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Geography Revision Notes
Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonic Theory
The Earth is divided into: crust
outer mantle
inner mantle
core
The crust is broken into plates (e.g. Eurasian or South American plates). These plates move due
to the hot liquid mantle moving underneath them (convection currents). Some plates move
towards each other (Destructive boundaries), some plates move away from each other
(Constructive boundaries) and some move past each other (Conservative boundaries). All plate
boundaries cause tectonic activity – volcanoes and/or earthquakes.
Plate Boundaries
North America
Volcanic Islands form along the Mid
Atlantic Ridge, such as Iceland.
Europe
Constructive
Magma forces plates to
move apart and rises
through the gap, where
new crust is formed as it
cools
e.g.
Mid-Atlantic
Ridge (a volcanic mountain
range under the ocean).
Oceanic plate vs Continental plate
Etna or Pinatubo
Destructive
Where plates meet, the oceanic plate
sinks beneath the continental plate
(subduction zone) where it melts. This
causes intense friction and pressure
and lava erupts to the surface. There
will also be earthquakes.
Conservative - where plates move sideways, friction occurs. This causes pressure and the plates
tear apart, creating an earthquake (e.g. San Andreas Fault – San Francisco 1989).
Major Volcanoes: Pinatubo
Etna
Kilimanjaro
Hawaii
(Can you place them on a world map?)
Effects from Volcanic Eruptions:
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Montserrat
Iceland
Responses to Volcanic Eruptions:
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Buildings & farmland destroyed
Landslides/mudflows (lahars)
Services cut (no electricity, no water)
Death, injury, homelessness
Ash clouds affect flights (e.g. UK 2010)
Population Evacuation
Divert lava flow
Monitor volcanic activity
Learn from past events
Why do people live near volcanoes, despite the risk of an eruption?
a) The land is fertile eg. Philippines
b) Income from tourism e.g. Etna
c) Geothermal energy supply e.g. Iceland d) Plate Boundaries rich in raw materials e.g. copper, diamonds
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Geography Revision Notes
Plate Tectonics
You’ll be asked to draw and fully label (annotate) the plate boundaries. Can you???
(5 marks each)
Responses to an Earthquake
Effects of an Earthquake
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Death, injury, homelessness
Destruction of buildings/roads/bridges
Fires (from burst gas pipes)
Services cut (no electricity, no water)
Earthquake-proof buildings
Earthquake drills for evacuation
Rescue services/technology
Earthquake prediction/prevention
Why may the death toll vary greatly between
earthquakes of a similar magnitude (power)?
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The readiness of a country to deal with the quake
(MEDC or LEDC?)
The population density of the affected area
The quality of buildings (MEDC or LEDC?)
Quakes to know…
San Francisco 1989
Indonesia 2004 (cause of the Tsunami)
Pakistan 2005
(Can you place them on a world map?)
TIP!
LEEAARRNN YYOOUURR CAASSEE STTUUDDIIEESS!!
Make sure you know how volcanoes are formed and why earthquakes occur.
A question might ask you, “Why are volcanoes and earthquakes associated with plate
boundaries?” Basically, this is asking you to explain how the plate movements at different
boundaries result in volcanoes and earthquakes.
Sample C.E. Questions
1. What are plates? (1)
2. Using examples that you have studied, describe the problems caused by a volcanic eruption
and an earthquake (4 marks each example)
3. Describe a destructive plate boundary in order to explain how volcanoes occur (4)
4. Briefly explain on which plate boundaries earthquakes occur (3)
5. Why do people live in areas that are prone to earthquakes and volcanic activity? (4)
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Geography Revision Notes
Weather and Climate
Weather – day-to-day changes in air conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall, clouds & humidity)
Climate – the average weather over many years (rainfall and temperature)
Factors affecting climate
a) Latitude – at higher latitudes (further from the Equator), the sun‟s rays are spread over a
larger area and are therefore not as hot (e.g. the Arctic or the Antarctic).
b) Altitude – for every 100m in height the temperature drops by 1°C (e.g. the Himalayas).
c) Distance from the sea – land warms & cools very quickly, whereas the sea remains nearly the
same temperature. Coastal climates are therefore mild in summer & winter (e.g. the UK) but
continental climates are very hot in summer & very cold in winter (e.g. Germany).
d) Prevailing winds – where does the most common wind come from and what weather does it
bring? (E.g. 80% of the UK‟s weather comes from the Atlantic Ocean to the west).
Remember that for rainfall in the UK, the west is wet and the east has least.
