Download a student`s guide to anatomy of the camel

A STUDENT'S GUIDE TO
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
By
JAMES DANIELS GROSSMAN,
G.ph., D.V.M.
EMERITUS PROFESSOR, OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY
COLUMBUS, OHIO, U.S.A.
T.C.M. Adviser in India
I CAR
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
NE\/V DELHI
I. C. A. R. EDUCATION SERIES No.5
FiTst Printed December, 1960
@,
1960 by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi
General Editor,' D.
RAGHAVAN
Technical Editor,' P.
KACHROO
PRI;<,TeD .\T THE JOB PReSS PRIVATE LIMITED, KANPUR
PREFACE
Camel is very important in the economy of a State like Rajasthan,
and it has been a privilege to be associated with something that aids and
assists a project connected with the economic development of this State.
This report on the anatomy of the camel is based on a few observations made during a short time, with limIted facilities and in the absence
of a record of the age .of the specimens studied. Therefore, it may give
less elaborate details of the anatomy of this animal.
I wish to express my gratitude to Lt. Col. A. C. Aggarwala,
Principal, Rajasthan College of Veterinary Science and Animal Hus• bandry, for the aid and encouragement given to me and to Messrs. N.K.
Goel and K.C. Joshi, 4th and 2nd year veterinary students respectively,
for the splendid service rendered by them towards the completion of this
report. It has been very useful to be located near the 13th Grenadiers
(Ganga Jaisalmer) whose officers have shown me every courtesy.
It is hoped that this report may inspire some other veterinarian to
carry this investigation to completion.
New Delhi
May, 1960
J AMES
DANIELS GROSSMAN
CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE
1. SKELETON
Vertebral Column
Thorax
Skull
Pectoral Limb
Pelvic Limb
2.
3
...
6
6
8
9
17
18
JOINTS
Supraspinous Ligament
Fasciae
2l
21
21
3. MUSCLES
Fasciae and Muscles of the Neck
Muscles of the Thoracic Limb
Fasciae and Muscles of the Pelvic Limb
Muscles of the Back and Loins
Muscles of the Thorax ...
Muscles of the Diaphragm
Abdominal Muscles
4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
23
23
24
25
29
29
29
31
33
34
Mouth
The Salivary Glands
Pharynx
Oesophagus ...
Pelvic Cavity
Peritoneum ...
Abdominal Cavity
Stomach
Intestine
Pancreas
Liver
Spleen
39
40
40
42
42
43
43
44
44
4445
5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
46
46
48
49
49
50
Nasal Cavity
Larynx
Trachea and Bronchi
Lungs
Thyroid and Thymus Glands
4
CONTENTS
5
Page
6.
UROGENITAL SYSTEM
Urinary Organs
The Male Genital Organs
The Female Genital Organs
51
51
53
55
7.
ANGIOLOGY AND NEUROLOGY
58
8.
THE COMMON INTEGUMENT
59
BIBLIOGRAPHY
61
I.
SKELETON
VERTEBRAL COLUMN
The vertebral formula of the camel is C 7 TI2 L7 S5 CYr5_~I
The cervical vertebrae are seven in number, which is the usual number
for a mammal, and are arranged in a semicircle with convexity on the
ventral side.
The atlas or the first cervical vertebra of the camel is narrow in comparison with the length of the neck and the width of the other vertebrae
of the cervical region. Its wings are perforated with foramina similar to
that of the horse.
The axis or second cervical vertebra is long and the narrowest of
the region. It and the next three vertebrae are approximately of the
same length but are increasingly wider through the sixth; the latter has
the greatest width }Jut is shorter than the preceding' four. The seventh
is shorter than the sixth and slightly narrower.
The dorsal spine of the axis is not so prominent or well developed
as in the horse or ox. They are increasingly higher through the remainder
of the region. The ventral spines are slight on the second, third, fourth
and fifth, absent on the sixth, and with a trace on the seventh.
The articular processes are not unusual.
The transverse processes of the third, fourth, fifth and sixth vertebrae
are unusually large and are divided into an anterior large plate and a
smaner rod-shaped portion; the axis has a small posterior portion. These
transverse processes form a groove on the ventral surface of the neck for
the pasage and protection of the longus colli, trachea, oesophagus, jugular
veins, carotid arteries, and the vagus and sympathetic nerve trunks. The
foramen transversarium or its equivalent, is placed in the anterior one-half
of the pedide of the arch) beginning and ending within the vertebral
canal of the second to the sixth inclusive. In the atlas, it perforates the
wing and in the seventh cervical vertebra it mayor may not perforate the
transverse processes.
The transverse process of the sixth vertebra is developed to form
an almost sagittal plate of the two parts, and carries a third portion
projecting laterally off the body.
The articular surfaces of the bodies of the third to seventh vertebrae
have a convex anterior extremity; the posterior extremity is slightly concave
in the centre, with a rounded rim which, with the thickened fibrocartilages, allows for great flexibility in this reglOn.
6
SKELETON
7
The thoracic ve1'tebrae are 12 in number. Their bodies are longer
than those of the horse. The dorsal spines are flattened and the third is
the highest one. The first one is slightly higher than that of the seventh
cervical, and the height gradually diminishes to the lumbar region.
The lumbar vertebrae are seven in number and these are also longer
than .those of the horse. Their transverse processes are slender and
narrower than those of the horse; they do not articulate with each other;
neither do they articulate with the wings of the sacrum.
FIG.
1.
SACRUM (VENTRAL VIEW)
Last lumbar and first coccygeal (cyl) vertebrae included.
The sacrum (Fig. 1) consists of five vertebrae whose bodies are fused
in the adult. In the younger specimens where fusion was not complete,
it was evident by the form of the vertebrae, that the ones belonging to the
8
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
sacrum had wide, fiat, quadrilateral transverse processes, while the coccygeal had flattened, triangular transverse processes on the first few.
The sacrum is markedly curved, the concavity being ventral. The
spines are not fused as in the ox; but ventrally, each has the appearance of
that of the ox, as neither articulate with the transverse processes of the
last lumbar vertebra.
The coccygeal vertebrae are reported to be 15-21 in number and those
examined carefully by me were within that range. Their transverse processes are markedly changed from the quadrilateral form of the sacral
vertebrae to a triangular form. A neural canal is present in the first few.
THORAX
The ribs are 12 in number and arranged in pairs and serially numbered
to correspond with the thoracic vertebrae with which they articulate.
Each has a costal cartilage, and those which articulate with the
sternum by means of their costal cartilages are termed sternal ribs; the
FIG.
1.
2.
STERNUM (DORSAL VIEW)
Transversus thoracic muscle;
2.
Ribs.
remainder are termed asternal ribs; the cartilages of the latter overlap and
are united by fibrous tissue to form the costal arch. The cartilage of the
eighth rib was not in actual contact with the sternum examined by me,
but was very firmly attached and fused with the cartilage of the seventh;
the ninth was also firmly connected to the eighth cartilage.
SKELETON
FIG.
3.
9
SKULL (DORSAL VIEW)
1. Interparietal bone; 2. Parietal bone; 3. Frontal bone; 4. Nasal
bone; 5. Maxilla; 6. Zygomatic process of temporal bone; 7. Coronoid
process.
The nasal aperture is bounded by the premaxillae, the maxillae and
the nasal bones.
