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Key 1a Thomas Harriot’s Moon drawing (facsimile) 1b Thomas Harriot’s Moon map 1c Thomas Harriot’s drawing of Jupiter’s moons 1d Thomas Harriot’s sunspot drawings 2 Telescope by Galileo (replica) 3 Galileo’s Sidereus nuncius Isaac Newton’s reflecting telescope (replica) 4 Representation of E-ELT mirror segment 5 Hubble Space Telescope (1:10 model) 6 Stjerneborg Observatory 7 8 Islamic astrolabe 9 European astrolabe 10 Norman Lockyer’s seven-prism spectroscope 11ISO long-wavelength spectrometer 12Japanese star map 13 William Herschel’s galaxy maps (facsimiles) Front cover Pioneer plaque image: NASA 14Hubble’s classification of ‘nebulae’ 15Hipparcos scale model (1:6) 16Sloan Digital Sky Survey plate 17Parts from the Cambridge ‘pulsar’ array 18 Model of a pulsar 19 Kew Photoheliograph 20aKew sunspot photographs 20bKew Photoheliograph diapositives 21 William Herschel’s ‘infrared’ prism 22Model of the Jodrell Bank Lovell Telescope 23 XMM-Newton grazing mirror (flight spare) 24Mirror segment for FUSE satellite 25Scale model (1:30) of HESS telescope 26Spare mirror segment for HESS 27Scale model of Swift satellite 15 24 5 6 16 17 27 12 26 9 1a 18 1b 1c 1d 23 4 2 19 22 8 10 25 3 20b 11 21 14 7 13a 20a 13b Exploring the cosmos The cosmos and us Exploring the cosmos The sky is a source of endless discovery. Four hundred years ago, a simple spyglass took us on a journey to the Moon and planets. Today, giant telescopes let us explore faraway galaxies – and reveal new wonders. The first telescopic observations Thomas Harriot’s Moon drawing (facsimile) 1609 At about 9pm on 26 July 1609, just outside London, Thomas Harriot turned his new ‘Dutch trunke’ to the Moon. His drawing of what he saw is the first recorded astronomical observation with a telescope. The drawing, made five days after the new moon, shows the terminator line separating light and dark areas. The written notes prove that Harriot’s observations pre-date Galileo’s. But he never published his work, so did not become as famous as the Italian astronomer. Source: By permission of Lord Egremont/West Sussex Record Office Object 1a Mapping the Moon Thomas Harriot’s Moon map (facsimile) 1610–13 As Thomas Harriot gained access to more powerful telescopes, he made increasingly sophisticated maps of the Moon. This one, probably made with a telescope of around 30 times magnification, precisely details the Moon’s ‘seas’ or ‘maria’. Harriot regularly corresponded with friends who were also trying out telescopes. One wrote to him saying that the full moon ‘appears like a tarte that my cooke made me the last week’. Object 1b Source: By permission of Lord Egremont/West Sussex Record Office In Galileo’s footsteps Thomas Harriot’s drawing of Jupiter’s moons (facsimile) 1610 This drawing shows Thomas Harriot’s first observations of Jupiter’s moons in autumn 1610. Harriot probably saw a copy of Galileo’s book describing the moons around July, but by then Jupiter was too near the Sun for him to see for himself. On the first night, 17 October, Harriot notes, ‘I saw but one, and that above.’ Over the next year he made 98 further observations and tracked all four of the Galilean satellites. Source: By permission of Lord Egremont/West Sussex Record Office Object 1c Spots on the Sun Thomas Harriot’s sunspot drawings (facsimile) 1610 The top drawing on this page records Thomas Harriot’s first view of sunspots. He was one of several astronomers to independently discover them around the same time. Harriot risked blindness by using his telescope to view the Sun directly with only mist to shield its fierce glare. We now know that these dark spots moving across the Sun’s face are caused by strong magnetic fields that keep some areas slightly cooler than their surroundings. Object 1d Source: By permission of Lord Egremont/West Sussex Record Office Galileo’s spyglass Telescope by Galileo (replica) Original c. 1610 This is a replica of one of only two surviving telescopes made by Galileo. He made his first telescope after hearing descriptions of a new device that had begun circulating around Europe in late 1608. He refined the design into a powerful tool for astronomy. The ornate decoration on the wood and leather tube suggests that Galileo made this telescope for demonstration to his patron Cosimo de Medici, rather than for regular use. Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1923-668 Object 2 The starry messenger Sidereus nuncius 1610 In this book Galileo reported the astronomical capabilities of his new spyglass. His drawings of the pitted lunar surface and Jupiter’s moons provided evidence to support theories of a Sun-centred Solar System. Sidereus nuncius could also be considered Galileo’s job application for a position at court in Florence. He called his newly discovered satellites of Jupiter ‘Medicean stars’ to impress the Grand Duke Cosimo II de Medici. Object 3 Source: Science Museum Library (O.B. GAL) Newton does it with mirrors Isaac Newton’s reflecting telescope (replica) Original 1668–71 This is a replica of the first successful reflecting telescope, built by Isaac Newton. It used mirrors instead of lenses to focus light, giving a better performance for a smaller instrument. The circular mark near the front of the telescope tube shows that Newton tried out where the eyepiece would go, but filled in his first attempt and made a new one. Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1924-209 Object 4 The world’s biggest telescope? Representation of E-ELT mirror segment 2009 The world’s largest optical telescope, the European Extremely Large Telescope, is due to begin operations in 2018. It will consist of 984 hexagonal segments of this size, fitted together to make a mirror 42 metres across – around the length of five London buses. A telescope this big could examine the oldest stars and galaxies, and search for Earth-like planets that might harbour life. Object 5 Source: Science Museum Image: European Southern Observatory The world’s most famous telescope Hubble Space Telescope (1:10 model) Original 1985–90 Hubble is one of the most successful space missions of all time. The quality and quantity of data and images collected by its visible and infrared instruments have delighted scientists and the public alike. Hubble is about the size of a single-decker bus – the largest it could be and still fit inside the Space Shuttle. Source: European Space Agency Inv. No: L2009-4041 Object 6 Studying the stars People have stargazed for centuries, first with the naked eye, then with increasingly complex instruments. We now know that our Sun is just one star in the galaxy, and our galaxy is one of many billions. Tycho Brahe’s star castle Stjerneborg Observatory 1634 Nobleman Tycho Brahe was one of the foremost astronomers of the pre-telescopic age. His underground observatory on the Danish island of Hvaena was shielded from the wind, allowing him and his assistants to measure the stars accurately using a variety of instruments. Tycho called the observatory Stjerneborg, or ‘star castle’. Data from his observations were later used to develop the laws of planetary motion that supported Copernicus’s theory of a Sun-centred universe. Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1937-615 Object 7 A vital tool Islamic astrolabe AD 901–1100 Knowing the time for prayer and locating the direction of the holy city of Mecca is a key part of Islam. Medieval Islamic scholars developed the original Ancient Greek design for an astrolabe to create a highly sophisticated instrument. Many 11th-century mosques employed their own muwaqqit or astronomer-timekeeper who was responsible for using an astrolabe like this one to determine the essential prayer times and directions. Object 8 Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1981-1380 Star catcher European astrolabe 1607–18 The astrolabe was the main astronomical instrument before the telescope. It could be used to tell the time, determine star positions at particular latitudes and predict future astronomical events. Each curly pointer corresponds to a bright star. On this astrolabe you can see a tulip shape in the framework – the signature style of the renowned Arsenius family workshop in Flanders. Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1878-11 Object 9 Analysing light Norman Lockyer’s seven-prism spectroscope 1868 This seven-prism spectroscope was designed to bend light into its different colours, allowing Norman Lockyer to identify different elements in stars. When observing the Sun he noticed the signature of a mystery element unknown on Earth. He named it ‘helium’ after the Greek word for Sun, helios. This element was only found on Earth decades later. Object 10 Source: Purchased Inv. No: 1987-1162 Seeing through cosmic dust Long-wavelength spectrometer from the Infrared Space Observatory (identical spare model) 1990s Cosmic dust between the stars blocks out visible light, but it can be penetrated by infrared. Scientists study the infrared radiation emitted by gas molecules to find out more about cooler areas of space where stars have yet to form, or have died. This instrument is identical to one flown on the Infrared Space Observatory, launched in 1995. This satellite revealed the presence of water in many parts of our galaxy. Source: Rutherford Appleton Laboratory Inv. No: L2009-4033 Object 11 Japanese star map Tenmon Bun’ya no zu (map showing divisions of the heavens and regions they govern) 1677 This star map was made by Harumi Shibukawa, official astronomer to the Japanese Edo court. He was one of the first people to use a telescope in Japan after the instrument was introduced by European traders. The map combines Shibukawa’s systematic observations with concepts from Chinese astrology, so that the stars could be