Types of Rainfall
As warm moist air rises, it cools. Water vapour condenses into water droplets and clouds form.
As clouds become saturated, rain falls. There are 3 ways in which air can rise:
Convection – in hot weather, the sun heats the ground,
which warms the air above it. This warm air rises rapidly,
cooling and forming large thunderclouds. (e.g. on the
Equator or on a hot summer‟s day in the UK).
Relief – air is forced to rise over hills. As it does, it cools and
condenses and rain occurs on the windward side. As it
passes over the hill, the air descends and there is little rain,
causing a rain shadow. (e.g. In the Lake District in the UK).
Frontal – where a cold air mass meets a warm air mass,
the warm air rises over the cold, resulting in light rain on
3.
the warm front. As cold air comes in, it undercuts the
warm air and heavy rain occurs and temperatures fall on
the cold front. (e.g. Depressions over the UK)
This is a warm front
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Geography Revision Notes
Weather and Climate
Depressions
The map on the right shows weather
fronts over Europe. You can see that
where there are fronts, there is rain.
Weather Patterns in the UK
The prevailing winds are from the SW,
bringing mild, wet weather from the
Atlantic Ocean. As it reaches the west
coast, relief rainfall occurs over the hills.
The East is drier due to the rain shadow.
The UK does not have a cold climate, thanks to the North Atlantic Drift (the warm ocean current
that crosses the Atlantic Ocean), which brings mild, wet weather throughout the year.
The opposite of low-pressure systems (otherwise known as depressions or cyclones) are highpressure systems (known as anticyclones). These are areas of hot and dry weather in summer
and cold and dry weather in winter.
Microclimates
Rainfall and temperature may be affected on a local scale by site conditions. A microclimate is
therefore the climate of a small area, such as in a car park or in a wood.
 Aspect - South-facing areas face the sun and are warmer than north-facing areas.
 Surface – Buildings and some surface materials store heat (Urban Heat Island Effect).
Buildings can also create wind tunnels, where wind speeds through gaps.
 Shade – Buildings and trees create shade. Shaded areas are cooler.
 Shelter - Buildings and trees act as wind breaks (reducing the wind chill factor).
Think about where the best place for a weather station would be within the Papplewick school
grounds. What would you need to measure without any interfering factors?
YOU MAY BE ASKED TO DRAW DIAGRAMS OF TYPES OF RAINFALL.
TIP! IN A RECENT SURVEY, RELIEF RAINFALL WAS QUESTIONED IN 3 OUT OF 3 PAPERS
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Geography Revision Notes
Weather and Climate
Hydrological Cycle (Water Cycle)
Key processes are:
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Evaporation – the process of water turning from a liquid to water vapour
Transpiration – water returning to the atmosphere through plant leaves
Condensation – water vapour turning into water droplets as it cools, forming clouds
Precipitation – rain, hail, sleet or snow (all count as rainfall)
Overland Flow (Run-off) – water flowing over the surface, such as in rivers
Through Flow (Infiltration) – water flowing through soil or permeable rocks on its way to
rivers or underground flow
You‟ll need to be able to draw and label this diagram perfectly!
CE Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What is the difference between weather and climate? (2)
Name 4 factors that influence world climates. (4)
Explain how buildings may influence either temperatures or wind speed. (3)
Describe how relief influences the climate of the UK. (4)
What is the North Atlantic Drift and how does it affect the UK climate? (3)
Why is the southwest the warmest part of Britain in January? (2)
Where is the best place to locate a weather station? (3)
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Geography Revision Notes
Settlements (for use in the O.S. map section)
Reasons for the LOCATION of settlements (Site – where it is
and Situation – what’s close by)
a) On trade routes (roads, bridges, rivers, sea ports)
b) near water supply for drinking
c) near a wood for building materials/hunting
d) on flat land for farming
e) on high ground for defence
f) near other resources (rocks, coal, sea)
Settlement Patterns (Layout)
Nucleated – centred around something e.g. crossroads,
Village church
or a bridge.
Linear – spread along a road
or valley bottom.
Dispersed – a few houses
randomly spread out
e.g. countryside
Settlement Function
a)
b)
c)
d)
market town e.g. Reading grew where the Thames and Kennet rivers joined
tourist town e.g. Brighton has an famous beach and pier
industrial centre e.g. Sheffield specialised in steel production
port e.g. London was once the world‟s largest port
The functions of a settlement will change over time (e.g. London was a port, yet
now it is a financial centre as well as many other functions).