10
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The sixth rib in the adult camel had an enlargement (exostosis)
above its middle (due to injury) and would be an acquired characteristic,
as there was no evidence of its presence in the foetus or young calves.
The costal cartilages are very strong bars of hyaline cartilage which
undergo extensive ossification in the adult.
The fifth, sixth and seventh cartilages connect with that portion of
the sternum which overlies the chest pad to form a very strong, rigid connection with the thoracic vertebrae.
The sternum (Fig. 2) consists of seven sternebrae or segments which
form the floor of the thorax. The last four segments are wide and firmly
united by fusion to form a support for the thorax when the camel is
sitting.
The sternum, with the ribs connected with the thoracic vertebrae,
forms a bridge-like support fQr the vertebral column.
SKULL
Although the camel is classed as a ruminant, its skull has very few of
the characteristics of that of the ox. It more closely resembles that of the
horse in most details, and in others it resembles the dog.
The skull of the camel has the same number of bones as is usual in
a mammal; their form varies greatly, thus, placing the camel in a place
by itself.
The Dorsal Surface
The dorsal surface of the skull (Fig. 3) includes the squamous part
of the occipital, the interparietal, parietal, frontal, nasal and premaxilla
bones. It is best to divide it into parietal, frontal, nasal and premaxillary
regions.
The parietal region extends from the nuchal crest to the parietofrontal suture. It is marked medially by the external parietal crest, which
extends through the parietal region to the parieto-frontal suture, where
it bifurcates and continues as the frontal crest on to the root of the supraorbital process. The parietal crest is high and not divided as in the horse.
The frontal region is the widest part and is smooth and slightly depressed in the central part, where there are several foramina; the latter
soon join to form a canal which opens into the orbit. The nasal region
is narrow and straight throughout its length, ending near the junction
with the premaxillary bone; therefore, there is no premaxillary suture in
the camel.
The premaxillary region presents the osseous nasal aperture and a
cleft between the bodies of the premaxilla instead of a foramen incisivum.
SKELETON
11
The Lateral Surface
It may be divided into cranial, orbital and pre-orbital regions.
The cranial region presents the teIllPoral fossa, the zygomatic arch
and the outer part of the petrous temporal bone. The temporal fossa is
bounded medially by the parietal and frontal crests, behind by the nuchal
crest, and laterally by the temporal crest and zygomatic arch; its upper
and posterior surfaces are roughened for the attachment of the temporalis
muscle; in its lower part, for-amina which enter the temporal canal may be
found. The fossa is continuous in front with the orbital cavity, by-passing
beneath the supraorbital process.
The zygomatic arch is formed by the zygomatic process of the temporal, malar and a small part of the maxilla. Its ventral surface presents
the temporal condyle and glenoid cavity for articulation with the mandible.
Behind the glenoid cavity is the post-glenoid process, behind which the
temporal canal opens. The external acoustic meatus lies just behind the
opening of the temporal canal and below the temporal crest; below the
acoustic meatus is the stylomastoid foramen. The paramastoid process
of the occipital bone lies behind this foramen.
The orbital region comprises the orbit and pterygopalatine fossa. The
orbit encloses the eye-ball and its associated structures. It is directly
continuous with the temporal fossa.
The medial wall is complete, extensive, concave and smooth, and
is formed by the frontal, lacrimal and orbital wing of the sphenoid. The
lacrimal fossa is in its extreme anterior part. Behind this is a small depression in which the inferior oblique muscle of the eye arises.
The dorsal wall is formed by the frontal and a small portion of the
lacrimal bone. The foramen beneath the supraorbital process leads, by
a canal, to the group of foramina on the frontal surface of the skull.
The ventral wall is incomplete and is formed by the malar and the
maxilla. The last upper cheek tooth is embedded in the maxilla directly
beneath the orbit.
The lateral wall is. the supraorbital process.
At the extreme posterior part of the pterygopalatine fossa is the
bital group of foramina. Of these, the upper and anterior one is the
ethmoidal foramen which transmits the ethmoidal vessels and nerve.
The optic foramen is situated a little lower, and more than one inch further
back is the optic foramen, which transmits the optic nerve. It is guarded
by a thin, narrow strip of bone about three-fourths of an inch long, placed
lateral to it and along the course of the optic nerve. Behind and below the
optic foramen is the foramen orbito-rotundum, a very large foramen,
equivalent to the foramen rotundum, orbit ale and trochlear. Just medial
01
12
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
to the orbito-rotundum foramen is the opening of the pterygoid canal,
which transmits the nerve of like name. The foramen ovale is more than
one inch behind the"pterygoid crest and is, therefore, outside the pterygopalatine fossa in the camel.
The anterior portion of the pterygopalatine fossa contains three
foramina. The most anterior one is the maxillary foramen, the entrance
to the infraorbital canal, which transmits the infraorbital nerve and vessels.
The spheno-palatine foramen perforates the medial wall and transmits
the spheno-palatine vessels and nerves to the nasal cavity.
The posterior
palatine foramen is the third foramen of the maxillary recess and transmits
the palatine artery and nerve to the palatine canal. There is no alar
canal in the camel.
The preorbital 1 egion is formed chiefly by the maxilla, and also by the
premaxilla and the facial part of the lacrimal and malar bones. The outline
of the area is an unsymmetrical triangle, the base being posterior, its dorsal
border slopes upward and backward to beyond its middle, then continues
horizontally to meet the base; the ventral border is concave in its length.
There is no facial crest. The infraorbital foramen is placed about two
and a half inches anterior to the orbit, and about one inch higher than the
ventral border of the orbit, which is above the second upper cheek tooth.
The infraorbital artery and nerve emerge from it. The surface is concave
in its length; the deepest portion is anterior to the infraorbital foramen.
o
The Ventral Surface
The ventral surface (Fig. 4 ) exclusive of the mandible, consists of
the cranial, choanal and palatine regions.
The cranial region extends forward to the vomer and pterygoid processes.
At its posterior end is the foramen magnum, flanked by the occipital
condyles. Lateral to these are the condyloid fossa, in which is the hypoglossal foramen, placed medially, which transmits the hypoglossal nerve
and also a small foramen lateral to this for the passage of a condyloid vein.
The paramastoid process is the outer boundary of the condyloid
fossa. Extending forward centrally from the foramen magnum is a bar
of bone, formed by the basilar part of the occipital bone and the body of
the sphenoid bone; at their junction are the basilar tubercles for the
attachment of the ventral straight muscles of the head.
On either side of the basilar part of the occipital bone is the
foramen lacerum. It is divided into anterior and posterior parts, as the
petrous temporal bone rests against the border of the basilar occipital
bone. The posterior part gives passage for the glosso-pharyngeal, vagus
and spinal accessory nerves; the anterior part gives passage for the internal
carotid artery and the middle meningeal artery. The mandibular nerve
passes through the foramen ovale, which is separated and anterior to the
SKELETON
FIG.
4.
SKULL (VE~TRAL V!EW)
1. Foramen magnum; 2. Occipital condyle; 3. Basic part of the
occipital bone; 4. Sphenoid; 5. Zygomatic process of malar bone;
6. Zygomatic process of temporal bone;
7. Vomer;
8. Palatine;
9. Palatine process of maxilla; 10. Premaxilla; a. incisor; h. canine;
c. premolar; d. molars.
