuver?
B. Possible Answer
Confident that the
pope would forgive
him, Henry could then
reclaim his throne and
punish the rebellious
nobles who betrayed
him.
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Renewed Church Conflicts Under Frederick I
Vocabulary
Barbarossa: “red
beard” in Italian.
By 1152, the seven German princes who elected the German king realized that
Germany needed a strong ruler to keep the peace. The princes chose
Frederick I. His red beard earned him the nickname “Barbarossa.”
Frederick I was the first ruler to call his lands the Holy Roman Empire.
However, this region was actually a patchwork of feudal territories. His
forceful personality and military skills enabled him to dominate the
German princes. Yet whenever he left the country, disorder returned.
Following Otto the Great’s example, Frederick did not focus on building
royal power in Germany. Instead, he repeatedly invaded the rich cities of
Italy. Frederick’s brutal tactics spurred Italian merchants to unite against
him. Like Henry IV, Frederick angered the pope, who joined the merchants. Together, Frederick’s enemies formed an alliance called the
Lombard League.
In 1176, the foot soldiers of the Lombard League faced Frederick’s army
of mounted knights at the Battle of Legnano (lay NYAHN oh). In an astonishing victory, these foot soldiers used crossbows to defeat feudal knights
for the first time in history.
In 1177, Frederick made peace with the pope and returned to Germany.
Frederick’s military defeat, though, had undermined his authority with the
German princes. Their power continued to grow in spite of Frederick’s
efforts. After he drowned in 1190, Frederick’s empire dissolved into an
array of fragmented feudal states.
•
C. Possible Answer
German kings’ continued attempts to revive
Charlemagne’s empire
and his alliance with
the Church sparked
wars with Italian cites
and clashes with the
pope.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Analyzing
Causes What longlasting political trend
kept German states
separate during the
Middle Ages?
•
German States Remain Separate
By getting involved in Italian politics, German kings after Frederick continued their attempts to revive Charlemagne’s empire and his alliance with the
Church. This policy led to wars with Italian cities and to further clashes
with the pope. These conflicts were among several reasons why the feudal
states of Germany did not unify during the Middle Ages.
The system of German princes electing the king weakened royal authority. German
rulers controlled fewer royal lands to use as a base of power than French and English
kings, who were establishing strong central authority. These kings made changes in
the legal system that would lay the foundation for modern unified nation-states.
As you will read in Chapter 14, feudalism in France and England spurred the rise
of powerful leaders. They would create strong and enduring nations. Gradually,
orderly government would replace the fighting and frequent warfare that characterized feudal societies, such as Germany.
This stained-glass
portrait of
Frederick I projects
an image of
imperial power. Yet
like Henry IV,
Frederick’s clashes
with the pope
eroded the
emperor’s authority.
Section 4 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• clergy
• sacrament
• canon law
• Holy Roman Empire
• lay investiture
2. TAKING NOTES
3. EVALUATING DECISIONS
Create a time line like the one
below for the Holy Roman Empire.
Write the significance of each
date shown.
936
1077
962
1190
1122
For which events did the Church
and rulers engage in a power
struggle? Why?
Do you think the Concordat of
Worms was a fair compromise for
both the emperor and the Church?
Why or why not?
THINK ABOUT
• the Church’s authority in spiritual
matters
• the emperor’s political power
• the problems that remained
unresolved
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Power and Authority Work
with a partner to play the roles of
Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.
Based on your role-play, write a
dialogue about their meeting at
Canossa.
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Chapter 13 Assessment
TERMS & NAMES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Briefly explain the importance of each of the following
during the Middle Ages from 500 to 1200.
SECTION 1 (pages 317–321)
Germanic Kingdoms Unite Under Charlemagne
11. How did Gregory I increase the political power of the pope?
1. monastery
6. chivalry
12. What was the outcome of the Battle of Tours?
2. Charlemagne
7. troubadour
3. vassal
8. clergy
13. What was the significance of the pope’s declaring Charlemagne
emperor?
4. serf
9. Holy Roman Empire
5. manor
10. lay investiture
SECTION 2 (pages 322–326)
Feudalism in Europe
14. Which invading peoples caused turmoil in Europe during the 800s?
Interact
with History
On page 316, you imagined what the world
was like from the viewpoint of a peasant living on a medieval manor. Now that you’ve
read the chapter, reconstruct a more accurate picture. What was a peasant’s daily life
like? Why did peasants cling to their religious beliefs and the teachings of the
Church? Discuss your ideas in a small group.
15. What exchange took place between lords and vassals under the
feudal system?
16. What duties did a lord of a manor and his serfs owe one another?
SECTION 3 (pages 327–331)
The Age of Chivalry
17. Briefly describe the stages of becoming a knight.
18. What were common subjects of troubadours’ songs during the Middle
Ages?
SECTION 4 (pages 332–335)
The Church Wields Power
19. What was Gelasius’s two-swords theory?
Visual Summary
European
Middle Ages
20. Describe the conflict between Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV and its
outcome.
Feudalism
• Form of government based on landholding
• Alliances between lords and vassals
• Oaths of loyalty in exchange for land and
military service
• Ranking of power and authority
POLITICAL
SYSTEM
Chivalry
• Displays of courage and
valor in combat
• Devotion to a feudal lord
and heavenly lord
• Respect toward women
Manors
CODE OF
BEHAVIOR
MEDIEVAL
SOCIETY
ECONOMIC
SYSTEM
BELIEF
SYSTEM
The Church
• Unifying force of Christian faith
• Power over people’s everyday lives
• Involvement in political affairs
336 Chapter 13
• Lord’s estate
• Set of rights and obligations
between serfs and lords
• Self-sufficient community
producing a variety of goods
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CRITICAL THINKING
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
1. COMPARING CIVILIZATIONS
1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Projects
Create a chart comparing medieval Europe to an
earlier civilization, such as Rome or Greece. Consider
government, religion, and social roles.
2. CHARLEMAGNE AND HIS LEGACY
THEME EMPIRE BUILDING Copy the three overlapping
circles below to show how Otto I and Frederick I tried to
imitate Charlemagne’s approach to empire building.
Otto I’s Roman
Empire of the German
Nation
Charlemagne’s Empire
THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Your unit portfolio project focuses on
showing the influence of the Church during the Middle Ages. For Chapter 13,
you might use one of the following ideas.
• Write a character sketch of a religious or historical figure described in this
chapter.
• Create a poster titled “The Age of Faith” focusing on the role that the
Church played in the daily lives of Europeans.
• Create a time line tracing the most important power plays between
religious and political leaders during the Middle Ages. Refer to the text for
ideas.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
THEME POWER AND AUTHORITY Through warfare, knights helped feudal lords
defend their estates, seize new territories, and gain more power. In mock
battles called tournaments, knights developed their combat skills. Work with
a team to design a video war game that imitates a medieval tournament
between knights. Describe your ideas in a proposal that you might send to a
video game company.
All
Use the Internet or books to find out more about medieval
tournaments. Think about video games that are based on combat
experiences. You might adapt some of the rules to your game. Use these
questions to help you brainstorm ideas.
Frederick I’s Holy
Roman Empire
• What are the rules of the game?
3. THE POWER OF LANDOWNERS
Why do you think the ownership of land became an
increasing source of power for feudal lords?
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In The Canterbury Tales, the English poet Geoffrey
Chaucer tells a series of stories about characters from
the Middle Ages. Read the following passage about a
knight. Then answer the questions below it.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
There was a knight, a most distinguished man,
Who from the day on which he first began
To ride abroad had followed chivalry,
Truth, honor, generous, and courtesy.
He had done nobly in sovereign’s war
And ridden in battle, no man more,
As well as Christian in heathen places
And ever honored for his noble graces.
• How does Chaucer characterize the knight?
• What qualities of knighthood do you think are
missing from Chaucer’s description? Use
information from the text to support your answer.
Additional Test Practice,
pp. S1–S33
• What is the system of keeping score of wins and losses?
• How should captured prisoners be treated?
• Which weapons should be used and which should be banned?
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line for Chapter 13 on pages 228–229. Which two
important events in other parts of the world roughly coincide with the
expansion of feudalism in western Europe? Give reasons to support your
choices.
FOCUS ON ART
Chess was a popular game during
the Middle Ages. The chess pieces
portray important people from
medieval society. Work with
someone in class who plays chess
to answer these questions:
• What element of medieval
society do you think each chess
piece represents?
• How do these chess pieces
reflect the power of various
members of medieval society?
Connect to History
Why do you think that learning to
play chess was an important part
of a knight’s education?
TEST PRACTICE
CL ASSZONE .COM
337
Page 1 of 3
Formation of
Western Europe, 800–1500
The
Connect History and Geography
Europe underwent important changes in the late Middle Ages.
The Catholic Church faced challenges to its authority from
increasingly powerful nations like France and England. At the
same time, economic and social changes undermined the feudal
system. The map to the right shows the kingdoms of Europe in
the 14th century. Use the map to help you answer the questions.
1. What was the largest state in Western Europe at the time?
2. How might England’s geography have helped that nation
create a strong, independent kingdom?
3. Why do you think Europe was divided into so many ruling
states?
For more information about the
formation of Western European nations . . .
CLASSZONE.COM
Joan of Arc helped
to lead the French
to victory over the
English before her
execution in 1431.
The bishop of Paris blesses
the people while merchants
prepare their booths for
a fair in the 14th century.
338
910
Benedictine Abbey
founded at Cluny, France.
987
Capetian dynasty
begins in France.
Page 2 of 3
60°N
15°W
Europe, 14th Century
0°
N
NORWAY
SWEDEN
Novgorod
Ba
lt
ENGLAND
K
LITHUANIA
London
Calais
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
15°W
POLAND
Ghent
HOLY
ROMAN
EMPIRE
45°N
RUSSIAN
PRINCIPALITIES
TS
IC
ic
DENMARK
N
H
IG
T EUTON
North
S ea
IRELAND
Sea
SCOTLAND
Kiev
RUTHENIA
Orleans
FRANCE
MOLDAVIA
HUNGARY
AQUITAINE
NAVARRE
Avignon
Venice
45°N
Genoa
WALLACHIA
A
BOSNIA
dr
BULGARIA
c
(Genoa)
Naples
Cordoba
Balearic
Is.
GRANADA
SARDINIA
SERBIA
Constantinople
BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
a
CASTILE
Se
Rome
ARAGON
Bl a c k
Sea
ti
Barcelona
Toledo
CORSICA
PAPAL
STATES
ia
PORTUGAL
KINGDOM
OF NAPLES
(Aragon)
SICILY
(Aragon)
0
0
250
250
500 Miles
Med
500 Kilometers
Robinson Projection
CRETE
iterra
15°E
1095
1066
Norman invasion First Crusade
begins.
of England
1215
King John approves
Magna Carta.
1347
Bubonic plague
strikes Europe.
nean Se
a
(Venice)
1453
Hundred Years’ War ends
with French victory.
30°E
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Interact with History
Y
ou are a squire in training to be a knight in
France. The knight you serve has decided to
join a Crusade to capture the city of Jerusalem from
the Muslims. The knight has given you the choice
of accompanying him on his expedition to the Holy
Land (the biblical region of Palestine) or staying
home to look after his family and manor. You would
also look after your parents, who do not wish you to
The knight as he went into
battle was heavily armored.