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Geography Revision Notes
Geomorphology - Weathering
Weathering is the gradual breakdown of rock by rainwater and changes in temperature
(weather). Weathering and Erosion are not the same! Erosion by water, wind and ice transport
the broken material away. Weathered material is not transported away by the weather.
So, the difference between weathering and erosion is that there is not transportation involved in
weathering.
Physical weathering
a) Frost shattering or freeze-thaw – cracks in rock
fill with water. If the temperature falls below
freezing, the water turns to ice and expands. This
puts pressure on the crack, which widens, and
fragments break off. These form scree at the foot of
the slope or cliff.
Freeze-thaw occurs in cold, wet environments such
as mountainous areas or coastal cliffs.
b) Onion-skin weathering or exfoliation – during the day, the outer layers of rock heat
and expand. At night, they cool and contract. These constant changes loosen the outer
rock layer and fragments break off. Onion-skin weathering occurs in environments with
temperature extremes such as deserts.
Chemical weathering
This occurs where water and air produce chemical reactions in rock. Caves form in limestone due
to chemical weathering. Chalk cliffs are easily damaged.
water + carbon dioxide = carbonic acid
Biological weathering
Rock may be broken up by tree roots or by animals burrowing
This is very common in Rainforest areas where the soils are extremely deep.
Remember – not all rocks weather at the same rate. Just as in erosion, some rock types are
more resistant than others.
CE Questions
1. Briefly describe what weathering processes are typical in high mountainous areas. (2)
2. For one rock type, explain how it is more influenced by weathering than others. (4)
3. Explain the term „biological weathering‟ and where it is likely to happen. (2)
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Geography Revision Notes
Geomorphology – River Processes
1. Erosion
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Rivers erode their banks (lateral) and their beds (vertically) by the following processes:
Attrition – stones collide and erode each other
Hydraulic Action – water sweeps into cracks in the bank or the bed and the pressure erodes
the rock or soil
Solution – some rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in water
Corrasion – stones erode the bed or bank as they move along
2. Transportation
 Traction (tumbling) – large stones roll along the river bed
 Suspension – of small particles in flow
 Solution – of dissolved particles (e.g. chalk)
 Floatation – of very small particles on surface of water
The movement of stones and soil from the Upper stages to the Lower stages of a river system is called its load.
3. Deposition
Caused by a change in the river‟s ability to transport load (i.e. the speed of flow is not fast
enough to carry stones and soil any more). This occurs:
 on the inside of a meander (river beaches formed)
 on the flat land of a floodplain (levees and silt deposits form on floodplain)
 or as a river grows in size and reaches the sea (deltas form)
Features in the Upper Stages of a River (Erosion Landforms)
a) V-shaped valleys
Erosion, weathering
and transportation
continue until a vshaped valley forms.
Fast flowing water (on
steep mountain slopes)
erodes downwards
forming a channel.
Channel sides are weathered (rain, ice and wind) and stones and soil fall
into channel (gravity) to be transported away downstream by the water.
b) Waterfalls, where water flows over a cap of hard rock with a layer of soft rock underneath
leaving behind gorges (e.g. Niagara Falls, Canada).
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Geography Revision Notes
Features of Lowland Rivers (Erosion & Deposition landforms)
- Can you identify each of these on an O.S. map?
Meanders
Floodplains
When a river floods, it deposits its load. The
larger particles end up close by creating a
levee. The smaller particles are left on the
floodplain and create rich farmland.
Erosion on outside where flow is
fastest and deepest (cliffs & pools)
Deposition on inside where flow is
slowest and shallow (beaches)
Ox-bow lakes
Slow flowing water in old
meander causes deposition
to occur. Ox-bow lake is
now cut off permanently.
Flood Management
These include:
As people choose to live and farm 1. Storm warning systems of when the river might flood
2. Dams
on floodplains, it is increasingly
3. Levees (embankments) to contain the water
necessary to manage rivers in
4. Planting trees to absorb water
times of flood, to prevent the sort 5. Enlarging or straightening the river
of damage caused by the floods
6. Planning to restrict where new houses can be built
e.g. Mississippi Floods 1993.
LEEAARRNN YYOOUURR CAASSEE STTUUDDYY!!