13
14
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
foramen lacerum.
The foramen lacerum is bounded laterally by the
petrous temporal, which extends to the lateral margin of the region. The
region is widest here because of the zygomatic process.
On either side of the body of the sphenoid bone is the infratemporal
fossa, formed by the temporal wing and root of the pterygoid process of
the sphenoid bone. It is bounded in front by the pterygoid crest which
separates it from the pterygopalatine fossa.
There is no alar canal. A
little medial to the foramen ovale is the entrance to the pterygoid canal.
The choanal region presents the pharyngeal orifice of the nasal cavity.
It is divided in its depth medially, by the vomer, into two choanae or
posterior nares. It is bound in front and laterally by the palate and pterygoid bones. It is flanked by the hamular process of the pterygoid bone and
the free border of the pterygoid process of the postsphenoid bone. The
pterygoid canal passes beneath the border of the vomer, between the
palatine bone and pterygoid process of the sphenoid bone, to gain a place
in the pterygopalatine fossa.
The palatine region comprises more than one half of the entire length
of the ventral surface of the skull. The hard palate is concave in the
forward portion and convex in the posterior portion of its length, but it is
concave transversely from front to rear. It is formed by the palatine
processes of the premaxillae and maxillae, and the horizontal parts of the
palatine bones. It is limited laterally by the alveolar parts of the maxillae
and the premaxillae and anteriorly by the free border of the premaxillae.
The interalveolar spaces are those parts of the arch in which alveoli are
not present. Behind the last alveolus is the alveolar tuberosity. In the
mid-line is the median palatine suture. Between the bodies of the premaxillae is a space which is enlarged for passage of the palato-Iabialis vessels.
Medial to the alveolar border of maxillae are several foraminae which
connect with the palatine canal. The palatine fissure is a narrow interval
along the lateral border of the palatine process of the premaxilla. The
transverse palatine suture is about two inches from the posterior border.
The posterior border is opposite to the fifth cheek tooth of the adult camel.
The Nuchal Surface
It (Fig. 5) is formed by the occipital bone. The highest portion is the
nuchal crest, which separates it from the dorsal surface. Below the crest
and on the mid-line is an eminence, the external occipital protuberance,
on which the ligamentum nuchae is attached. In a depression, on the
lateral portions and above the condyles, is a large foramen that leads to the
temporal canal.
At the lowest portion of the central part is the foramen magnum,
which is bounded laterally by the occipital condyles. The condyloid
fossae are situated between the condyles and the paramastoid processes.
SKELETON
15
The apex is form-ed by the bodies of the premaxillae which carry the
incisor teeth.
FIG. 5.
SKULL OF CAMEL (RIGHT VIEw): ABOUT EIGHT YEARS OLD
1. Paramastoid process; 2. Angular process; 3. Infraorbital foramen; 4. Upper
and lower-fourth premolars; 3rd Pm. Upper third premolar; X. A retained upper-third
premolar; X'. A retained lower-fourth premolar or the temporary third premolar; Pm.
1. Upper and lower first premolars; C. Upper and lower canines; I. One upper and
the three lower incisors.
The Mandible
The mandible (Fig. 5), or lower jaw bone is the largest bone of the
face. It resembles that of the horse in the general form; the incisor teeth
resemble those of the ox in form; the angular process on the posterior
border resembles that of the dog; the condyles resemble those of the pig,
being convex in both directions. The two halves of which it consists at
birth fuse very early, and it is usually considered a single bone. It
consists of a body and two rami. It carries the lower teeth, and its condyles
articulate with the squamous temporal on either side.
The body is the anterior part and bears the incisor and canine teeth.
Its length, including the incisor teeth, is about seven inches in the adult;
the length without the teeth is about five and a half inches. The body
is narrow through the interdental space. There is a tush-like tooth between the canine and the lower cheek teeth, and it is considered as a fi.r st
premolar. The body presents two surfaces and a border. The lingual
surface is smooth and markedly concave transversely, slightly concave in its
length, and related to the tongue during life. The mental surface is convex
and related to the lower lip. It is marked by a shallow median furrow
which locates the primitive symphysis mandibulae. The alveolar border is
curved anteriorly, with the border behind the canine teeth being straight
and paralleL It presents six alveoli for the incisor teeth, two for the canine
16
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEt
teeth and two for the tush-like first premolar, which lies about two inches
behind the canine tooth in the male. In the cow camel the tush-like
teeth, when present, are much smaller. There is a mental foramen near
the middle of . the body.
This is the opening of the mandibular
canal.
The rami extend backward from the body and diverge to incl,ose
the mandibular space. Each ramus consists of a horizontal part which
bears four of the lower cheek teeth, and a vertical part which is expanded
and furnishes attachment to powerful muscles. The term angle is applied
to the most prominent part of the curve. The ramus presents two surfaces, two borders and two extremities. The lateral surface is smooth
and convex from edge to edge on the horizontal part. It presents a foramen below the second cheek tooth, which gives two for the mandible including the mental foramen on the body. Each foramen is related to the
mandibular canal. The vertical part is somewhat roughened for the attachment of the masseter muscle. The medial surface of the horizontal part of
the ramus is smooth; there is a faint indication of a mylo-hyoid line for the
attachment of the mylo-hyoideus muscle. The vertical part of the surface
is concave, and is marked in its lower part by rough lines for the attachment of the medial pterygoid muscle. In front of its middle is the opening
of the mandibular canal. The canal curves downward and passes forward
below the cheek teeth, opening externally by two foramina about five
inches apart; the anterior one is the mental foramen. It is continued into
the body of the bone as a small canal, which carries nerves and blood vessels
to the incisor and canine teeth. The dorsal or alveolar border is excavated
for four lower cheek teeth in its posterior part; the interdental space is thin.
The ventral border of the horizontal part is nearly straight; it is very thick
and rounded. It is curved in the young subject. The border curves
upward at the angle and becomes thin. Above its middle it presents a
pointed process, the angular process, to which the occipito-mandibularis
muscle is attached. The anterior extremity joins the body. The articular extremity comprises the coronoid process in front and the condyle
behind. The two are separated by a notch, through wh'ich the nerve for
the masseter muscle passes. The coronoid process is thick transversely
and nearly vertical. It projects into the temporal fossa and furnishes
insertion to the temporal muscle.
The condyle of the mandible of the adult lies at a two-inch lower
level than the tip of the coronoid process. It is elongated transversely
and convex in both directions, wide in front, narrow and declivitous behind, and articulates with the squamous temporal bone through the medium
of an articular disc. The part below the condyle is termed the neck of the
m~ndible; on its antero-medial part is a depression, the fovea pterygoidea,
in which the lateral pterygoid muscle is attached. The middle of the
vertical part is thick; the thickness of the entire ramus produces a very
strong mandible.
SkELETON
17
The mandible develops from two chief centr.es in the connective tissue
which overlies the paired Meckel's cartilages. At birth it consists of two
symmetrical halves, which meet at the symphysis mandibulae. Fusion
occurs soon after birth.
Age changes could not be accurately given because age data were
questionable; records of births or breeding dates are not kept.
THE PECTORAL LIMB
Scapula: It is similar to that of the horse in form, except that it has
an acromion process. The scapular index is about 1: 0'5.