He wore a helmet and chain
mail, and he carried various
weapons, including a lance.
He required assistance both
in putting on his armor and in
mounting his horse.
go. You are torn between the desire for adventure
and possible riches that you might find on the
Crusade, and fear of the hazards that await you on
such a dangerous journey. On an earlier Crusade,
the knight and his friends plundered towns and
manors. They acquired jewels and precious objects.
But some were also imprisoned, held for ransom,
robbed, and murdered.
Would you
join the
Crusade?
While the knight went off on the Crusade,
someone needed to look after his property
in his absence. This task often fell to the
lady of the manor, who exercised her
authority through servants.
EXAMINING
the
ISSUES
• What dangers might you face on the
Crusade?
• What rewards, both material and
personal, might come your way on
the Crusade?
• What might be the advantages and
disadvantages of staying home to
defend the knight’s family and estate?
• What arguments would you make to
your parents to persuade them to agree
to your participation in the Crusade?
A squire acted as a personal servant to the
knight. A squire rode at his master’s side in
battle, in which he took an active part. One of
his responsibilities in battle was to take charge
of the prisoners.
340 Chapter 14
As a class, discuss these questions. In your
discussion, remember what you’ve learned
about other religious wars, sometimes called
holy wars or crusades.
As you read about the Crusades in this chapter,
see how events turned out for the Crusaders,
especially the participants in the Children’s
Crusade.
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TERMS & NAMES
• simony
Church Reform
and the Crusades
•
•
•
•
•
•
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
The Catholic Church underwent reform
and launched Crusades (religious
wars) against Muslims and others.
The Crusades resulted in trade and
exploration between Christians and
Muslims but left a legacy of distrust.
St. Francis of Assisi
Gothic
Urban II
Crusade
Saladin
Richard
the Lion-Hearted
• Reconquista
• Inquisition
SETTING THE STAGE Between A.D. 500 and A.D. 1000, Vikings attacked and looted
Church monasteries. They destroyed many of these centers of learning. At that time,
the Church suffered severe problems. Some priests could barely read their prayers.
Some popes were men of questionable morals. Many bishops and abbots cared more
about their positions as feudal lords than about their duties as spiritual leaders.
However, over the next 300 years the Church and medieval life changed dramatically.
Monastic Revival and Church Reform
Vocabulary
piety: religious
devotion and
reverence for God.
Beginning in the 1000s, a spiritual revival spread across Europe. This
revival was led by the monasteries. The reformers wanted to return
to the basic principles of the Christian religion. New religious
orders were founded. Influenced by the piety of the new monasteries, the popes began to reform the Church. They restored and
expanded its power and authority. A new age of religious feeling
was born—the Age of Faith.
Problems in the Church Many problems troubled the Church
at that time, but reformers were most distressed by three. First,
many village priests married and had families. Such marriages were
against Church rulings. Second, positions in the Church were sold by
bishops, a practice called simony (SY muh nee). Third, the practice of lay
investiture put kings in control of church bishops. Church reformers believed
bishops should be appointed by the Church alone.
•
•
Reform Begins at Cluny Reforms began quietly in 910 with the founding of a
Benedictine monastery at Cluny (KLOO nee) in France. The monks there strictly followed the Benedictine rule. Soon Cluny’s reputation for virtue inspired the founding
of similar monasteries throughout western Europe. By the year 1000, there were 300
houses under Cluny’s leadership. In 1098, another order was founded, the Cistercian
(sih STUR shuhn) monks. The Cistercian life of hardship won many followers, helping
to bring about further reforms.
The reform movement, begun at Cluny, influenced the papacy. Pope Leo IX, who
took office in 1049, enforced Church laws against simony and the marriage of priests.
Pope Gregory VII was elected pope in 1073. He had spent time at Cluny and was
determined to purify the Church. Gregory extended the reforms begun by Leo.
•
•
Vocabulary
papacy: the position
or office of the pope.
This scene of
monastic life
comes from a Book
of Hours, a book of
prayers for private
use that followed
the hours of
the day.
•
Reform and Church Organization The popes who followed Leo and Gregory reor-
ganized the Church to continue the policy of reform. In the 1100s and 1200s the Church
was restructured to resemble a kingdom, with the pope at its head. The pope’s group of
advisers was called the papal Curia. The Curia also acted as a court. It developed canon
law (the law of the Church) on matters such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. The
Curia also decided cases based on these laws. Diplomats for the pope traveled through
Europe dealing with bishops and kings. This extended the power of the pope.
The Formation of Western Europe 341
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The Church collected taxes in the form of tithes. These consumed one-tenth the
yearly income from every Christian family. The Church performed social services such
as caring for the sick and the poor. Most hospitals in medieval Europe were operated
by the Church. By the early 1200s, popes had achieved remarkable success in their
reforms. The practice of simony and the marriage of clergy both declined dramatically. The popes established their authority throughout Europe.
Preaching Friars In the early 1200s, wandering friars traveled from place to place
preaching and spreading the Church’s ideas. Like monks, friars took vows of chastity,
poverty, and obedience. Unlike monks, friars did not live apart from the world in
monasteries. Instead, they preached to the poor throughout Europe’s towns and cities.
Friars owned nothing and lived by begging.
The Dominicans, one of the earliest orders of friars, were founded by Dominic, a
Spanish priest. Because Dominic emphasized the importance of study, many Dominicans
were scholars. Another order of friars, the Franciscans, was founded by the Italian
St. Francis of Assisi (uh SEE zee). The son of a rich merchant, Francis gave up his
wealth and turned to preaching when he was about 20 years old. He placed much less
importance on scholarship than did Dominic. Francis treated
all creatures as if they were his spiritual brothers and sisters.
•
•
Religious Orders for Women Women as well as men
participated in the spiritual revival. Women joined the
Dominicans. In 1212, the Franciscan order for women, known
as the Poor Clares, was founded by Clare and her friend
Francis of Assisi. In Germany, Hildegard of Bingen, a mystic
and musician, founded a Benedictine convent in 1147. Unlike
the men, women were not allowed to travel from place to place
as preachers. However, they too lived in poverty and worked to
help the poor and sick.
Cathedrals—Cities of God
Although the friars chose to live in poverty, evidence of the
Church’s wealth could be seen everywhere in the Middle Ages.
This was especially true in the cathedrals that were built in
Europe around this time.
A New Style of Church Architecture Between about 800
and 1100, churches were built in the Romanesque (roh muh
NEHSK) style. The churches had round arches and a heavy
roof held up by thick walls and pillars. The thick walls had tiny
windows that let in little light.
In the early 1100s, a new style of architecture, known as
Gothic, evolved. The term Gothic comes from a Germanic
tribe named the Goths. It describes the particular church
architecture that spread throughout medieval Europe. Unlike
the heavy, gloomy Romanesque buildings, Gothic cathedrals
thrust upward as if reaching toward heaven. Light streamed in
through huge stained-glass windows. Soon Gothic cathedrals
were built in many towns of France. In Paris, the vaulted ceiling of the Cathedral of
Notre Dame (NOH truh DAHM) eventually rose to over 100 feet. Then Chartres,
Reims, Amiens, and Beauvais built even higher cathedrals.
In all, nearly 500 Gothic churches were built between 1170 and 1270. Other arts of
the medieval world clustered around the Gothic cathedral—sculpture, woodcarvings,
and the stained-glass windows. The cathedral represented the City of God. As such, it
was decorated with all the richness that people on earth could offer.
•
In this 13th-century
painting, St. Clare
(kneeling) is
received by St.
Francis (standing,
with halo).
342 Chapter 14
•
•
Background
Because of his love of
nature, St. Francis
was named the patron
saint of ecology in
1979 by Pope John
Paul II.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Making
Inferences Why
might women have
preferred life in a
religious order to
secular life in the
Middle Ages?
A. Possible Answer
Women had very little
freedom during this
period. A life in the
convent might have
enabled them to pursue their own intellectual and artistic
interests, which could
have been difficult if
not impossible for
them to do in a secular life.
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HISTORY THROUGH ART: Church Architecture
1 pointed, ribbed vaults
3 tall spires
The cathedral of Chartres (shahrt) is a
masterpiece of Gothic architecture. In
addition to its stained-glass windows,
the cathedral has hundreds of sculptures.
The stone carvings that frame every door
illustrate Bible stories. The cathedral has
two bell towers.
Chartres Cathedral has some
of the most beautiful
stained-glass windows of
any Gothic cathedral in
Europe. The windows
illustrate stories from the
Bible. As illiterate peasants
walked past the 176
windows, they could view
those stories. This window
depicts the parable of the
Good Samaritan.
Connect
to History
Drawing Conclusions Have
students work in small groups to
pose and answer three questions
about what elements in the style of
Gothic architecture might affect the
sense of height and light inside.
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R17
Connect
2 flying buttresses
The master builders in France, where the Gothic style originated,
developed certain techniques of structural engineering. These were key
to Gothic architecture: 1 pointed, ribbed vaults that supported the roof’s
weight and framed huge stained-glass windows, 2 flying buttresses that
both supported the walls from the outside and acted as wind braces, and
3 pointed arches and tall spires that seemed to be pointing to heaven.
to Today
Taking a Tour Take a walk past
the churches in your neighborhood.
Notice the stained-glass windows.
Do they tell a story? What figures
or events do they illustrate?
The Crusades
The Age of Faith also inspired wars of conquest. In 1093, the Byzantine emperor
Alexius Comnenus sent an appeal to Robert, Count of Flanders. That letter was also
read by Pope Urban II. The emperor asked for help against the Muslim Turks. They
were threatening to conquer his capital, Constantinople:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
Come then, with all your people and give battle with all your strength, so that all this
treasure shall not fall into the hands of the Turks. . . . Therefore act while there is still
time lest the kingdom of the Christians shall vanish from your sight and, what is more
important, the Holy Sepulchre [the tomb where Jesus was buried] shall vanish. And in
your coming you will find your reward in heaven, and if you do not come, God will
condemn you.
Vocabulary
Holy Land: Palestine;
the area where Jesus
had lived and preached.
EMPEROR ALEXIUS COMNENUS, quoted in The Dream and the Tomb
Shortly after this appeal, Pope Urban II issued a call for what he termed a “holy war,”
a Crusade, to gain control of the Holy Land. Over the next 200 years a number of such
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ENGLAND
HOLY
ROMAN
EMPIRE
nnel
h Cha
Englis
The Crusades, 1096–1204
POLAND
Regensburg
Vienna
Paris
Metz
Christian lands
Muslim lands
Kingdoms established
by the Crusaders
First Crusade, 1096–1099
Second Crusade, 1147–1149
Third Crusade, 1189–1191
Fourth Crusade, 1202–1204
Vezelay
FRANCE
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
HUNGARY
Venice
Clermont
Belgrade
Genoa
Marseille
BULGARIA
SERBIA
Corsica
SPAIN
Rome
PORTUGAL
Sardinia
40°N
Lisbon
Black Sea
Adrianople
Constantinople
KINGDOM
BYZANTINE EMPIRE
SELJUK TURKS
OF
Edessa
SICILY
Antioch
Cyprus
Tripoli
Mediterranean Sea
0
500 Miles
0°
0
Acre
Jerusalem
1,000 Kilometers
G E O G R A P H Y S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Maps
1. Place What Muslim power ruled lands close to the Christian city of Constantinople?
2. Movement Which Crusade did not make it to Jerusalem? Where did this Crusade end?
3. Region Where in Europe were Muslim and Christian lands adjacent to one another?
Crusades were launched. The goal of these military expeditions was to recover Jerusalem
and the Holy Land from the Muslim Turks.