Mississippi Floods 1993
CE Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of a waterfall (5)
Explain, with the aid of a diagram, how a floodplain or ox-bow lake is formed (5)
Name 2 processes of river erosion (2)
With reference to examples, describe the ways in which humans can control the effects of
river flooding in low-lying areas (4)
5. How does human activity help to cause greater river flooding? (4)
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Geography Revision Notes
Geomorphology – Coastal Processes
1. Erosion
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Waves erode the coastline by the following processes:
Attrition – stones and sand in the waves or on the beaches collide and erode each other
Hydraulic Action – water sweeps into cracks in a cliff and the pressure erodes the rock
Solution – some rocks (e.g. chalk) are dissolved in salt water quite easily
Corrasion – stones and sand in the waves erode cliffs and headlands
2. Transportation The carrying of material (load)
 swash – pebbles and sand washing up onto a beach by waves
 backwash – pebbles and sand being pulled back down a beach by waves
 Longshore Drift – the direction of the transportation (depending on the wind and waves)
The movement of pebbles and sand along a coastline.
3. Deposition
The dropping of material (load). Caused by a change in the waves‟ ability to transport load
(i.e. not enough energy to carry pebbles and sand any more). This occurs:
 in bays where the water is shallow (beaches formed)
 in river estuaries where river flow and waves meet (spits formed)
Factors that affect the speed of erosion
1.
2.
3.
4.
Rock type – soft rocks like clay or chalk erode more easily than hard ones like granite
Structure – rocks with many joints and cracks are eroded more easily
Shelter from wind – sheltered coasts erode more slowly as there are fewer waves
Depth of water – deep water has more power to erode as the waves are bigger
Coastal Features (Erosion Landforms)
As the waves erode the base of
a cliff, undercutting occurs.
Soon the weight of rock above
is too great and the cliff
collapses. A platform of rocks
protects the cliff from further
erosion. This is called a Wave-
cut Platform.
Headlands and Bays – the sea erodes
soft rock more easily (bays) leaving the
harder rock behind (headlands)
Caves, Arches, Stacks
& Stumps – the waves
erode a headland from
the side, forming caves,
arches,
stacks
and
stumps. E.g. Durdle Door
& Old Harry, Dorset
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Wind and
wave
direction
Geography Revision Notes
Deposition Landforms
Eroded material is transported along the coast by
means of Longshore Drift (swash & backwash). This
material is deposited to forms beaches and spits.
Spurn Head Spit on the Humber River
Spits are formed where the coastline changes
direction eg. at the mouth of a river. ERODED
material is TRANSPORTED along the coast
and DEPOSITED, forming a bar of beach
material pebbles and sand (e.g. Spurn Head
or Harlech Spit in Wales)
Coastal Management
In some areas, we need to protect the coast from erosion. At
Holderness, for example, 2 metres of the clay coastline are
being lost to the sea each year. This is called cliff collapse.
The photo shows Holbeck Hall Hotel falling into the sea.
There are several ways of slowing erosion:
 Boulders and walls at the base of the cliff to stop undercutting
 Groynes to stop Longshore Drift and to trap sand on beach
 Using drainage to s top cliffs becoming saturated and unstable
TIP! CAN YOU DRAW A FEATURE OF COASTAL EROSION (e.g. ARCHES & STACKS) & A FEATURE OF
C.E. Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
DEPOSITION (e.g. A SPIT)?
Name two types of erosion (2)
Name a feature formed through deposition by the sea (1)
Name one man-made structure along a coastline and describe how it reduces erosion (2)
Name a spit (1)
Explain, with the help of a diagram, how a spit/stack/headland is formed (5)
With the aid of a diagram, show how erosion results in the formation of stacks (4)
Why do pebbles move along a beach? (5)
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Geography Revision Notes
Economic Activity
There are four main types of economic activity:
(a) Primary – THE TAKING OF NATURAL RESOURCES e.g. farming, mining, FORESTRY, fishing (SOLOMONS)
(b) Secondary – THE MAKING OF GOODS e.g. CARS in factories (Manufacturing industries) (HONDA)
(c) Tertiary – PROVIDING SERVICES such as retail, businesses (SONY), TOURISM, teachers & doctors.
(d) Quaternary – IT programming and software such as SONY, MICROSOFT or APPLE
In LEDCs (e.g. Kenya), most people are employed in primary activities. Farming is very labour
intensive, education is limited and there is little investment in manufacturing.
In Newly Industrialising Countries (e.g. India & China), most people are employed in secondary
activities. This is the stage of development that we in the UK called the Industrial Revolution.
In MEDCs, most people are employed in tertiary or quaternary activities as we all have more
money to spend.
Primary Economic Activity
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The Solomon Islands are Less Economically Developed and are a poor country but they have a
valuable resource of wood and if they sell this they can develop…
BUT: Unsustainable forestry has damaged the land.
Companies (e.g. from Malaysia) have exploited the forests (taken as much as they can).
Wood is sold to people like us in Asian & European countries!