Humerus: It resembles that of the horse in all respects with the exception that the neck portion is not so marked by the head overhanging it,
and it has an extra centre of ossification.
The humerus ossifies from seven centres, viz., three primary centres
for the shaft and extremities, and four secondary centres, one each for the
lateral tuberosity, the deltoid tuberosity, the medial epicondyle and the
lateral epicondyle, respectively.
Radius: The radius of the adult camel resembles that of the adult
horse in being fused with the ulna. In the very young camel calf the
radius and ulna are separ,ate, but the shaft of the ulna lies in a groove on
the volar surface of the radius. When development is complete, the
radius and ulna become fused, and the shaft of the ulna becomes incorporated in the shaft of the radius so that its identity in the shaft portion is
lost, except in the extremities where small interosseous spaces are foundthe proximal space is scarcely more than a nutrient foramen under the
medial border of the ulna.
The radius develops from three centres of ossification, one for the
shaft and each extremity.
The length of the radius at six or seven months of age is 15 inches,
and in the adult it is 21'5 inches.
Ulna: The ulnar shaft is continuous through its length and imbedded
in the volar surface of the radius, where it loses its identity.
The ulna develops from three chief centres of ossification, one for
the shaft and each extremity; the epiphyseal plate of cartilage of the distal
extremity is one and a half inches above the level of the corresponding
plate on the radius.
Carpus: The carpus comists of seven bones.
from a single centre.
Each one develops
Metacarpus: Two metacarpal bones, the third and fourth, are developed in the camel. They are fused before birth, except for the distal one-fifth.
18
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
There is a divided marrow cavity in the fused bone of a week old calf. Each
develops from three centres. The proximal epiphysis fuses before birth.
The metacarpals and the metatarsals are about equal in lengthin a seven months old calf they are 13'5 inches and in the adult they are
15 inches.
Digits: Two digits are present in the camel. These are the third and
fourth and are fully developed. They have three phalanges and two
sesamoids each.
The first phalanges of the thoracic limb of a seven months old calf
are longer (four inches) and wider than the first phalanges of the pelvic
limb (3'5 inches). In the adult, the first phalanges of the thoracic limb
are longer and thicker than those of the pelvic limb-thoracic limb, 4'25
inches (ca. 10'6 cm.) and pelvic limb, 3'875 inches (ca. 8'4 cm.). They
develop from three chief centres, but the distal end fuses with the shaft
before birth.
The second phalanges of the thoracic limb of a seven months old calf
are longer (2 1/8 inches, ca. 5'4 cm.) and wider than the second phalanges
of the pelvic limb (l 7/8 inches, ca. 4'7 cm.); in the adult, the second
phalanges of the thoracic limb are 2 1/2 inches (ca. 6'25 cm.) and of the
pelvic limb, 2 3/8 inches (ca. 5'9375 cm.). They develop from three centres
each, and like the first phalanges, the distal end unites with the shaft
before birth.
•
The third phalanges in the adult are of the form of one-half of a
flattened cone which is cut on the frontal plane, and are about 1'375
inches (ca. 2'875 cm.) in length. The third phalanges are not enclosed
in a hoof, as in the horse or the ox, but are covered with a nail-like
structure on the dorsal convex surface. The digital pad covers the volar
surface and the flexor tendons, extending to cover the volar surface of the
second phalanges which are not quite in a horizontal position when the
subject is standing. Each develops from a single centre.
There are two proximal sesamoid bones in each digit. They are
small. The bones of each pair articulate with the corresponding part of
the distal end of the large metacarpal bone by their dorsal surfaces. They
are attached to each other and the proximal extremity of the first phalanx
by ligaments. The flexor surface is covered by the ligament which completes
the groove for the flexor tendons.
The sesamoids develop from a single centre.
THE PELVIC LIMB
Hip Bone: The hip bone (Os coxae) joins the similar bone of the
opposite side ventrally at the symphysis pelvis, and articulates with the
sacrum dorsally, to form the pelvic girdle.
19
SKELETON
The os coxae consists originally of three flat bones, the ilium, the
ischium and the pubis, which meet at the acetabulum, with which the head
of the femur articulates. These three bones are fused before growth is
complete.
The first sacrum and the three coccygeal vertebrae are included in
the pelvic girdle to form the bony frame of the pelvis.
The tubera
sacrale are separated more widely than in the case of the horse or ox.
The lateral angle is not developed to form a prominent angle, the tuber
coxae; this faces the dorsal surface on a greater slope laterally and downward, rather than downward and backward. In the foetus the lateral
walls of the pelvis are nearly sagittal plates.
•
• surface of the pelvis there is a definite ridge at the
On the ventral
symphysis.
Pelvic Inlet (in inches)
Transverse
Conjugate
Male
Female
6'25
7'375
7'00
8'75
FemUl: The femur is a long bone, slightly curved in its length, with
the convexity facing anteriorly. The major trochanter is less salient
than that of the horse or the. ox. ~he third trochanter is absent.
Patella: The patella is an elongated curved cone with the apex
directed laterally.
Tzbia: The tibia is a long bone with the distal extremity of the fibula
articulating with it to form essentially the lateral malleolus of the tibia,
but not fusing with the tibia.
Fibula: The fibula is a much reduced long bone, the only remaining
element being the distal extremity, which articulates with the distal
extremity of the tibia, the fibular and the tibial tarsals. A short, pointed
process extends proximally, fitting into a groove on the tibia.
Tarsal Bones: The tarsus or hock joint includes seven bones as follows:
(i)
Tibial (Os tarsi tibiale) *-Astragalus or Talus
(ii)
Fibular (Os tarsi fibulare)-Calcaneus or Os calcis
(iii)
Central (Os tarsi centrale)-Scaphoid or Navicular
(iv)
First tarsal (Os tarsale primum)-First or Internal cuneiform
(v)
Second tarsal (Os tarsale secundum)-Second or Middle cuneiform
*Latin synonyms are given in brackets (official terminology).
20
ANATOMY OF
T~E
CAMEL
(vi)
Third tarsal (as tarsale tertium)-Third or External cuneiform
(vii)
Fourth tarsal (as tarsale quartum)-Cuboid cuneiform.
The articular surfaces are so modified as to permit greater flexion
of the joint, and the plantar ligament of the joint seems to be mostly elastic
tissue. When the camel is sitting, the digit lies medial to the stifle joint,
which rests on the ground.
Tile metatarsals, phalanges and sesamoid bones have been mentioned
and essential differences noted.
2. JOINTS
The joints of the camel, on the whole, compare more favourably to
those of (he ox than to any of the other large domestic animals. The
camel and the ox, in" the order of animals which are termed Artiodactyls,
are even-toed.
SUPRASPINOUS LIGAMENT
The supraspinous ligament of the camel extends from the occipital
bone to the sacrum.
Behind the withers it consists of a strong cord of white fibrous
tissue attached to the summits of the spine. In the cervical region it
forms a much modified elastic structure, the ligamentum nuchae; the
principal function of it is to assist the extensor muscles of the head and
neck. It extends from the occipital bone to the withers, where it is directly
connected and continuous with the supraspinous ligament. It consists
of two parts, funicular and lamellar. ·The funicular part ~evelops from a
flat band that extends"along the sides and the summits of the spines to a
double, cord-like structure of clastic tissue. There is no atlantal bursa
as the ligament does not rest on the atlas, and there was no evidence of
a supraspinous bursa. The lamellar: portion consists of two parts separated
medially by a layer of connective tissue. The lamellar parts are formed of
bundles of elastic fibres which extend from the funicular parts to the spinous
processes of the cervical vertebrae, from the second to the sixth inclusive.