Causes of the Crusading Spirit The Crusades had both economic goals and
religious motives. Pope Urban’s call brought a tremendous outpouring of religious feeling
and support for the Crusade. This support came from great lords and humble peasants
alike. In 1096, between 50,000 and 60,000 knights became Crusaders. With red crosses
sewn on tunics worn over their armor and the battle cry of “God wills it!” on their lips, the
Crusaders marched eastward. Few would return from the journey.
Kings and the Church saw the Crusades as an opportunity to get rid of quarrelsome
knights who fought each other. These knights threatened the peace of the kingdoms, as
well as Church property. Others who participated were younger sons who, unlike their
oldest brother, did not stand to inherit their father’s property. They were looking for
land and a position in society. Knights and commoners alike were fired by religious
zeal. According to Pope Urban II, if the knights died on Crusade, they were assured
of a place in heaven.
In later Crusades, merchants profited by making cash loans to finance the Crusade.
They also leased their ships for a hefty fee to transport armies over the Mediterranean
Sea. In addition, the merchants of Pisa, Genoa, and Venice hoped to win control of
key trade routes to India, Southeast Asia, and China from Muslim traders.
The First and Second Crusades By early 1097, three armies of knights and people
of all classes had gathered outside Constantinople. Most of the Crusaders were
French. But Germans, Englishmen, Scots, Italians, and Spaniards came as well.
The Crusaders were ill-prepared for their holy war in this First Crusade. They knew
nothing of the geography, climate, or culture of the Holy Land. They had no grand
strategy to capture Jerusalem. The nobles argued among themselves and couldn’t agree
344 Chapter 14
40E°
Crete
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THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Summarizing
What, if anything, had
the Crusaders gained
by the end of the
Second Crusade?
B. Possible Answer
The Crusader armies
gained nothing and
went home in defeat.
Background
In the looting of Constantinople, Crusaders
stole the relics from
the great cathedral.
They loaded the
jewel-studded communion table onto a
Venetian ship. The
ship sank, and its
priceless cargo was
never recovered.
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on a leader. Also, they had not set up adequate supply lines. Finally, however, an army
of 12,000 (less than one-fourth the original army) approached Jerusalem. The
Crusaders besieged the city for a month. On July 15, 1099, they captured the city.
All in all, the Crusaders had won a narrow strip of land. It stretched about 400
miles from Edessa in the north to Jerusalem in the south. Four feudal Crusader states
were carved out of this territory, each ruled by a European noble.
The Crusaders’ states were extremely vulnerable to Muslim counterattack. In 1144,
Edessa was reconquered by the Turks. The Second Crusade was organized to recapture
the city. But its armies straggled home in defeat. In 1187, Europeans were shocked to
learn Jerusalem itself had fallen to the Muslim leader Saladin (SAL uh dihn).
•
The Third and Fourth Crusades
•
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■ MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
The Third Crusade to recapture
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Jerusalem was led by three of
Europe’s most powerful monarchs.
These were the French king Philip
Augustus, the German emperor
Frederick I (Barbarossa), and the
English king Richard the LionHearted. Barbarossa drowned on
the journey, and Philip Augustus
argued with Richard and went
home. Richard was left to regain
the Holy Land from Saladin.
Both Richard and Saladin were
Richard the Lion-Hearted
Saladin
ruthless fighters who respected each
1157–1199
1138–1193
other. After many battles, the two
Richard was noted for his good
Saladin was the most famous
agreed to a truce in 1192. Jerusalem
Muslim leader of the 1100s. His own looks, charm, courage, grace—and
ruthlessness. When he heard that
people considered him a most deremained under Muslim control. In
Jerusalem had fallen to the
vout
man.
Even
the
Christians
return, Saladin promised that
Muslims, he was inspired with
regarded him as honest and brave.
unarmed Christian pilgrims could
religious zeal. He joined the
He wished to chase the
freely visit the city’s holy places.
Crusade, leaving others to rule
Crusaders back into their own
England in his place.
territories. He said:
In 1198, the powerful Pope
Richard mounted a siege on the
I think that when God grants
Innocent III appealed for still another
city of Acre. Saladin’s army was in
me
victory
over
the
rest
of
Crusade to capture Jerusalem. The
the hills overlooking the city, but it
Palestine, I shall divide my terknights who took part in this Fourth
was not strong enough to defeat the
ritories, make a will stating my
Crusaders. When finally the city fell,
Crusade became entangled in Italian
wishes, then set sail on this sea
Richard had the Muslim survivors—
for their far-off lands and
and Byzantine politics. They ended
some 3,000 men, women, and
pursue the Franks there, so as
up looting the city of Constantinople
children—slaughtered. The Muslim
to free the earth from anyone
in 1204, ending the Fourth Crusade.
army watched helplessly from
who does not believe in Allah,
the hills.
There was a breach (a split) between
or die in the attempt.
the Church in the east, whose capital
was Constantinople, and the Church
in the west, whose capital was Rome. This breach, caused in part by the Crusaders’
actions, became permanent.
The Crusading Spirit Dwindles
In the 1200s, Crusades became increasingly common and unsuccessful. The religious
spirit of the First Crusade faded, replaced by a search for personal gain.
The Later Crusades In several later Crusades, armies marched not to the Holy
Land but to North Africa. The French king who led the last two Crusades, Louis IX,
won wide respect in Europe. He was later declared a saint. None of these attempts
conquered much land, however.
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The Children’s Crusade took place in 1212. Thousands of children set out for the
Holy Land. They were armed only with the belief that God would give them
Jerusalem. On their march south to the Mediterranean, many died from cold and starvation. One group even turned back. The rest drowned at sea or were sold into slavery.
A Spanish Crusade In Spain, Muslims (called Moors) had
The Crusades
controlled most of the country until the 1100s. The Reconquista
(ray kawn KEES tuh) was a long effort to drive the Muslims out of
Spain. By the late 1400s, the Muslims held only the tiny kingdom
of Granada. In 1492, Granada fell to the Christian army of
Ferdinand and Isabella, the Spanish monarchs.
Spain had a large Jewish population. Many achieved high
positions in finance, government, and medicine. Many Jews (and
Muslims) converted to Christianity during the late 1400s. To unify
their country under Christianity and to consolidate their power,
Isabella and Ferdinand made use of the Inquisition. This was a
tribunal held by the Church to suppress heresy. Heretics were
people whose religious beliefs differed from the teachings of the
Church. The inquisitors suspected Jewish and Muslim converts of
heresy. A person who was suspected of heresy might be questioned for weeks and even tortured. Once suspects confessed,
they were often burned at the stake. Eventually, in 1492, the
monarchs expelled all practicing Jews and Muslims from Spain.
•
Causes
• Muslims control Palestine (the Holy
Land) and threaten Constantinople.
• Byzantine emperor calls for help.
• Pope wants to reclaim Palestine and
reunite Christendom.
• Pope appeals to Christian knights.
• Knights feel religious zeal and want
land, riches, and adventure.
• Italian cities desire commercial power.
Effects
•
•
•
•
•
•
Byzantine Empire is weakened.
Pope’s power declines.
Power of feudal nobles weakens.
Kings become stronger.
Religious intolerance grows.
Italian cities expand trade and
grow rich.
• Muslims increasingly distrust
Christians.
• Trade grows between Europe
and the Middle East.
• European technology improves as
Crusaders learn from Muslims.
•
•
The Effects of the Crusades The failure of later Crusades
lessened the power of the pope. The Crusades weakened the
feudal nobility. Thousands of knights lost their lives and fortunes.
On the positive side, the Crusades played a part in stimulating
trade between Europe and Southwest Asia. The goods imported
from Southwest Asia included spices, fruits, and cloth.
For Muslims, the Crusades also had both good and bad effects.
The intolerance and prejudice displayed by Christians in the Holy
Land left behind a legacy of bitterness and hatred. This legacy
continues to the present. For Christians and Jews who remained
in the region after the fall of the Crusader states, relations with
their Muslim masters worsened. However, European merchants who lived and traded
in the Crusader states were encouraged to continue their trading after the collapse of
the states. This trade with the West benefited both Christians and Muslims.
The Crusades grew from the forces of religious fervor, feudalism, and chivalry as
they came together with explosive energy. This same energy could be seen in the
growth of trade, towns, and universities in medieval Europe.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Recognizing
Effects What were
the effects of the
Reconquista?
C. Possible
Answers Most of
Spain reconquered
from Muslims;
Muslims and Jews
expelled from Spain;
country unified under
Christianity.
Section 1 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• simony
• St. Francis of Assisi
• Gothic
• Urban II
• Crusade
• Saladin
• Richard the LionHearted
• Reconquista
• Inquisition
346 Chapter 14
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a time line like the one
below, show four or five key
events that summarize the
Age of Faith.
900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500
Write a paragraph describing one
event in detail.
3. FORMING AND
SUPPORTING OPINIONS
Which of the Church’s problems—
marriage of priests, simony, lay
investiture—do you think was
most harmful to the Church? Why?
THINK ABOUT
• the effects of each problem
• the reforms that corrected
each problem
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Cultural Interaction With
a partner, develop a scene from a
play in which Richard the LionHearted, in 1192, meets Saladin for
the first time and the two warriors
work out a truce. Include stage
directions, but focus mainly on
what the men say to each other.
Be prepared to present the scene
as a dialogue.
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Fdifferent
E A T U R EPERSPECTIVES
TITLE
The Crusades
In the Crusades, both Christians and Muslims believed that God was on their
side. They both felt justified in using violence to win or to keep the Holy Land.
The following excerpts show their belief in God’s approval for their deeds. The
quotation from Norman Cantor explains where this attitude has led.
SPEECH
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
H I S T O R I A N ’ S C O M M E N TA RY
Pope Urban II
William of Tyre
Norman Cantor
In 1095, Pope Urban II gave
one of the most influential
speeches of history when he
issued a plea that resulted in
the First Crusade. The pope
assured his listeners that God
was on their side.
William of Tyre was a Christian
bishop who drew upon
eyewitness accounts of the
capture of Jerusalem by the
Crusaders in writing his
account.
It was impossible
to look upon the vast
numbers of the slain without horror; everywhere lay fragments
of human bodies, and the very ground
was covered with the blood of the
slain. It was not alone the spectacle
of headless bodies and mutilated
limbs strewn in all directions that
roused horror in all who looked upon
them. Still more dreadful was it to
gaze upon the victors themselves,
dripping with blood from head to
foot, an ominous sight which brought
terror to all who met them.