used to predict events in different regions of Japan. Object 12 Source: Purchased Inv. No: 2007-1 Mapping the Milky Way William Herschel’s galaxy maps (facsimiles) Originals 1784–85 William Herschel and his sister Caroline made the first maps of the structure of our galaxy. For two years they painstakingly surveyed thousands of stars, using their brightness to estimate distance from Earth. Herschel rushed to publish the first attempt (left) to prove the capabilities of his new 20-foot telescope. A later, more detailed study (right) shows a more familiar bulging disc. The Sun is shown at the centre, although Herschel was not sure exactly where it was in the galaxy. Source: By permission of the Royal Astronomical Society Object 13a, b Sorting galaxies Glass positive of Hubble’s classification of ‘nebulae’ 1930 The famous astronomer Edwin Hubble showed that ‘spiral nebulae’ were actually galaxies of stars beyond our own galaxy, the Milky Way. He devised a system of galaxy classification that is still widely used today. These galaxy images were taken at the Mount Wilson Observatory in California and show some of the different types of spiral galaxy. Object 14 Source: Science Museum Inv. No: 1930-682 Star-mapping spacecraft Scale model (1:6) of the Hipparcos (High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite) astrometry spacecraft c. 1985 Hipparcos was the first space mission designed to map stars. It measured the positions, distances and motion of over 2 million stars to new degrees of precision. The satellite’s name acknowledges the Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who systematically mapped over a thousand stars with the naked eye around 150 BC. In 2010 a new mission called Gaia will launch, aiming to map over a billion stars. Source: European Space Agency Inv. No: 1986-850 Object 15 Mapping the cosmos Aluminium spectroscopic plate from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) c. 2000 The Sloan Digital Sky Survey is the largest astronomical survey ever completed. Between 2000 and 2008 it created a 3D map of over a million stars and galaxies, covering a quarter of the night sky. This plate is one of about 4000 custom-built to fit the telescope. Each plate carries a unique pattern of 640 holes, used to select hundreds of stars and galaxies for each exposure. The circled guide stars marked on the plate help astronomers align it to the sky. Object 16 Source: Sloan Digital Sky Survey Inv. No: E2008.173.1 Discovering pulsars Parts from the Cambridge Interplanetary Scintillation Array 1967 This is part of the four-acre radio telescope used in one of astronomy’s most famous chance discoveries. In 1967, student Jocelyn Bell noticed a ‘bit of scruff’ on the telescope’s data charts. Astronomers realised that the unusual signal, which repeated regularly, came from a new class of cosmic object. Initially, these objects were nicknamed LGM, for ‘little green men’. But rather than aliens, they are rapidly spinning dense stars. They are called pulsars and over 1800 are now known. Source: University of Cambridge, Department of Physics Inv. No: 2009-43 Image: Jocelyn Bell Burnell Object 17 A new kind of star Model of a pulsar c. 1969 Antony Hewish used this model to teach people about pulsars – the new kind of star he and Jocelyn Bell discovered in 1967. The orange ball at the centre represents a neutron star, the incredibly dense remnant of a supernova explosion. The curved wires show magnetic field lines. The foil tubes represent beams of radiation from the neutron star. As the star rotates, the beam turns in the direction of the Earth, and astronomers detect radio pulses. Hewish’s first version of the model was driven by a gramophone motor. Object 18 Source: University of Cambridge, Department of Physics Inv. No: L2009-4026 Looking with light Light is the real measure of the universe. It comes in many forms, most of them invisible to the human eye. But with the right instruments, astronomers can illuminate some of the darkest mysteries of the cosmos. Photography comes to astronomy Kew Photoheliograph 1857 This is the first instrument that was purpose built for astronomical photography. It was used at Kew and Greenwich to take daily photographs of the Sun. Warren de la Rue took this instrument to Rivabellosa in Spain to photograph the solar eclipse of 18 July 1860. The photographs were compared with ones taken 500 km away and proved that the prominences visible during an eclipse are part of the Sun, rather than an effect of the Earth’s atmosphere. Source: The Royal Society Inv. No: 1927-124 Object 19 Tracking sunspots Photographs of sunspots taken with the Kew Photoheliograph September 1870 These photographs are from a series taken in September 1870 with the Kew Photoheliograph, the large instrument at the very right of this showcase. Astronomers used it to take daily photographs of the Sun. Comparing the photographs