FASCIAE
The superficial fascia is well developed over the body and the limbs.
The deep fascia is of special importance in the camel because of the great
amount of yellow elastic tissue which is developed in it, and the wide
distribution of it on the body and limbs. This fascia extends from the
supraspinous ligament do_wn over the shoulder and thorax, attaching to the
epimysium of many of the muscles, which must certainly aid in their functioning. Thus, in the case of the latissimus dorsi, this deep fascia passing
over it and the shoulder to attach to the lateral tuberosity and deltoid
tuberosity, gives the muscle some aid in flexing the shoulder joint and in
fixing the joint when bearing weight on the limb. This fascia extends down
over the forearm, carpus, metacarpus and digits as a very heavy sheath of
elastic tissue and it must be of considerable aid to the flexor muscles of
the parts named.
21
22
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The deep fascia of the thorax and abdomen has the usual arrangement
for muscular attachment, but the amount of elastic tissue covering the
shoulder region is significant. The abdominal tunic is much heavier in
the camel. The elastic layer is developed over the pelvic limb, beginning
over the hip and continuing over the thigh and leg to the metatarsal region
and digit. This elastic tissue development should be of great assistance
to the muscles with which it is associated. The elastic tissue predominates
in the digital cushions which underlie the second and third phalanges.
As there are two digits on each limb, one might assume them to be
more or less separated, but this is not the case. They are attached to
each other for most of their length.
In the limbs of the horse we find the development of white fibrous
tissue which serves as a stay apparatus to fix the limb in extension while
the weight is on them thus, allowing the muscles to rest while standing.
This development of elastic tissue in the camel acts to assist in flexing the
limb thus, conserving muscle energy while in use.
The camel will sit
down and rest his limb muscles, if given the opportunity, and horses have
been known to remain standing and remain in good condition for weeks
at a time.
3. MUSCLES
The muscles of the camel are similar to those of the ox, with a few
exceptions.
The facial cutaneous muscle
and the mandible.
IS
developed over the parotid gland
As the upper lip is divided medially, the levator labii superioris
proprius has insertion by means of several small tendons distributed
to the lip, corresponding to the muscle in action.
The masseter has origin extending on the malar and maxilla from the
zygomatic arch to an area in front of the orbit, as there is no facial crest.
It has the usual insertion.
The temporalis is a very well-developed muscle which fills the very
large and deep temporal fossa. The high parietal and temporal crests
provide increased area for muscular attachment. The insertion is on the
very strong coronoid process of the mandible.
The occipito-mandibularis is present and has ongm on the paramastoid process of the occipital bone, and insertion on the angular process
of the mandible.
FASCIAE AND MUSCLES OF THE NECK
'!lr
The cervical fasciae are similar to that of the ox.
Ventral Cervical Muscles,' The braciocephalicus (Figs. 6 and 13) is well
developed in the posterior cervical and arm regions. In front of the shoulder
a tendinous inter-section is developed, which is plainly visible on its superficial surface. Such a development in this muscle is considered as a vestige
of the clavicle. The dorsal division appears to have a portion of the
trapezius cervicalis incorporated in it. In the anterior cervical region
the muscle fibres end on an aponeurosis which continues to the areas of
attachment.
The sterno-thyro-hyoideus has an exceptionally long intermediate
tendon (7 inches, ca. 17'5 cm.) developed near its middle.
The omo-hyoideus is similar to that cf the ox.
The scalenius is similar to that of the horse.
Latclal Cervical Muscles,' The trapezius (Figs. 6 and 13) is similar to that
of the ox, except that the cervical portion appears to have lost a portion
to the brachio-cephalicus.
23
24
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The rhomboideus cervicalis is reduced to a very few fibres. The
thoracic portion is divided by the scapular cartilage in such a manner as
to place most of it On the lateral surface of the cartilage.
The splenius consists of a few small bundles of muscle fibres.
FIG.
6.
alicus;
LEFT LATERAL VIEW OF HEAD, CERVICAL MUSCLES (PAROTID SALIVARY GLAi'JU
REMOVEO)
1. Masseter; 2. Zygomaticus; 3. Buccinator;
6. Brachiocephalicus; 7. Levator nasolahialis.
4. Jugular vein;
5. Sternoceph-
The complexus has origin from the transverse processes of the first
five thoracic vertebrae and the articular processes of the last five thoracic
vertebrae.
MUSCLES OF THE THORACIC LIMB
The latissimus dorsi has origin on the lumbo-dorsal fascia and
supraspinous ligament from the fourt.h to the 12th thoracic spines and the
lateral surfaces of the 1Dth, 11 th and 12th ribs. It inserts on the teres
tuberosity of the humerus, and by means of the attachment of the highly
elastic sheet of fascia, attached to its surface and extending over the
shoulders to the lateral tuberosity of the humerus, gives it the effect of
fixing the shoulder joint in extension.
Pectoral Muscles: The superficial pectoral muscles are similar to those
of the horse.
The anterior deep pectoral is far better developed than in the ox and
extends upward about one-third of the length of the supr~spinatus muscle.
MUSCLES
25
Its origin is on the anterior part of the sternum and the sternal end of the
first rib.
The posterior deep pectoral has onglll on the ventral aspect and
lateral surfaces of the sternum and cartilages of the ribs, from the second
to the seventh costal cartilages, ending at the pedestal or chest pad.
It is inserted on the tuberosities of the humerus, directly to the
anterior part of the medial and by deep fascia crossing the biceps to the
anterior part of the laterat
The serratus ventralis in its thoracic portion has origin on the lateral
surfaces of the first nine ribs.
Muscles r.if the Arm: The biceps brachii is similar to that of the horse
in form and structure. The tendon of origin is a continuous structure
throughout the length of the muscle to its insertion on the radius. A
branch from this tendon fuses with the layer of deep fascia which covers the
shoulder and arm, and continues to the lower part of the limb; this branch
of the tendon becomes att£ched to the tendon of the extensor carpi radialis
through this fascia medium.
The tensor fasciae antibrachii is
absent.
The remainder of the muscles of the thoracic limb are similar to those
of the ox.
FASCIAE AND MUSCLES OF THE PELVIC LIMB
The superficial fascia presents no special features.
The deep fascia of the thigh is very heavy and attached to the spines
of the sacrum, and continues from the lumbo·dorsal fascia. It is continuous
on to the thigh. From its deep face, intermuscular septa are given off and
the muscle fibres take origin.
The fascia of the thigh is very heavy; it surrounds the regIOn and
gives off intermuscular septa.
The superficial gluteus is not developed as a separate muscle. Its
anterior head is incorporated in the tensor fasciae lata; the posterior head
is built into the expanded head of the biceps femoris.
Lateral Muscles r.if the Hip and Thigh: The tensor fasciae lata (Fig. 7)
is developed to cover the medial surface of the thigh also. This fascia i~
highly elastic and heavy so as to almost serve as a muscle, as it is attached
to the ilium and the patella.
The gluteus medius also has origin on the fascia, in addition to the
ilium.
This muscle does not have origin anterior to the ilium.