It is reported that within
LETTER
the Temple enclosure
alone about ten thoulim
the Mus
te
ro
w
sand infidels perished,
ssa)
ack
Saladinmperor Frederick I (Bahrbimaroif Saladin shoupldlya, ttwritten after
in
addition to those
an e
in’s re
tening
The Germ in a letter threa excerpt of Salad
who
lay slain everyan
alad
wing is
leader S
o
e
ll
w
fo
.
e
h
where
throughout
.
.
m. T
m.
mbled
Jerusale
Jerusale
e
s
d
s
re
t
a
o
tu
e
p
n
r
a
c
the city in the streets
e will
mies a
he had re
God. W t, but we
your ar
f
r
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v
r
and squares, the
e
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n
w
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Whe
in the p d on the seaco and take
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number of whom
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t
was estimated
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trength wer,
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when t
s
ry over ake your land
. . And
o
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.
. By
freely
ve giv
asure. .
le
p
shall ha r us to do but
d
o
posfo
His go
e taken
v
a
h
remain wer and with
e
po
f God w ories; and of
by His
ower o
p
rrit
d
n
a
ds of
ue
d its te
t
n
ir
a
v
the han .
m
e
h
le
t
in
a
s
in
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r
a
of Je
l rem
m also
session cities that stil
upy the
c
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ll
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e
. we sh
the thr
tians . .
is
r
h
C
the
Let the holy sepulcher
of our Lord and Saviour,
which is possessed by the unclean
nations, especially arouse you. . . .
This royal city [Jerusalem], situated at
the center of the earth, is now held
captive by the enemies of Christ and
is subjected, by those who do not
know God, to the worship of the
heathen. Accordingly, undertake this
journey eagerly for the remission of
your sins, with the assurance of the
reward of imperishable glory in the
kingdom of heaven.
Historian Norman Cantor explains
the lasting legacy of the
Crusades—even today when
nation fights nation, each
sincerely believes that God is
on its side.
The most important
legacy of the crusading
movement was the sanctification [making holy] of violence in
pursuit of [ideas]. This was not a new
concept, but it took on new force
when the pope and the flower of
Christian chivalry acted it out in holy
wars. The underlying concept outlived its religious origin, . . . and the
state gradually replaced the Church
as a holy cause.
Connect
to History
Comparing Use specific
phrases or passages from Urban’s
speech and from Saladin’s letter
to show how their attitudes are
similar.
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R7
Connect
to Today
Researching Find accounts in
newspapers or magazines of how
some groups today feel morally
justified in using violence. Share
your accounts with the class.
For another perspective on the Crusades,
see World History: Electronic Library of
Primary Sources.
CD-ROM
The Formation of Western Europe 347
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Trade, Towns, and
Financial Revolution
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
European cities challenged the feudal
system as agriculture, trade, finance,
and universities developed.
The various changes in the Middle
Ages laid the foundations for
modern Europe.
TERMS & NAMES
• three-field
system
• guild
• burgher
• vernacular
• Dante Alighieri
• Geoffrey
Chaucer
• Thomas Aquinas
• scholastics
SETTING THE STAGE While Church reform, cathedral building, and the Crusades
were taking place, other important changes were occurring in medieval society.
Between 1000 and 1300, agriculture, trade, and finance made remarkable progress.
Towns and cities grew. This was in part due to the growing population and territorial
expansion of western Europe. The creativity unleashed during this age also sparked the
growth of learning and the birth of an institution new to Europe—the university.
A Growing Food Supply
Europe’s great revival would have been impossible without better ways of
farming. Expanding civilization requires an increased food supply. Farming
was helped by a warmer climate that lasted from about 800 to 1200. Farmers
began to cultivate lands in regions once too cold to grow crops. They also
developed new methods to take advantage of more available land.
Using Horsepower For hundreds of years, peasants depended on oxen to
pull their plows. Oxen lived on the poorest straw and stubble. They were easy
to keep, but they moved very slowly. Horses needed better food, but a team
of horses could plow twice as much land in a day as a team of oxen.
Before they could use horses, however, people needed a new type of
harness. Harnesses of the early Middle Ages went around the horse’s neck.
They nearly strangled the animal when it pulled. Sometime before 900, farmers
in Europe began using a new technology. This was a harness that fitted across
the horse’s chest, taking pressure off its neck and windpipe. As a result, horses
gradually replaced oxen for plowing and for pulling wagons.
The Three-Field System At the same time, villagers began to organize their
A variety of farm
chores is shown in
this 14th-century
agricultural
almanac.
348 Chapter 14
land differently. Under the old, two-field system, peasants divided the village’s
land into two great fields. They planted one field with crops and left the other
to lie fallow, or unplanted to avoid exhausting the soil, for a year. So if a village
had 600 acres, each year farmers used 300 acres for raising food, leaving the
other 300 acres fallow.
Around 800, some villages began to organize their land into three fields.
With the same 600 acres, they used 200 acres for a winter crop of wheat
or rye. In spring, they planted another 200 acres with oats, barley, peas, or
beans. The remaining 200 acres lay fallow. Under this new, three-field
system, farmers could grow crops on two-thirds of their land each year, not
just on half of it. As a result, food production increased. Villagers had more
to eat. The food was also better for them, because peas, beans, and lentils are good
sources of vegetable protein. The result was an increase in population. People could
raise larger families. Well-fed people could better resist disease and live longer. With
horses, a farmer plowed more land in a day. This meant that teams cleared forests for
new fields. All over Europe, axes rang as the great forests began to fall.
A. Possible
Answers Food production increased,
people had more to
eat, population
increased.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Recognizing
Effects What were
the main consequences of the threefield system?
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Trade and Finance Expand
Just as agriculture was expanding, so were trade and finance. This was in part a
response to population growth. By the 1000s, artisans and craftsmen were manufacturing goods by hand for local and long-distance trade. Trade routes spread across
Europe from Flanders to Italy. Italian merchant ships traveled the Mediterranean to
ports in Byzantium such as Constantinople. They also traveled to Muslim ports along
the North African coast. Trade routes were opened to Asia, in part by the Crusades.
Background
Great fairs were held
several times a year,
usually during religious festivals, when
many people would be
in town. People could
visit the stalls set up
by merchants from all
parts of Europe.
Background
In most crafts, both
husbands and wives
worked at the family
trade. In some guilds,
especially for clothmaking, women
formed the majority.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Recognizing
Effects How did the
exclusion of Jews
from many aspects of
life in medieval Europe
affect their ways of
earning a living?
B. Possible Answer
With few other
avenues open to
them, and with
Church rules against
Christians’ engaging
in moneylending,
many Jews undertook
finance.
Fairs and Trade Most trade took place in towns. Peasants from nearby manors
traveled to town on fair days, hauling items to trade. Cloth was the most common
trade item. Other items included bacon, salt, honey, cheese, wine, leather, dyes,
knives, and ropes. Such local fairs met all the needs of daily life for a small community. No longer was everything produced on a self-sufficient manor.
The Guilds Great fairs were made possible by the guilds, which
controlled the crafts and trade. A guild was an association of people
who worked at the same occupation. It was similar to a union today.
In medieval towns, guilds controlled all wages and prices in their
craft. Each guild usually met in its own guild hall. The first guilds
were formed by merchants who controlled all the trade in their town.
As towns grew, skilled artisans—such as wheelwrights, glassmakers, winemakers, tailors, and druggists—began craft guilds. Guilds
enforced standards of quality. Bakers, for example, were required to
sell loaves of bread of a standard size and weight and at a fair price.
Only masters of the trade could be guild members. Becoming a
master wasn’t easy. First a child was apprenticed for five to nine
years to a master to learn the trade. Then the apprentice became
a journeyman and could go to work for wages. As the final step, a
journeyman made an item—whether it was a shoe, a barrel, or a
sword—that qualified as a “master piece.” Journeymen whose product met guild standards were welcomed into the guild as masters.
Daily Life
Surnames
Many people can trace their last
names, or surnames, back to a
medieval occupation. For example,
a man who made thatched roofs for
cottages became Thatcher.
The name Smith refers to a man
who “smites,” or works, metal.
There is also Brownsmith, one who
works copper; Goldsmith, one who
works gold; and Silversmith, one
who works silver.
Someone who made things out
of wood might be surnamed
Carpenter. Someone who made or
repaired wooden barrels might be
called Cooper.
Place names also became
surnames, such as Holland and
Welsh (a person from Wales).
Sometimes, a person new to the
area simply received the surname
Newman. Surnames can also derive
from family relationships, as does
Williamson.
A Financial Revolution This medieval world of fairs and guilds
created a need for large amounts of cash. Before a merchant could
make a profit selling his goods at a fair, he first had to purchase goods
from distant places. Usually, this meant he had to borrow money, but
the Church forbade Christians from lending money at interest, a sin
called usury. Where, then, did merchants go for a loan?
Many of Europe’s Jews lived in the growing towns and were
moneylenders. Moneylending was one of the few ways of making a living allowed
them. In this largely Christian world, Jews were kept on the fringes of society. Guilds
excluded them. They had to live in segregated parts of towns called ghettos. Because
Jews were forbidden to hold land, they had never become part of the feudal system.
Over time, the Church relaxed its rule on usury. Banking became an important business, especially in Italy.
Urban Splendor Reborn
All over Europe, trade blossomed, and better farming methods caused a spurt of population growth. Scholars estimate that between 1000 and 1150, the population of western
Europe rose from around 30 million to about 42 million. Towns grew and flourished.
Compared to great cities like Constantinople, European towns were primitive and tiny.
Europe’s largest city, Paris, probably had no more than 60,000 people by the year
1200. A typical town in medieval Europe had only about 1,500 to 2,500 people.
Nevertheless, these small communities became a powerful force for change.
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Trade and Towns Grow Together By the later Middle Ages, trade was the very
lifeblood of the new towns, which sprang up at ports, at crossroads, on hilltops, and
along rivers. All over Europe, as trade grew, towns swelled with people. The excitement and bustle of towns drew many people. They were no longer content with their
old feudal existence. Even though they were legally bound to their lord’s manor, many
serfs ran away. As people left life on the manor for life in towns, they challenged the
traditional ways of feudal society in which everyone had his place. They did not return
to the manor, and towns grew rapidly.
Most medieval towns developed haphazardly. Streets were
narrow, filled with horses, pigs, oxen, and their refuse. With
no sewers, most people dumped household waste, both
animal and human, into the street in front of the house. Most
people never bathed, and their houses lacked fresh air, light,
and clean water. Because houses were built of wood with
thatched roofs, they were a constant fire hazard. All in all,
there were many drawbacks to living in a medieval town.
Nonetheless, many people chose to move to such towns to
pursue the economic and social opportunities they offered.
Towns and the Social Order So many serfs had left the
manors by the 1100s that according to custom, a serf could
now become free by living within a town for a year and a day.
As the saying went, “Town air makes you free.” Many of
these runaway serfs, now free people, made better lives for
themselves in towns.
The merchants and craftsmen of medieval towns did not fit
into the traditional medieval social order of noble, clergy, and
peasant. At first, towns came under the authority of feudal
lords, who used their authority to levy fees, taxes, and rents.