day by day showed how features such as sunspots moved. We now know these dark spots are caused by magnetic activity on the Sun’s surface. Object 20a Source: Mrs E Whipple Inv. No: 1982-684 Observing the Sun and Moon Diapositives of photographs taken with the Kew Photoheliograph 1860–62 These photographs of the Sun and Moon were taken with the Kew Photoheliograph, the large instrument in the corner of this showcase. The Moon image, on the right, was taken at Kew Observatory. The Sun image, on the left, was taken during an expedition to north Spain to observe the solar eclipse of July 1860. It shows a partial eclipse as the Moon crosses the Sun before blocking it out completely. Source: Mr Warren de la Rue Inv. Nos: 1862-122/1, 1862-122/4 Object 20b Discovering invisible light William Herschel’s ‘infrared’ prism 1795–1805 This may be the prism used by William Herschel when he accidentally discovered invisible radiation in 1800. Using the prism, he split sunlight into its different colours and measured their temperatures. He noticed that the temperature was highest beyond the red light, in a region now known as infrared. Object 21 Source: Mr John Herschel-Shorland Inv. No: 1876-951 Stars on the radio Model (scale 1:200) of the Jodrell Bank Lovell Telescope 1961 The 76-metre Lovell Telescope is the third largest steerable radio telescope in the world. It was originally built to track cosmic rays, high-energy particles from space, with radio waves. Designer Bernard Lovell drew on expertise he had developed for radar systems during the Second World War. The telescope has been used for a wide range of astronomical and space work, including the tracking of Sputnik 1, the world’s first artificial satellite. It is now a Grade I listed building. Source: United Steel Companies Ltd Inv. No: 1961-159 Object 22 Skimming X-rays XMM-Newton grazing mirror (flight spare) Mid 1990s This is one of 58 cylindrical mirrors that nest together in each of the three telescopes aboard the XMM-Newton spacecraft. Incoming X-rays skim the inside of each mirror and come to a focus at the telescope’s detector. The mirror array helps make XMM-Newton the most sensitive X-ray observatory ever launched. It sends back huge amounts of data on a range of cosmic phenomena, including X-rays emitted by hot gas falling into black holes. Object 23 Source: University of Leicester Inv. No: L2009-4035 Catching UV rays Mirror segment for FUSE (Far Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Explorer) satellite Mid 1990s This mirror segment has been left without its reflective coating to reveal its lightweight glass-ceramic structure. It was used in developing NASA’s FUSE satellite. During its eight-year run, each of FUSE’s four mirrors collected ultraviolet light emitted by gas atoms in deep space and focused them onto the spacecraft’s detector. FUSE mapped the distribution of deuterium, a heavy type of hydrogen formed during the Big Bang. By measuring how much deuterium still exists, scientists can learn more about how the young universe evolved. Source: Johns Hopkins University Inv. No: L2009-4028 Object 24 Viewing the violent cosmos Scale model (1:30) of a single telescope from the High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) Namibia’s HESS observatory studies some of the most violent events in the universe, including exploding stars and supermassive black holes. Its four identical telescopes detect high-energy cosmic gamma rays produced by these objects. Gamma rays are the most energetic form of light known. This model is one-thirtieth life size. Each of the four telescope dishes is actually 12 metres wide – 11/2 times the length of this showcase. Object 25 Source: Purchased Inv. No: 2009-60 Detecting cosmic violence Spare mirror segment for the High Energy Stereoscopic System (HESS) c. 2002 This is a spare mirror segment for one of HESS’s four gamma-ray telescopes. Gamma rays are given off in violent cosmic events, such as a star exploding. When these rays are absorbed by the Earth’s atmosphere they produce flashes of blue light. The telescope’s mirror focuses this light onto a huge camera to be recorded. The scale model in front of this mirror shows you how 382 segments like this would be arranged on each telescope. Source: University of Durham, Department of Physics Inv. No: 2009-44 Object 26 Catching cosmic explosions Scale model (1:10) of Swift gamma-ray burst satellite c. 2000 The Swift spacecraft responds to gamma-ray bursts – unimaginably large explosions that originate from all points of the cosmos. Scientists are not sure exactly what causes them. Within minutes of a gamma-ray burst being detected, Swift can turn towards the source and catch the associated visible and X-ray light that is emitted, before it fades. Swift is named after the bird because of its ability to turn rapidly. Object 27 Source: University of Leicester Inv. No: L2009-4034