Its
deep or accessory head is not well developed. The gluteus medius inserts
on the trochanter major.
26
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The gluteus profundus has an extensive, long anterior head which lies
beneath the gluteus accessorius.
The biceps femoris has its origin from the summits of the sacral spines,
by means of the dorsal sacra-iliac, the lateral sacra-sciatic ligament, the
gluteal and coccygeal fasciae and the tuber ischii.
It is inserted on the
posterior surface of the femur, the anterior face of the patella and the
lateral patellar ligament, the tibial crest, the crural fascia and the tuber
calcis.
FIG .
7.
MUSCLES OF THE HIP AND THIGH
l. Tensor fascia lata;
2. Gluteus medius;
3-3'. Biceps femoris;
4. Semitendinosus; 5. Fasciae lata; 6. Obliquus abdominus externus;
7. Abdominal tunic;
8. Lumbo dorsal fascia.
The semitendinosus has origin from the ischial arch and the ventral
surface of the ischium. It has insertion on the medial surface of the
tibia, at the junction of proximal and middle-thirds and also the crural
fasciae.
The semimembranosus has its ongln on the ventral surface of the
ischium medial to the semimembranosus muscle. It has insertion on the
medial supracondyloid crest, the medial epicondyle, the medial patellar
ligament and the crural fasciae.
MUSCLES
27
Medial Muscles of the Thigh: The sartorius arises by two heads, one from
the ilium and the other from the posterior head of the tendon of the
psoas minor. The two heads unite on a common tendon which fuses with
the tendon of a portion of the adductor muscle; they continue to the
insertion on the medial patellar-tibial ligament. The posterior head
covers the femoral canal.
The gracillis is not developed as in the horse. A small portion of
origin is blended with the slender portion of the adductor. The insertion
is on the medial epicondyle of the femur and the crural fasciae.
The pectineus is similar to that of the horse in its origin.
The
muscle divides and a sman portion passes over the femoral vessels to insert
on the medial epicondyle of the femur.
The adductor muscle is clearly divided into two parts. The smaller
part is longer, and at its origin is connected with a small portion
of the gracillis, which inserts on the medial epicondyle of the
ferimi-.
The quadratus femoris, the obturator externus, the obturator internus
and the gemellus are well-developed muscles and are similar to those of
the horse.
Anterior Muscles qf the Thigh: The quadriceps femoris is deep to the
biceps femoris and the tensor fasciae lata.
The rectus femoris (Fig. 8), a well-developed muscle, arises by a wide
tendon of origin (three and a half inches) on the lateral border of the
ilium; insertion is on the anterior surface of the patella by a tendon, under
which a bursa is found.
The vastus lateralis arises on the lateral surface of the femur and
fuses with the rectus and vastus intermedius, to be inserted on the lateral
part of the anterior surface of the patella.
The vastus medialis arises on the medial surface of the shaft of the
femur and fuses with the rectus and vastus intermedius, to be inserted to
the medial border of the patella and its cartilage, and the medial patellar
ligament.
The vastus intermedius arises from the anterior surface of the femur
from the proximal to the distal fourth. It divides into two portions and
has insertion to the patella behind and between the vasti medialis and
lateralis, and the joint capsule of the femoro-pateUar cul-de-sac.
The capsularis coxae muscle is well developed. Its partly aponeurotic
origin is about three inches wide on the ilium, covering the anterio-Iateral
border of the acetabulum. It is nearly seven inches in length, inserted
on the anterior surface of the femur between the vastii intermedius and
lateralis. The line of attachment is about three inches in length.
28
ANATOMY
OF THE
CAMEL
Another small, flat muscle is about four inches wide at its ongm on
the ilium, lateral to the capsularis muscle.
Insertion is on the upper
portion of the vastus lateralis. The action seemed to assist the capsular is
Coxae.
The articularis genu muscle is a very thin muscle covering the joint
capsule beneath the medial part of the vastus intermedius.
FIG. 8.
MUSCLES OF THE THIGH (LATERAL VIEW)
1. Portion of the tensor fasciae lata;
lateralis; 5. Sciatic nerve; 6. Rectum.
2. Rectus femoris;
3. Capularis;
4. Vastus
MUSCLES
29
MUSCLES OF THE BACK AND LOINS
The fasciae have been written up showing the chief differences except
for the withers region. There is no dorso-scapular ligament as is found
In the horse.
The serratus dorsalis anterior was not evident macroscopically.
The serratus dorsalis posterior usually presents three segments inserting
on the last three ribs.
The muscles of the tail were well developed.
MUSCLES OF THE THORAX
The external intercostals were well developed in the anterior part
of the series. The last four spaces were not usually filled; the last space
was developed in its middle third.
The internal intercostal muscles usually filled the spaces.
The retractor costae were poorly developed.
The rectus thoracis is well developed and attached to the first rib,
extending to the fourth costal cartilage. I t did not meet the rectus abdominis, as it did not come forward beyond the pedastal or ' chest pad>.
The transversus thoracis ( Fig. 2) was developed from the third to
the seventh ribs.
MUSCLES OF THE DIAPHRAGM
The diaphragm (Fig. 9) shows some special features. Its slope is
very steep. The upper limit of the diaphragmatic line of pleural reflection
is at the lower end of the proximal fourth of the 12th ri b; it follows the
rib to below its middle, crosses the 11 th intercostal space and rib, and
the tenth intercostal space to the tenth rib about four inches above the
costo-chondral junction. It then crosses the ninth space and rib to the
eighth rib, where it crosses at the casto-chondral junction to follow the
costal arch to the sternum. This muscle consists of a fleshy rim which may
be divided into costal and sternal parts, a lumbar part composed of two
crura and a tendinous centre.
The attachments for the (a) costal part, are the cartilages of the
seventh, eighth and ninth ribs, and behind this to the ribs at an increasing
distance from their costa-chondral junctions; (b) sternal part, the upper
surface of the last segment of the sternum; and,. (c) the lumbar part, the
right crus, is attached by means of a tendon to the ventral longitudinal
ligament, and by this means to the bodies of the first four or five lumbar
vertebrae; the left crus is similarly attached to the first two lumbar vertebrae.
30
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The costal part consists of several digitations which are, for the
most part, separated by a narrow interval from the transversus abdominis;
the musculo-phrenic vessels lie in this interval.
The right crus is heavier and longer. It arises by a strong tendon
from the ventral longitudinal ligament. As it passes downward and forward, its fibres spread out to join the tendinous centre.
FIG.
9.
DEEP DISSECTION tLEFT SlOE)
I. Aorta; 2. Oesophagus;
3. Lip of reticular groove; 4. Pillar of rumen;
5. Diaphragm; 6. Cardia;
7. Pockets in the floor of rumen;
8. Left kidney;
9. Rib.
The left crus arises by a smaner, thin tendon from the ventral
longitudinal ligament at the first and second lumbar vertebrae. This
is succeeded by a triangular group of fibres which join the tendinous centre.
Between the crura and the attachment to the last rib, the edge of the
muscle crosses the ventral surface of the psoas muscles, the sympathetic
trunk and splanchnic nerve without attachment, forming the so-called
costal arch; here the thoracic and the abdominal cavities are separated only
by the pleura, peritoneum and some areolar tissue.