As trade expanded, the burghers, or town dwellers, resented
this interference in their trade and commerce. They organized
themselves and demanded privileges. These included freedom
from certain kinds of tolls or the right to govern the town.
At times they fought against their landlords and won these
rights by force.
This drawing of the
bishop of Paris
blessing the people
at a fair dates from
the 14th century.
The scene shows
town dwellers
going about their
business, including
merchants in their
fair booths.
350 Chapter 14
The Revival of Learning
Growing trade and growing cities brought a new interest in learning. At the center
of the growth of learning stood a new European institution—the university. Athens,
Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople had all been centers of learning, but never
before had the world seen the university as it arose in western Europe.
Scholars and Writers The word university originally designated a group of scholars
meeting wherever they could. People, not buildings, made up the medieval university.
Universities arose at Paris and at Bologna, Italy, by the end of the 1100s. Others followed at the English town of Oxford and at Salerno, Italy. Most students were the sons
of burghers or well-to-do artisans. For most students, the goal was a job in government
or the Church. Earning a bachelor’s degree in theology might take 5 to 7 years in school;
becoming a master of theology took at least 12 years of study.
At a time when serious scholars and writers were writing in Latin, a few remarkable
poets began using a lively vernacular, or the everyday language of their homeland. Some
of these writers wrote masterpieces that are still read today. Dante Alighieri wrote The
Divine Comedy (1321) in Italian. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales (about
1387–1400) in English. Christine de Pisan wrote The City of Ladies (1405) in French.
Since most people couldn’t read or understand Latin, these writers brought literature to
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Summarizing
What were the advantages of town life for
many former serfs?
C. Possible Answer
Economic and social
opportunities.
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Vocabulary
pilgrimage: a journey
to a sacred place or
shrine.
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many people. For example, Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales describes a pilgrimage to the
shrine of St. Thomas à Becket. It was read aloud at gatherings:
SPOTLIGHT ON
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
It happened in that season that one day
In Southwark, at The Tabard, as I lay
Ready to go on pilgrimage and start
For Canterbury, most devout at heart,
At night there came into that hostelry
Some nine and twenty in a company
Of sundry folk happening then to fall
In fellowship, and they were pilgrims all
That towards Canterbury meant to ride.
GEOFFREY CHAUCER, the Prologue to The Canterbury Tales, translated by Nevill Coghill
The Muslim Connection The revival of learning sparked European
D. Possible Answer
Aristotle’s work influenced Arab thinkers
such as Avicenna and
Averroes, both of
whom wrote commentaries on Aristotle, as
well as the scholars
at universities in
medieval Europe.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
D. Supporting
Opinions Why do
you suppose that
Aristotle was called
“the master of those
who know” and “the
philosopher” in
medieval times?
interest in the works of ancient scholars. At the same time, the growth
of trade was accelerated by the Crusades. This brought Europeans into
contact with Muslims and Byzantines. These people had preserved in
their libraries the writings of the old Greek philosophers. In the 1100s,
Christian scholars from Europe began visiting Muslim libraries in
Spain. Few Western scholars knew Greek. Jewish scholars translated
Arabic versions of works by Aristotle and other Greek writers into
Latin. All at once, Europeans acquired a huge new body of knowledge.
This included science, philosophy, law, mathematics, and other fields.
In addition, the Crusaders learned from, and brought back to Europe,
superior Muslim technology in ships, navigation, and weapons.
Aquinas and Medieval Philosophy Christian scholars were
Arab Scholars
A number of Islamic scholars had a
great influence on European thought.
The woodcut from 1584 above shows
Ibn Sina, known in the West as
Avicenna. He was a Persian
philosopher, astronomer, poet, and
physician. A book of his that greatly
affected Western thought was
The Cure, an interpretation of the
philosophy of Aristotle. This work,
translated into Latin, influenced the
scholastics.
Another scholar was Ibn Rushd,
known in the West as Averroes, who
lived in Córdoba, Spain. He achieved
fame for his commentaries on the
works of Aristotle. These works
were translated from Arabic into
Latin and were used in universities
throughout Christian Europe in the
1200s. Ibn Rushd’s work greatly
influenced Western thinkers.
excited by the Greek writings. Could a Christian scholar use
Aristotle’s logical approach to truth and still keep faith with the Bible?
In the mid-1200s, the scholar Thomas Aquinas (uh KWY nuhs)
argued that the most basic religious truths could be proved by logical
argument. Between 1267 and 1273, Aquinas wrote the Summa
Theologica. Aquinas’s great work, influenced by Aristotle, combined
ancient Greek thought with the Christian thought of his time. Aquinas
and his fellow scholars who met at the great universities were known
as schoolmen, or scholastics. The scholastics used their knowledge of
Aristotle to debate many issues of their time. Their teachings on law and government
influenced the thinking of western Europeans, particularly the English and French.
Accordingly, they began to develop democratic institutions and traditions.
•
•
Section 2 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• three-field system
• guild
• burgher
• vernacular
• Dante Alighieri
• Geoffrey Chaucer
• Thomas Aquinas
• scholastics
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a web diagram like the
one below, show how medieval
society changed between
1000 and 1300.
Changes in
Medieval Society
3. ANALYZING CAUSES
What was the effect of towns on
the feudal system?
THINK ABOUT
• where the new townsfolk
came from
• the saying “Town air makes
you free”
• the changes experienced
by townspeople
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Economics How did guilds
improve the quality of goods and
business practices?
THINK ABOUT
• who enforced standards of quality
• who could become guild
members
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England and
France Develop
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
As the kingdoms of England and France
began to develop into nations, certain
democratic traditions evolved.
Modern concepts of jury trials,
common law, and legal rights
developed during this period.
SETTING THE STAGE By the early 800s, small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms covered the
former Roman province of Britain. In Europe, the decline of the Carolingian Empire
in the 900s left a patchwork of feudal states controlled by local lords. Gradually, the
rise of the burghers, the growth of towns and villages, and the breakup of the feudal
system were leading to changes in government and the development of nations.
England Absorbs Waves of Invaders
For centuries, invaders from various regions in Europe landed on English shores.
Many of them stayed, bringing their own ways and changing English culture.
William the
Conqueror, from a
13th-century English
history book.
Early Invasions In the 800s, Britain was battered by fierce raids of Danish Vikings.
These invaders were so feared that a special prayer was said in churches: “God,
deliver us from the fury of the Northmen.” Only Alfred the Great, king from 871 to
899, managed to turn back the Viking invaders. Gradually he and his successors
united the kingdom under one rule, calling it England—“land of the Angles.”
The Angles were one of the Germanic tribes that had invaded Britain.
In 1016, the Danish king Canute (kuh NOOT) conquered England,
molding Anglo-Saxons and Vikings into one people. In 1042, King Edward
the Confessor, a descendant of the Anglo-Saxon Alfred the Great, took the
throne. Edward died in January 1066 without an heir. A great struggle for
the throne erupted, and that led to one last invasion.
•
The Norman Conquest The invader was William, duke of
Normandy, who became known as William the Conqueror.
Normandy is a region in the north of France that had been
conquered by the Vikings. The Normans were descended from the
Vikings, but they were French in language and in culture. As King
Edward’s cousin, William claimed the English crown and invaded
England with a Norman army. William was ambitious, tough, and an
imposing figure. An anonymous monk of the time described him:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
[William was] great in body and strong, tall in stature but not ungainly.
He was also temperate in eating and drinking. . . . In speech he was fluent and persuasive, being skilled at all times in making clear his will. If
his voice was harsh, what he said was always suited to the occasion. . . .
ANONYMOUS MONK OF CAEN
William’s rival was Harold Godwinson, the Anglo-Saxon who claimed
the throne. And he was equally ambitious. On October 14, 1066,
Normans and Saxons fought the battle that changed the course of
English history—the Battle of Hastings. After Harold was killed
by an arrow in his eye, the Normans won a decisive victory.
TERMS & NAMES
• William the
Conqueror
• Henry II
• Eleanor of
Aquitaine
• Magna Carta
• parliament
• Philip II
• Louis IX
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Background
Through William’s
actions, England suddenly had a new ruling
class of Frenchspeaking nobles.
William kept about
one-fifth of England for
himself, a powerful
base for any king.
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After his victory, William declared all England his personal property. The English
lords who supported Harold lost their lands. William then granted fiefs to about 200
Norman lords who swore oaths of loyalty to him personally. In this way he laid the
foundation for centralized government.
England’s Evolving Government
William the Conqueror’s descendants owned land both in Normandy and in England. The
English King Henry II added to these holdings by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine. She
brought with her more lands from France. Over the next centuries English kings tried to
achieve two goals. First, they wanted to hold and add on to their French lands. Second,
they wanted to strengthen their own power over the nobles and the Church.
Monarchs, Nobles, and the Common Law Eleanor of Aquitaine was one of the
most remarkable women in history. She was wife to two kings and mother to two kings.
She married Louis VII of France when the Second Crusade began. In 1147, she
accompanied him to the Holy Land. Shortly afterward their marriage was annulled.
Eleanor then married Henry Plantagenet, who was to become Henry II of England.
Their marriage produced four sons. Two became English kings—Richard the LionHearted and John. The marriage also brought Henry a large territory in France called
Aquitaine. He added Aquitaine to the lands in Normandy he had already inherited
from William the Conqueror. Because Henry held lands in France, he was a vassal to
the French king. But he was also a king in his own right.
Henry ruled England from 1154 to 1189. He strengthened the
CONNECT to TODAY
royal courts of justice by sending royal judges to every part of England
at least once a year. They collected taxes, settled lawsuits, and punished crimes. Henry also introduced the use of the jury in English
courts. A jury in medieval England was a group of loyal people—usually 12 neighbors of the accused—who answered a royal judge’s questions about the facts of a case. Jury trials became a popular means of
settling disputes. Only the king’s courts were allowed to conduct them.
Over the centuries, case by case, the rulings of England’s royal
judges formed a unified body of law that became known as common
law. Today these principles of English common law are the basis for
law in many English-speaking countries, including the United States.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Summarizing
What is the significance of the Magna
Carta?
A. Possible Answer
The Magna Carta limited the power of the
king and guaranteed
basic political and
legal rights that,
although at first
applied only to
nobles, came to be
applied to all citizens.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Summarizing
What is the significance of the Magna
Carta?
The Magna Carta Henry was succeeded first by his son Richard
the Lion-Hearted, hero of the Third Crusade. When Richard died,
his younger brother John took the throne. John ruled from 1199 to
1216. He failed as a military leader, earning the nickname John
Softsword. John lost Normandy and all his lands in northern France
to the French. This loss forced a confrontation with his own nobles.
Some of John’s problems stemmed from his own character. He was
mean to his subjects and tried to squeeze money out of them. John
raised taxes to an all-time high to finance his wars. His nobles revolted.
On June 15, 1215, they forced John to agree to the most celebrated
document in English history, the Magna Carta (Great Charter). This
document, drawn up by English nobles and reluctantly approved by
King John, guaranteed certain basic political rights. The nobles wanted
to safeguard their own feudal rights and limit the king’s powers. In
later years, however, English people of all classes argued that certain
clauses in the Magna Carta applied to every citizen. Guaranteed rights
included no taxation without representation, a jury trial, and the
protection of the law. The Magna Carta guaranteed what are now
considered basic legal rights both in England and in the United States.