There is hope… Local people have
set up a Sustainable method of
forestry. Instead of gaining only 2%
of the money for the wood they sell
(the rest going to the foreign logging
companies), they now see 50% of
the money for it. They take only the
trees they need, leaving a healthy
forest behind where trees will
continue to grow for the future.
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT - There will be a future!
Location of Industry
Originally, factors such as being near to raw materials were very important for industries.
Nowadays, access and the cost of land are more important. Many industries now choose to
locate on edge-of-city locations, where:
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There is lots of space to build on and land is cheaper
There is good access to motorways and airports
The site is purpose built for large warehouses and lorries
The industry is still close to the city to find skilled workers
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Geography Revision Notes
Secondary Economic Activity

Case Study: Car Manufacturing &
The M4 Corridor – HONDA, Swindon
This developed as companies needed more space to expand. Many moved from run-down inner city
areas in London. The M4 links London to South Wales. Towns along it like Bracknell, Reading and
Swindon provide edge-of-city locations especially suitable for manufacturing companies. Many
foreign companies ( eg. Honda ) choose to locate here because of:
 Good access to the rest of the UK & to Europe (motorways, railways, ports and airports) to
bring resources in and take products away to sell
 Government grants that make it cheap to locate there
 Good telecommunications (email/phone networks)
 Skilled workforce nearby (high population to choose from)
This has provided much investment and employment to the Thames Valley and South Wales. This
was great for Wales as it suffered when coalmines and steelworks closed and jobs were lost.
Tertiary and Quaternary Economic Activity
Computer companies have also located their businesses along the M4 corridor (e.g. Sony in
Reading) for the same reasons as Honda above.
Your other Case Study of Tertiary Economic Activities should be Tourism
in National Parks in the UK or Nepal.
Trans-National Corporations (TNC’s) or Global Industries
TNC‟S are large companies that operate in more than one country, such as Coca-Cola, Nike,
Sony, or Honda. These companies may have factories all over the world, making different parts
of their products. E.g. Labour is cheaper in LEDC‟s (India)
whereas the markets for their products will be in MEDC‟s
(USA or Europe). This is known as GLOBALISATION.
CE Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Choose a type of primary activity, and explain why it occurs in that location (3)
Explain what is meant by the term „sustainable development‟ (3)
Describe what is meant by „tertiary activities‟ (2)
State four factors that influenced the location of an industry of your choice (4)
Why do global industries operate in many different countries? (3)
15
Geography Revision Notes
Environmental Issues
UK National Parks
The role of a National Parks is to:
(a) preserve the environment
(b) provide services to tourists
(c) protect economic activities
What is?…
Conservation: protecting something so
that it is not damaged
e.g. rare wildlife or vegetation in areas of
outstanding natural beauty.
Stewardship:
Taking responsibility and
caring for the Earth or any part of it.
Includes responsibility in using resources
and creating as little waste and pollution as
possible.
Sustainable
Development:
using
resources in a responsible way (not
exploiting or over-using) so that there will
be enough for future generations (reduce,
recycle, re-use).
(Learn these off-by-heart!)
Case Study:
Land-Use Conflicts in the
Lake District National Park
Farmers v Tourists: tourists damage fences, frighten
animals, drop litter, cause footpath erosion and congestion,
but they want access to visit beautiful scenery
Solutions include footpath management and restricting
tourist access to certain areas
Locals v Tourists: tourists provide income to local shops,
but they cause over-crowding and road congestion
Solutions include better road systems and car parking and
restricting tourist access to certain areas
Industry v National Parks: industry provides jobs and
income, but it can damage the landscape and cause pollution
e.g. quarrying & reservoirs
Solutions include being strict on how the industries
operate and forcing them to repair any damage caused
‘Honey-Pots’ – areas of most interest to visitors (e.g.
Beatrix Potter’s World next to Lake Windermere). Leads
to CONGESTION, OVERCROWDING, but great for local
businesses and jobs.
LEEAARRNN YYOOUURR CAASSEE STTUUDDIIEESS!!
 National Parks in the UK
 Tourism in Nepal
 Forestry in the Solomon Islands
Are your examples sustainable? What solutions are being put in place?
CE Questions
1. Suggest one way in which farming may conflict with the demands of tourists in a National
Park (2)
2. Suggest two problems caused by the presence of large numbers of tourists in this area (2)
3. Explain how National Parks try to cope with so many visitors (3)
4. Describe what is meant by sustainable development (2)
5. For an environmental area under threat, explain how conservation is being managed (6)
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