The tendinous centre is composed largely of radiating fibres, but
many interlace in various directions. An especially strong portion
exists between the oesophagus and the vena cava, in which a flattened
cartilage, thickened in the centre, develops in the embryo. In the adult
it calcifies to form the os phrenic of the camel.
This structure is convex
MUSCLES
31
on the thoracic surface, concave on the abdominal surface and circular to
oblong in outline, depending upon age. I ts right border is divided into
two plates, between which the vena cava is firmly attached and partially
enclosed.
The diaphragm is pierced by three foramina: 1. The hiatus aorticus
is an interval between the two crura. It gives passage to the aorta, vena
azygos and cysterna chyli. 2. The hiatus oesophagus perforates the right
crus near its junction with the tendinous centre. It transmits the oesophagus, the vagus nerves and the oesophageal branch of the oesophageal
artery.
A serous sac or bursa, which is common in many other mammals
was not found in the camel. 3. The foramen vena cava pierces the tendinous centre in relation to the os phrenic. The vena cava is firmly attached to the os phrenic and other margins of the opening.
ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
This reglOn
IS
covered by a very heavy sheet of elastic tissue.
The cutaneus trunci is very poorly developed in the camel and its
conformation is decidedly different in the manner of attachment of the
pelvic limb to the body, than is found in either the horse or the ox. There
is no fold of the flank, as that is an open space very high on the side, almost
reaching the external angle of the ilium.
The obliquus abdominis externus (Fig. 7) is well developed, covering
the paralumbar fossa area. It has origin from the lumbo-dorsal fascia and
the lateral surfaces of the last eight ribs. The insertion is on the tuber
coxae and the shaft of the ilium, the prepubic tendon and the linea alba.
The obliquus abdominis intern us is well developed, except for its
posterior border in the inguinal region. It has origin from the lumbodorsal fascia, the tuber coxae and the adjacent part of the inguinal ligament. It has insertion on the last rib and the cartilages of the last three
ribs. The muscle is divided into dorsal and ventral parts. The ventral
part inserts on the linea alba and the prepubic tendon.
Its aponeurosis
fuses very intimately with the aponeurosis of the external oblique.
The transversus abdominis presents no special features.
The rectus abdominis is well developed, but does not extend beyond
the pedestal. It presents several inscriptiones tendineae, which are transverse bands of fibrous tissue extending across the muscle. They strengthen
the muscle and are attached to the aponeurosis of the oblique muscles of the
abdomen.
The inguinal canal is not as long a canal as that of the horse, due
to the fact that the internal oblique muscle was not developed to overlap the inguinal ligament.
32
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The tunica vaginalis descends through the canal and is carried backward posterior to the thighs and into the scrotum, which lies several
inches below the ischial arch.
4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive system consists of the organs directly concerned in
the reception and digestion of the food, its passage through the body,
and the expulsion of the unabsorbed portion. These organs are usually
grouped under two heads, ViZ., (i) the alimentary canal and (ii) the
accessory organs.
The spleen, a ductless organ,
only as a matter of convenience.
IS
described with the digestive system
The alimentary canal is a tube which extends from the lips to the
anus. It has a complete lining of mucous membrane, external to which is
1.
Rumen;
FIC. 10.
2. Liver;
ABDOMINAL CAVITY (VENTRAL VIEW)
3. Spiralled portion of colon;
33
4. Large intestine.
34
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
an almost continuous muscular coat. The abdominal portion of the tube
is covered with a serous membrane, the visceral peritoneum. The canal
consists of the following consecutive segments: (a) the mouth, (b) the
pharynx, (c) the oesophagus, (d) the stomach, (e) the small intestine, and
(f) the large intestine (Fig. 10).
The accessory organs are the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver
and pancreas.
MOUTH
The mouth (Cavum oris) (Figs. 11 and 12) is the first part of the
alimentary canal. It is bounded laterally by the cheeks, dorsally by the
hard palate, ventrally by the body of the mandible and the mylo-hyoid
muscles and behind by the soft palate. In the camel the cavity is a long
cylindrical cavity and when closed, it is almost entirely filled by the contained structures. A small space remains between the root of the tongue, the
soft palate and the epiglottis; this space may be termed as glosso-epiglottic
space. This space is nearly filled by a fibrous tissue, which is attached to
the soft palate, and which varies in the male and female, being much more
developed to fill the space in the male camel than in the female. The
entrance to the mouth (Rima oris) is closed by the lips.
The cavity of the mouth is subdivided into two parts by the teeth
and the alveolar processes. The space external to these, and enclosed
by the lips and cheeks, is termed the vestibule of the mouth (Vestibulum
oris). In the resting state, the space is practically obliterated.
The space within the teeth and alveolar processes is termed the mouth
cavity prdper (Cavum oris proprium). Posteriorly it communicates with
the pharynx through the isthmus faucium.
The mucous membrane of the mouth (Tunica mucosa oris) is continuous
at the margin of the lips with the common integument, and behind with
the mucous membrane of the pharynx.
The lips (Labia oris) are two musculo-membranous folds which surround the orifice of the mouth. The upper lip is cloven, with a philtrum
extending to the nostrils. The lower lip is large and loose. The angles
of union (Anguli oris s. commissurae labiorum) are rounded, but do not extend
to the first cheek tooth. The external surface of the lip is covered by the
skin, which presents long, tactile hair in addition to the ordinary fine hair.
The internal surface is covered with mucous membrane which may be
somewhat pigmented. It is reflected upon the bones to form the gums.
The labial glands are located near the commissures.
The muscles of the lips are inserted into the skin.
The cheeks (Buccae) form the sides of the mouth and are continuous
with the lips. They are attached to the alveolar borders of the bones
35
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
of the jaws. They are composed of the skin, the muscular and glandular
layers and the mucous membrane. The skin is thin and pliable. The
buccal glands (glandulae buccales) lie on the buccinator muscle. They are
well developed in the posterior part into a definite glandular mass, and their
ducts open in a series of smaU openings opposite the cheek teeth. The
mucous membrane is reflected above and below on the gums, and is
continuous behind with the soft palate. There are large, pointed, conical
papillae (papillae evnicae) (Fig. 12) directed backward and covered by a
cornified epithelium. The parotid duct empties opposite the junction
of the second and third upper cheek teeth, between the bases of the conical
papillae.
The hard palate (Palatum durum) is bounded anteriorly and laterally
by the alveolar arches, and continues with the soft palate posteriorly. The
anterior alveolar arch is much different from those of other domesticated
ruminants, and is not like that of the horse.
In the camel the anterior
alveolar arch is not complete and is supplied with a modified dental pad.
There is a lateral or corner incisor tooth present in the form of a tush-like
structure behind which, at a narrow interval, is the canine tooth. The
mucous membrane is smooth and covers a corrugated connective tissue
structure, the corrugations running transversely, and a central raphe
divides the surface. A large papilla incisiva is present in the dental pad.
FIG.
11.
SAGITTAL SECTION OF HEAD OF THE
Cow CAMEL
1. Plica transversalis pharyngeus;
2. Plica transversalis isthmus faucium; 3. Soft
palate; 3. Posterior pillar of the soft palate; 4. Dorsal turbinate;
5. Ventral
turbinate; 6. Great ethmo-turbinate.