Robin Hood in the Movies
During the time of King Richard and
King John, Robin Hood was said to
live in Sherwood Forest with his
band of merry men. According to
the stories about him, he was an
outlaw who robbed from the rich
and gave to the poor. He attempted
to remedy some of the injustices
committed under King John.
There have been many film
versions of the story of Robin Hood.
Douglas Fairbanks starred in a silent
Robin Hood (1922). Errol Flynn (above
right) starred in The Adventures of
Robin Hood (1938), a version
celebrated for its rousing action.
Disney released an animated Robin
Hood in 1973. Kevin Costner starred
in the popular Robin Hood: Prince of
Thieves (1991).
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The Model Parliament Another important step toward democratic government
resulted from Edward I’s struggles to hang onto his last remaining French lands. In
1295, Edward needed to raise taxes for a war against the French. Edward summoned
two burgesses (citizens of wealth and property) from every borough and two knights
from every county to serve as a parliament, or legislative group. In November 1295,
knights, burgesses, bishops, and lords met together at Westminster in London. This is
now called the Model Parliament because its new makeup (commoners, or non-nobles,
as well as lords) served as a model for later kings.
Over the next century, from 1300 to 1400, the king called the knights and
burgesses whenever a new tax was needed. In Parliament, these two groups gradually
formed an assembly of their own called the House of Commons. Nobles and bishops
met separately as the House of Lords. Under Edward I, Parliament was in part a royal
tool that weakened the great lords. As time went by, however, Parliament became
strong. Like the Magna Carta, it provided a check on royal power.
Capetian Dynasty Rules France
The kings of France, like those of England, looked for ways of increasing their power.
After the breakup of Charlemagne’s empire, French counts and dukes ruled their
lands independently under the feudal system. By the year 1000, France was divided
into about 30 feudal territories. In 987, the last member of the Carolingian family—
Louis the Sluggard—died. Hugh Capet (kuh PAY), an undistinguished duke from the
middle of France, succeeded him. The Capet family ruled only a small territory, but
at its heart stood Paris. Hugh Capet began the Capetian dynasty of French kings that
ruled France from 987 to 1328.
•
France Becomes a Separate Kingdom Hugh Capet, his son, and his grandson all
were weak rulers, but time and geography favored the Capetians. Their territory, though
small, sat astride important trade routes in northern France. For 200 years, Capetian
kings tightened their grip on this strategic area. The power of the king gradually spread
outward from Paris. Eventually, the growth of royal power would unite France.
Philip II Expands His Power One of the most powerful Capetians was Philip II,
The coronation of
Philip II in the
cathedral of Reims.
called Philip Augustus, who ruled from 1180 to 1223. As a child, Philip had watched
his father lose land to King Henry II of England. When Philip became king at the age
of 15, he set out to weaken the power of the English kings in France. Philip was
crafty, unprincipled, and willing to do whatever
was necessary to achieve his goals.
Philip had little success against Henry II or
Henry’s son, Richard the Lion-Hearted. However,
when King John seized the English throne, it was
another matter. Philip earned the name Augustus
(from the Latin word meaning “majestic”), probably because he greatly increased the territory of
France. He seized Normandy from King John in
1204 and within two years had gained other territory. By the end of Philip’s reign, he had tripled
the lands under his direct control. For the first
time, a French king had become more powerful
than any of his vassals.
Philip Augustus not only wanted more land,
he also wanted a stronger central government.
He established royal officials called bailiffs.
They were sent from Paris to every district in
the kingdom to preside over the king’s courts
and collect the king’s taxes.
Vocabulary
borough: a selfgoverning town.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Clarifying What
was the Model
Parliament and why
did it come to be
considered a model?
B. Possible Answer
An assembly of citizens and knights from
all over England
called together by
Edward I as a legislative group to raise
taxes. It served as a
model to later kings
who wished to call
together a representative assembly.
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The Development of England and France
England
France
• William the Conqueror, duke of Normandy,
invades England in 1066.
• Hugh Capet establishes Capetian Dynasty
in 987, which rules until 1328.
• Henry II (ruled 1154–1189) introduces use of
the jury in English courts.
• Philip II (ruled 1180–1223) increases the
territory of France.
• Under pressure from his nobles, King John
agrees to Magna Carta in 1215.
• Louis IX (ruled 1226–1270) strengthens
France’s central government.
• Edward I calls Model Parliament in 1295.
• Philip IV (ruled 1285–1314) adds Third Estate
to Estates-General.
S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts
1. What is the significance of the date 1066?
2. Which English king and French king contributed to the growth of a representative assembly?
Philip II’s Heirs France’s central government was made even stronger during the
C. Answer The First
Estate was made up of
Church leaders; the
Second Estate was
made up of the great
lords; the Third Estate
was made up of commoners.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Summarizing
What three estates
made up the
Estates-General?
reign of Philip’s grandson, Louis IX, who ruled from 1226 to 1270. Unlike his
grandfather, Louis was pious and saintly. He was known as the ideal king. After his
death, he was made a saint by the Catholic Church. Louis created a French appeals
court, which could overturn the decisions of local courts. These royal courts of France
strengthened the monarchy while weakening feudal ties.
In 1302, Philip IV, who ruled France from 1285 to 1314, was involved in a quarrel
with the pope. The pope refused to allow priests to pay taxes to the king. Philip disputed the right of the pope to control Church affairs in his kingdom. As in England,
the French king usually called a meeting of his lords and bishops when he needed
support for his policies. To win wider support against the pope, Philip IV decided to
include commoners in the meeting.
In France, the Church leaders were known as the First Estate, and the great lords as
the Second Estate. The commoners that Philip invited to participate in the council
became known as the Third Estate. The whole meeting was called the Estates-General.
Like the English Parliament in its early years, the Estates-General helped to increase
royal power against the nobility. Unlike Parliament, however, the Estates-General never
became an independent force that limited the king’s power. However, centuries later, the
Third Estate would be the key to overthrowing the French monarchy. Now, in the 14th
century, there was much turmoil. This included religious disputes, plague, and war. This
disorder threatened the fragile achievements of England and France in beginning to
establish a democratic tradition.
Section 3 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• William the Conqueror
• Henry II
• Eleanor of Aquitaine
• Magna Carta
• parliament
• Philip II
• Louis IX
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a graphic, name each major
step toward a democratic
government and describe why it
was important. Add steps as
needed.
(Step)
(Description)
Which of the steps are similar
to U.S. practices? Explain.
3. CONTRASTING
4. THEME ACTIVITY
Contrast the way in which England
and France began developing
as nations.
THINK ABOUT
• the character of William, duke of
Normandy, versus the character
of Hugh Capet
• the rise of the Normans to power
in England
• the rise of the Capetians to
power in France
Power and Authority
Imagine that you are an adviser
to the king. Write him a letter in
which you argue for or against
including commoners in the
Parliament or Estates-General.
Tell the king the advantages and
disadvantages of including
commoners in the group.
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TERMS & NAMES
A Century
of Turmoil
•
•
•
•
•
•
MAIN IDEA
WHY IT MATTERS NOW
During the 1300s, Europe was torn apart
by religious strife, the bubonic plague,
and the Hundred Years’ War.
Events of the 1300s led to a change in
attitudes toward religion and the state,
a change reflected in modern attitudes.
Avignon
Great Schism
John Wycliffe
Jan Hus
bubonic plague
Hundred
Years’ War
• Joan of Arc
SETTING THE STAGE At the turn of the century between the 1200s and 1300s, church
and state seemed in good shape, but trouble was brewing. The Church seemed to be
thriving. Ideals of fuller political representation seemed to be developing in France and
England. However, the 1300s were filled with disasters, both natural and manmade. By
the end of the century, the medieval way of life was beginning to disappear.
A Church Divided
At the beginning of the 1300s, the papacy seemed in some
ways still strong. Soon, however, both pope and Church
were in desperate trouble.
Pope and King Collide The pope in 1300 was an able
Boniface VIII
served as pope
from 1294 to 1303.
This woodcut of
Boniface was done
in Venice in 1592.
but stubborn Italian. Pope Boniface VIII attempted to
enforce papal authority on kings as previous popes had.
When King Philip IV of France asserted his authority over
French bishops, Boniface responded with a papal bull
(an official document issued by the pope). It stated, “We
declare, state, and define that subjection to the Roman
Pontiff is absolutely necessary for the salvation of every
human creature.” In short, kings must always obey popes.
Philip merely sneered at this bull. In fact one of Philip’s
ministers is said to have remarked that “my master’s sword is made
of steel, the pope’s is made of [words].” Instead of obeying the pope, in
September 1303 Philip had him held prisoner. The king planned to bring him to
France for trial. The pope was rescued, but the elderly Boniface died a month later.
Never again would a pope be able to force monarchs to obey him.
Vocabulary
Pontiff: the pope.
Avignon and the Great Schism While Philip IV failed to keep Pope Boniface
captive, in 1305 he persuaded the College of Cardinals to choose a French archbishop
as the new pope. Clement V, the selected pope, shortly moved from Rome to the city
of Avignon (av vee NYAWN) in France. Popes would live there for the next 67 years.
The move to Avignon badly weakened the Church. When reformers finally tried to
move the papacy back to Rome, however, the result was even worse. In 1378, Pope
Gregory XI died while visiting Rome. The College of Cardinals then met in Rome to
choose a successor. As they deliberated, they could hear a mob outside screaming,
“A Roman, a Roman, we want a Roman for pope, or at least an Italian!” Finally, the
cardinals announced to the crowd that an Italian had been chosen: Pope Urban VI.
Many cardinals regretted their choice almost immediately. Urban VI’s passion for
reform and his arrogant personality caused French cardinals to elect another pope
a few months later. They chose Robert of Geneva, who spoke French. He took the
name Clement VII.
•
356 Chapter 14
•
Background
People outside France
concluded that the
Avignon popes were
pawns of the French
kings. They believed
that the Church was
held captive in
Avignon just as, centuries before, the
Jews had been held
captive in Babylon.
This period in Church
history came to be
called the Babylonian
Captivity.
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Now there were two popes. Each declared the other to be a false pope, excommunicating his rival. The French pope lived in Avignon, while the Italian pope lived in Rome.
This began the split in the Church known as the Great Schism (SIHZ uhm), or division.
The Council of Constance had as its major task to end the Great Schism by choosing
a new pope. In 1414, when the Council of Constance began its meetings, there were
a total of three popes: the Avignon pope, the Roman pope, and a third pope elected
by an earlier council at Pisa. With the help of the Holy Roman Emperor, the council
forced all three popes to resign. In 1417, the council chose a new pope, Martin V,
ending the Great Schism.
•
A Scholarly Challenge to Church Authority The papacy was further challenged in
the late 1300s and early 1400s by two professors. One was an Englishman named John
Wycliffe (WIHK lihf). He preached that Jesus Christ, not the pope, was the true head of
the Church. He was much offended by the worldliness and wealth many clergy displayed.
The pope himself, as Wycliffe noted, lived in shameful luxury, serving dinner on gold and silver plates to
guests dressed in costly furs. Wycliffe believed that
the clergy should own no land or wealth.
Wycliffe also taught that the Bible alone—not
the pope—was the final authority for Christian life.
He helped spread this idea by inspiring an English
translation of the New Testament of the Bible,
which at the time was available only in French or
Latin. Wycliffe’s radical ideas were discussed
widely throughout England. Influenced by
Wycliffe’s writings, Jan Hus, a professor in
Bohemia (now part of the Czech Republic), taught
that the authority of the Bible was higher than that
of the pope. Hus was excommunicated in 1412.
In 1414, the German emperor Sigismund arranged
the Council of Constance. He urged Hus to attend
and even gave him safe conduct. When Hus arrived
at the meeting, however, he was seized and tried as
a heretic, then burned at the stake in 1415.
•
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
A. Contrasting
What was the true
source of religious
authority, according to
the different beliefs of
the time?
A. Possible Answer
There was confusion
and disagreement
about where true religious authority
resided. Some
thought it resided
with the pope, others
with a Church council,
and still others with
the Bible alone.
The Bubonic Plague Strikes
Artists of the 1300s depicted death as the Grim Reaper, a skeleton on horseback
whose scythe cut people down. The image is appropriate—approximately one-third of
the population of Europe died of the deadly disease known as the bubonic plague.
This scene from a
15th-century book
shows Jan Hus
being burned at the
stake in 1415.
Origins and Symptoms of the Plague The plague began in Asia. Traveling the
trade lanes, it infected most of Asia and the Muslim world. Inevitably it reached Europe.
In 1347, a fleet of Genoese merchant ships arrived in Sicily carrying a dread cargo. This
was the disease that became known as the Black Death. It got the name because of the
purplish or blackish spots it produced on the skin. The disease swept through Italy. From
there it followed trade routes to France, Germany, England, and other parts of Europe.
Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying
that it ripped apart the very fabric of society. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of
the time, described its effect:
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that
brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many
cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse, . . . fathers and mothers refused to
nurse and assist their own children.
GIOVANNI BOCCACCIO, The Decameron
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F E A T U IRmpact
E TITLE
Global
The Bubonic Plague
We
We see
see death
death coming
coming into
into
our
our midst
midst like
like black
black smoke…
smoke…
—Welsh
—Welsh poet
poet Ieuan
Ieuan Gethin
Gethin in
in 1349
1349
The bubonic plague, or Black Death, was a killer disease that swept
repeatedly through many areas of the world. It wiped out two-thirds
of the population in some areas of China, destroyed populations of
Muslim towns in Southwest Asia, and then decimated a third of the
European population.
The Plague in the 14th Century
KEY
Death Toll, 1300s
= 4 million
Western Europe
20–25 million
Southwest Asia
4 million
China
35 million
The horse-riding Mongols
likely carried infected
fleas and rats in their food
supplies as they swooped
into China.
Route of the Plague
ASIA
EUROPE
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Black Sea
Genoa
MONGOLIA
Kaffa
Alexandria
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SOUTHWEST
ASIA
AFRICA
0
INDIA
0
In 1345–46, a Mongol army
besieged Kaffa, on the Black
Sea. A year later, Italian
merchants who lived there fled
back to Italy, unknowingly
bringing the plague with them.
Detail of The Plague by Micco Spadaro, mid-1600s
CHINA
1,000 Miles
2,000 Kilometers
The disease came with merchants
along the trade routes of Asia to all
parts of southern Asia, southwest
Asia, and eventually Africa.
Symptoms
• Painful swellings called buboes (BOO bohz) in the lymph nodes,
particularly those in the armpits and groin
• Sometimes purplish or blackish spots on the skin
• Extremely high fever, chills, delirium, and in most cases, death
•
Black rats carried fleas from
one area to another—fleas that
were infested with a bacillus
called Yersinia pestis. In those
days, people did not bathe—and
almost all had fleas and lice. In
addition, medieval people threw their
garbage and sewage into the streets.
These unsanitary streets became
breeding grounds for more rats. The
fleas carried by rats leapt from person
to person, thus spreading the bubonic
plague with incredible speed.
Connect
Patterns of Interaction
The bubonic plague was just one of the several lethal diseases that
have swept from one society to another throughout history. Such
diseases as smallpox and influenza have wiped out huge numbers of
people, sometimes—as with the Aztecs—virtually destroying civilizations.
The spread of disease has been a physical and very tragic result of
cultures’ interacting with one another across place and time.
VIDEO
358 Chapter 14
The Spread of Epidemic Disease: Bubonic Plague and Smallpox
to History
Hypothesizing Had people
known the cause of the bubonic
plague, what might they have
done to slow its spread?
SEE SKILLBUILDER
HANDBOOK, PAGE R11
Connect
to Today
Comparing What diseases of
today might be compared to the
bubonic plague? Why?
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Vocabulary
scapegoat: one that
is made to bear the
blame of others.
4:01 PM
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Frightened people looked around for a scapegoat.
They found one in the Jews, who were blamed for
bringing on the plague by poisoning the wells. All
over Europe, Jews were driven from their homes
or, worse, massacred.
The bubonic plague took about four years to
reach almost every corner of Europe. In any given
community, approximately three-quarters of those
who caught the disease died. Before the bubonic
plague ran its course, it killed almost 25 million
Europeans and many more millions in Asia and
North Africa.
Page 4 of 6
If the Plague Struck America Today
The bubonic plague reportedly wiped out about one-third
of Europe’s population in the 1300s. In the United States
today, a one-third death toll would equal nearly 79 million
people, or the number living in the states represented by
the color
.
Effects of the Plague The plague returned
Vocabulary
penance: an act
performed to show
sorrow for a sin or
wrongdoing.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
B. Recognizing
Effects What were
some of the effects of
the plague?
B. Possible
Answers Population
declined; workers
scarce; farmland
abandoned; serfs
sought higher wages;
manor system crumbled; nobles resisted
demands for higher
wages; Church lost
prestige; pessimism
increased.
every few years, though it never struck as severely
as in the first outbreak. However, the periodic
attacks further reduced the population.
Source: Bureau of the Census
The economic effects of the plague were
S K I L L B U I L D E R : Interpreting Charts
enormous. Town populations fell. Trade declined.
1. How many states on the chart would have lost
Prices rose. Fewer people meant that workers were
their entire population to the plague?
scarce everywhere. Farmland was abandoned or
2. How might the chart help explain why many
used to pasture sheep, which required less labor.
Europeans thought the world was ending?
Serfs had often been unpaid or poorly paid for their
labor. They left the manor in search of better wages.
The old manorial system began to crumble. Nobles fiercely resisted peasant demands
for higher wages, causing peasant revolts in England, France, Italy, and Belgium.
The Church suffered a loss of prestige when its prayers and penances failed to stop
the onslaught of the bubonic plague. In addition, many clergy deserted their flocks or
charged high fees to perform services for the dying.
Many people who saw how abruptly life could end became pessimistic about life
itself, fearing the future. As one poet of the time wrote, “Happy is he who has no
children.” Art and literature of the time reflect an unusual awareness of death. On the
other hand, many people became occupied with pleasure and self-indulgence. They
displayed the attitude of “Eat, drink, and be merry, for tomorrow you may die.”
The bubonic plague and its aftermath disrupted medieval society, hastening changes
that were already in the making. The society of the Middle Ages was collapsing. The
century of war between England and France was that society’s final death struggle.
The Hundred Years’ War
When the last Capetian king died without a successor, England’s Edward III claimed
the right to the French throne as grandson of Philip IV. The war that Edward III
launched for that throne continued on and off from 1337 to 1453. It became known as
the Hundred Years’ War and added to the century’s miseries. The war was a seesaw
affair, fought on French soil. Victory passed back and forth between the two countries. Finally, between 1421 and 1453, the French rallied and drove the English out of
France entirely, except for the port city of Calais.
The Battle of Crécy While the French eventually won the war, the English won
three important battles in France. The first and most spectacular was the Battle of
Crécy (KREHS ee). Some of the combatants were still operating under medieval
ideals of chivalry. They were anxious to perform noble deeds in war. They looked
with contempt on the common foot soldiers and archers who fought alongside them.
However, in the Battle of Crécy, it was the English archers who won the day.
•
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Important Events in the Middle Ages
1096
First
Crusade
begins
987
Capetian
Dynasty begins
in France
900
1000
1189
Third
Crusade
begins
1100
1302
First meeting
of EstatesGeneral
1273
Thomas Aquinas
completes Summa
Theologica
1200
1300
1492
Muslims and Jews
driven out of Spain
Columbus lands
in America
1378
The Great
Schism
begins
1400
THE HUNDRED YEARS’ WAR
1066
Norman
conquest of
England
1147
Second
Crusade
begins
1215
Magna
Carta
signed
1347
Bubonic plague
devastates
Europe
1295
Model
Parliament
meets
1429
Joan of Arc leads the
French army that lifts
the siege of Orléans
English and French forces met near the town of Crécy on August 26, 1346. English
men-at-arms and their longbowmen were outnumbered by a French army three times
its size, including armored knights and a force of archers with crossbows. Mounted on
warhorses and protected by heavy armor, French knights believed themselves invincible and attacked.
Meanwhile, English longbowmen let fly thousands of arrows at the oncoming French.
The crossbowmen, out of range and peppered with English arrows, retreated in panic. A
French noble, seeing the crossbowmen fleeing, shouted, “Slay these rascals who get in
our way!” The knights trampled their own archers in an effort to cut a path through
them. English longbowmen sent volley after volley of deadly arrows. They unhorsed
knights who then lay helplessly on the ground in their heavy armor. Then, using long
knives, the English foot soldiers attacked, slaughtering the French. At the end of the day,
more than a third of the French force lay dead. Among them were some of the most
honored in chivalry. The longbow, not chivalry, had won the day.
SPOTLIGHT ON
The Longbow
The bow and arrow reached one of
its peaks from the 1200s through the
early 1400s with the longbow. The
string of the “short bow” was
drawn back to the chest. The
longbow was as tall as a man, or
taller, and the string was pulled
back to the archer’s ear. A six-foottall man might have a bow seven
feet tall.
English archers usually carried a
case with extra bowstrings and a
sheaf of 24 arrows with them into
battle. The arrows were balanced in
flight by feathers. The arrows were
dangerous at a range of 300 yards.
They were absolutely fatal within
100 yards. Writers of the time say
that the sound of several thousand
arrows whistling through the air
was terrifying.
Poitiers and Agincourt The English repeated their victory ten
years later at the Battle of Poitiers (pwah TYAY). Near the town of
Poitiers, France, the French believed they had caught the English at
a disadvantage. When the overconfident knights charged on foot,
English longbowmen greeted them with volleys of arrows so thick that
the air grew dark. French knights were helpless. The French king
John and his son Philip were captured and held for ransom.
The third English victory, the Battle of Agincourt (AJ ihn kawrt),
took place in 1415. Again the English army was outnumbered, with
their 6,000 troops against a French force of 20,000 to 30,000. Led by
King Henry V, English archers again won a victory over the heavily
armored French knights. The success of the longbow in these battles
spelled doom for chivalric warfare. The mounted, heavily armored
medieval knight was soon to become extinct.
•
•
•
Joan of Arc Five years after Agincourt, the French and English
signed a treaty stating that Henry V would inherit the French crown
at the death of the French king Charles VI. The French had lost
hope. Then, in 1429, a teenage French peasant girl named Joan of
Arc felt moved by God to rescue France from its English conquerors.
She believed that heavenly voices spoke to her. They told her to drive
the English out of France and give the French crown to France’s
true king, Charles VI’s son.
Joan convinced Charles that she was sincere. On May 7, 1429, Joan led the French
army into battle against an English fort that blocked the roads to Orléans. The
English had been besieging the city for over six months. Without help, the city’s
360 Chapter 14
Background
The English archers
aimed for the horses’
unprotected rumps.
Wounded horses fell,
causing chaos.
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Page 6 of 6
defenders could not hold out much longer. The English forts had
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
■HISTORY
■ ■ ■ ■MAKERS
■ ■ ■ ■
to be taken in order to lift the siege. It was a hard-fought battle for
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
both sides, and the French finally retreated in despair. But suddenly, Joan and a few soldiers charged back toward the fort. The
entire French army stormed after her. The siege of Orléans was
broken. Joan of Arc guided the French onto the path of victory.
After that victory, Joan persuaded Charles to go with her to
Reims. There he was crowned king on July 17, 1429. Joan helped
turn the tide for France. In 1430, she was captured in battle by the
Burgundians, England’s allies. They turned her over to the English.
The English, in turn, handed her over to Church authorities to stand
trial. Although the French king Charles VII owed his crown to Joan,
he did nothing to rescue her. Condemned as a witch and a heretic
because of her claim to hear voices, Joan was tied to a stake and
JOAN OF ARC
burned to death on May 30, 1431.
The Impact of the Hundred Years’ War The long, exhausting
C. Possible Answers
Lives and property
lost on both sides;
French monarchy
strengthened; feelings
of nationalism grew;
king regarded as
national leader; turmoil erupted in
England; Parliament
strengthened.
THINK THROUGH HISTORY
C. Recognizing
Effects What were
some of the consequences of the
Hundred Years’ War?
1412?–1431
When Joan was just 13 she began
to have visions and hear what she
believed were voices of the saints
urging her to help Charles VII drive
the English from France. When
helping to lift the English siege of
Orléans, she said:
war finally ended in 1453, with the English left with only the French
port of Calais. For France, the war—despite its terrible costs in lives,
property, and money—ultimately raised the power and prestige of
the French monarch. Nonetheless, it took a long time for some
regions in France to recover.
You, men of England, who
The war gave birth in both countries to a feeling of nationalism.
have no right in the kingdom
No longer did people think of the king as simply a feudal lord, but
of France, the King of Heaven
as a national leader fighting for the glory of the country.
sends the order through me,
Following the Hundred Years’ War, the English suffered a period of
Joan the Maid, to return to
your own country.
internal turmoil known as the War of the Roses, in which two noble
In 1430, she was turned over to a
houses fought for the throne. Nevertheless, this war was responsible for
Church
court for trial. Because of
strengthening the English Parliament. Edward III’s constant need for
her claim to hear voices, Joan was
money to finance the war led him to call Parliament as many as 27
tried for witchcraft and heresy. In
times, asking for new taxes. Gradually, Parliament’s “power of the
truth, her trial was more political
than religious. The English were
purse” became firmly established, sowing another seed of democracy.
embarrassed that a teenage girl
The end of the Hundred Years’ War in 1453 is considered by some
had defeated them.
historians as the end of the Middle Ages. The twin pillars of the
medieval world—intense religious devotion and the code of
chivalry—both crumbled. The Age of Faith died a slow death. This death was caused
by the Great Schism, the scandalous display of wealth by the Church, and the discrediting of the Church during the bubonic plague. The Age of Chivalry died on the battlefields of Crécy, Poitiers, and Agincourt.
Section 4 Assessment
1. TERMS & NAMES
Identify
• Avignon
• Great Schism
• John Wycliffe
• Jan Hus
• bubonic plague
• Hundred Years’ War
• Joan of Arc
2. TAKING NOTES
Using a chart like the one below,
identify the main cause and the
long-term effect of the three events.
Main Cause Long-Term Effect
Split in
Church
Bubonic
plague
Hundred
Years’ War
3. IDENTIFYING PROBLEMS
What problems did survivors face
after the bubonic plague swept
through their town?
THINK ABOUT
• the number of dead
• the social, political, and
economic chaos
4. ANALYZING THEMES
Religious and Ethical
Systems Do you think John
Wycliffe and Jan Hus posed
a real threat to the Church? Why
or why not?
THINK ABOUT
• the two men’s ideas
• the condition of the Church
at the time
Which event had some positive
economic effects? Explain.
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Chapter 14 Assessment
TERMS & NAMES
REVIEW QUESTIONS
Briefly explain the importance of each of the following
to western Europe during the medieval period.
SECTION 1 (pages 341–346)
Church Reform and the Crusades
1. Crusade
6. Magna Carta
11. What were the three main abuses that most distressed Church
reformers? Explain the problem with each.
2. Reconquista
7. parliament
12. What was the main goal of the Crusades?
3. Inquisition
8. Great Schism
4. three-field system
9. bubonic plague
5. scholastics
SECTION 2 (pages 348–351)
Trade, Towns, and Financial Revolution
10. Hundred Years’ War
13. Name a short-term and a longer-term effect of the switch to the
three-field system.
14. How did the growth of towns hurt the feudal system?
Interact
with History
On page 340, you thought about
whether or not you would join a
Crusade before completely understanding what the Crusades were
and what sort of advantages and
sacrifices they entailed. Now that
you’ve read the chapter, reexamine
whether or not you would join a
Crusade. What might a Crusader
bring home from his travels? What
problems might a Crusader encounter on his adventures? Discuss
your opinions with a small group.
15. What role did Jews and Muslims play in Christian Europe’s
financial revolution?
SECTION 3 (pages 352–355)
England and France Develop
16. How did William the Conqueror extend his rule over all of England
after the Battle of Hastings?
17. What circumstances led King John to accept the Magna Carta?
SECTION 4 (pages 356–361)
A Century of Turmoil
18. Summarize the main ideas of John Wycliffe.
19. Why did the bubonic plague cause people to turn away from the Church?
20. How did the Hundred Years’ War end European armies’ reliance on
mounted knights?
Visual Summary
The Church
The great Gothic cathedrals that soared
heavenward were symbols of the
Church’s power. Yet this power did not
go unchallenged. For decades, kings
and popes engaged in power struggles.
The Bubonic Plague
The bubonic plague killed millions and
weakened the manorial economy.
Crusades
Although the First Crusade
captured Jerusalem, later Crusades
accomplished little.
362 Chapter 14
Better farming methods—such as the
three-field system and the use of
horses—made it possible for farmers
to grow more food. This brought a
population increase in the Middle Ages.
Trade and Towns
EUROPE IN
THE MIDDLE AGES
As people moved from farms into towns,
trade expanded, and guilds formed for
both merchants and artisans.
Hundred Years’ War
Learning
Europe’s first universities developed in
the Middle Ages. Interest in learning
grew in part as a result of the
rediscovery of ancient Greek writings.
Farming
Government
England and France developed strong
central governments in which arose
the first stirrings of democracy in
medieval Europe. This can be seen in
Parliament and the Estates-General.
The Hundred Years’ War further
weakened feudal power. The
longbow doomed armored knights.
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CRITICAL THINKING
CHAPTER ACTIVITIES
1. EDUCATION AFTER THE CRUSADES
THEME CULTURAL INTERACTION How might life have
been different for Europeans if Muslims had not
shared their knowledge and skills?
2. THE GREAT SCHISM
Using a problem-solution outline like the one below,
summarize the Great Schism. Describe the problem,
identify at least two attempted solutions, and note
how the Church finally solved the problem.
1. LIVING HISTORY: Unit Portfolio Project
THEME RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Your unit portfolio project focuses
on how religion affected life during the Middle Ages (see page 229). For
Chapter 14, you might add one of the following ideas.
• Prepare the script for a newscast announcing the capture of Jerusalem
by Crusaders and its impact on Christians and Muslims.
• Draw a cartoon about the clash between King Philip IV and Pope Boniface
VIII. Try to show the conflict between religious and secular leaders.
2. CONNECT TO TODAY: Cooperative Learning
Great Schism
Description:
Solution 1
Page 2 of 2
Solution 2
Resolution
3. JOAN OF ARC AND THE 15TH CENTURY
How does Joan of Arc’s story reflect the violence
and pessimism of the early 1400s?
4. ANALYZING PRIMARY SOURCES
In 1295, Edward I of England sent letters such as the
following to sheriffs throughout the land, announcing
a meeting of Parliament. Read the letter and answer
the questions below it.
A V O I C E F R O M T H E PA S T
The king to the sheriff of Northampton,
greeting. Whereas we wish to have a conference and discussion with the earls, barons,
and other nobles of our realm concerning the
provision of remedies for the dangers that in
these days threaten the same kingdom . . . we
command and firmly enjoin you that without
delay you cause two knights, of the more
discreet and more capable of labor, to be
elected from the aforesaid county, and two
citizens from each city of the aforesaid
county, and two burgesses from each
borough, and that you have them come to
us . . . to do whatever in the aforesaid
matters may be ordained by common
counsel.
THEME ECONOMICS The bubonic plague and the Hundred Years’ War both
had a major impact on the economy of medieval Europe. During the plague,
populations fell, trade declined, prices rose, farmland was abandoned, and
workers demanded higher wages. Today, disease, natural catastrophes, and
war still have a great impact on an economy. Work with a team to research
and present the effect of war, disease, or natural catastrophe on a country’s
economy.
Use the Internet, magazines, or books to research the topic. You
might choose a war such as the U.S. Civil War, World War II, or the
Vietnam War. You might choose a disease such as heart disease or cancer.
You might choose a natural disaster such as a hurricane or flood.
• As part of your presentation, make a graph that shows statistical information about the impact of the event you have chosen on the economy.
• Compare your team’s event with those of other teams to determine their
relative economic impacts.
3. INTERPRETING A TIME LINE
Revisit the unit time line on pages 228–229. Which events during the medieval
period in Europe were triggered by a struggle for individual power?
FOCUS ON ART
The painting below shows Richard the Lion-Hearted (left) unhorsing
Saladin during the Third Crusade. In fact the two men never met in
personal combat. Notice the way the two leaders are depicted.
• What elements suggest that Richard is the hero of this painting?
• What elements suggest that Saladin is the villain?
Connect to History What evidence of the artist’s bias is there in this
painting about the confrontation between Islam and Christianity?
• Why is the king calling a meeting
of Parliament?
• Who will represent the cities
and boroughs, and how will
they be chosen?
Additional Test Practice,
pp. S1–S33
TEST PRACTICE
CL ASSZONE .COM
The Formation of Western Europe 363