The soft pabte (Palatum moUe) (Figs. 11 and 12) is a musculo-membranous curtain which separates the cavity of the mouth from the pharynx,
except during swallowing. Its oral surface is different and is a class by
L' 3
tl
y
ANATOMY of THE CAMEL
FIG. 12.
SAGITTAL SECTION OF HEAD OF THE MALE CAMEL
1. Plica transversalis pharyngeus; 2. Plica transversalis isthmus faucium; 3. Soft
palate; 4. Epiglottis; 5. Arytenoid cartilage; 6. Dorsal turbinate; 7. Great elhmo~
turbinate; 8. Ventral turbinate; 9. Perforation for nose plug; 10. Papillae.
itself, as it has attached to its oral surface a transverse fold, which continues
on to the lateral walls of the isthmus fauciurn. This structure is better
developed in the male camel. It consists of a mass of areolar tissue
covered by mucous membrane. In the adult the soft palate is about ten
inches (ca. 25 cm.) in length, with this structure attached transversely
to its middle, covering about one-half of the oral surface of the soft palate.
This structure, when relaxed, extends backward past the larynx,
by dividing into two branches so that each branch passes on either side
of the larynx. During the 'must', or rutting season, the male expels
it from the mouth, where it appears balloon-like. It is several inches in
diameter and remains outside for a short period (one or two minutes);
later it is returned to the isthmus faucium. In the female it is attached
to a much smaller area than in the male. Its body portion is about two
inches (ca. 5 em.) wide, one inch (ca. 2'5 em.) thick and three and a
halfinches (ca. 8-75 em.) long.
The posterior pillars of the soft palate extend past the larynx to meet
above the opening to the oesophagus.
The oral surface is covered by the mucous membrane continuous with
that of the hard palate. The ducts of the palatine glands open on this
DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
surface.
The pharyngeal surface faces dorsally and backward, and is
covered by a mucous membrane continuous with that of the nasal cavity.
The floor of the mouth in its anterior part is formed by the body
. of the mandible and is covered by muCous membrane. The remainder
is covered by the attached portion of the tongue. The duct of the mandibular gland opens on this surface and not on a papilla. The sublingual
gland lies in a fold of membrane along either side of the attachment of the
tongue, and presents several openings for these glands.
The isthmus faucium is the orifice of communication between the
mouth and the pharynx. It is bounded dorsally by the hard palate, below
by the root of the tongue, and laterally by the anterior pillars of the soft
palate. I t is variable in its length.
The fibrous structure described with the soft palate occupies much
of the space in the male camel, but not so much in the case of the cow
camel.
The tongue (Lingua) of the camel is situated on the floor of the
mouth between the rami of the mandible, and is supported mainly by the
mylo-hyoid muscles. The posterior part, the root (Radix lingua), is attached to the hyoid bone, soft palate and pharynx; its upper surface is free.
The body (Corpus linguae) has three surfaces which are free. The dorsal
surface is rounded and wider behind than in front; the lateral surfaces
are flattened to conform to the surfaces of the mandible. The ventral
surface is attached and related to the genio-hyoid and the mylo-hyoid
muscles. The apex or tip (Apex linguae) is free and is similar to the tip
of the tongue of the horse.
The dorsum linguae is applied to the dorsal surface; it is free throughout, and with the mouth closed it is in contact with the palate, except
at the glosso-epiglottic space.
The mucous membrane (Tunica mucosa linguae) is intimately adherent
to the underlying tissue, except on the lower part of the lateral surfaces
of the body and the ventral surface of the tip. From the lower surface
of the free part of the tongue a fold of mucous membrane passes to the
floor of the mouth, forming the frenum linguae. A thick central glossoepiglottic fold (Plica ,glosso-epiglottica) passes from the root to the base of
the epiglottis; this encloses the hyo-epiglottis muscle.
The mucous membrane presents numerous papillae, as are found on
the tongue of the horse, except for the vallate papillae (Papillae vallatae)
which are five to seven on either side of the posterior part of the dorsum.
The Per:rnanent Teeth
The formula (Figs. II and 12) of the permanent teeth of the camel is:
38
ANATOMY OF THE GAMEL
2(
q
Ct Pj Mfr ) =34
In the cow camel the canine and other tush-like teeth are smaller than
those of the male and in some cases, some of the tush-like teeth may not
erupt.
The incisor teeth are eight in number, six on the lower jaw and two
on the upper jaw. The incisor teeth on the lower jaw are simple teeth
without an infundibulum. The crown is white, long, narrow and spadeshaped. The teeth converge rather than diverge as in the case of the ox.
They have labial and lingual surfaces which meet at a sharp edge on the free
end. The crown is entirely covered with enamel but later it becomes worn
and the dentine is evident on the table or masticatory surface. The
deciduous incisors differ from the permanent set in being smaller.
Eruption of Teeth: The following Table indicates the average periods
of the eruption of the teeth.
---------Teeth
EruptIOn
UPPER JAW
A. DeCIduous
1st incisor
2nd incisor
3rd mcisor
Canine
1st premolar-milk grinding tooth
2nd premolar-Wolf's tooth premolar
3rd premolar-First grinding P.M.
4th premolar-Second grinding P.M.
B.
(Di !)
(Di 2)
(Di 3)
( Dc )
(Dp I)
(Dp 2)
(Dp 3)
(Dp 4)
Absent
Rudimentary; not cut
Rarely cut; variable
Irregular; 9 to 18 months
Before I month; drops out after 4!
Absent
Before I month (R)
A htde later (R)
(II )
( 12 )
( 13 )
Absent
Absent
Variable; mually between 7 to 8 years
Between 7 and 8 years
Not replaced
Usually 7 to 8 years; occasionally at 6
5 to 5l years
5 to 5k years
12 to 15 months (R)
2! to 3 years
5 to 5! years
year~
Permanent
1st incisor
2nd incisor
3rd incisor
Canine
I st premolar
2nd premolar
3rd premolar
4th premolar
1st molar
2nd molar
3rd molar
(C)
(PI)
(P2 )
(P3)
(P4)
(MI)
(M2)
(M3)
LOWER JAW
A. Deciduous
1st incisor
2nd incisor
3rd incisor
Canine
1st premolar-milk grinding tooth
2nd premolar-Wolf's tooth premolar
3rd premolar-1st grindmg premolar
4th premolar (not hsted)
(Di I)
( Di 2)
(Di 3)
( De )
(Dp I)
(Dp 2)
(Dp 3)
(Dp 4)
About 14 days
About 5 weeks
6 to 12 weeks
About 5 months
Before I month
Absent
Before 1 month
(Not listed)
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
B.
39
Permanent
1st incisor
2nd incisor
3rd incisor
Canine
1st premolar-milk grinding tooth
2nd premolar-Wolf's tooth premolar
3rd'premolar-Ist grinding premolar
4th premolar
1st molar
2nd molar
3rd molar
"
( I I)
( I 2)
( I 3)
( C)
( PI)
( P 2)
( P 3)
{P4 )
(M I)
(M 2)
(M 3)
4! years
5! years
6! years
Between 7 and 8 years
Not replaced (R)
Between 6 and 7 years
Between 5 and 6 years
12 to 15 months (R)
2! to 3 years (R)
5 to 5! years (R)
(R) = Rabagliati.
All the incisors of the upper jaw do not erupt, and those
that do develop take the form of canine or tush-like structures.
The first or central pair never erupt; the second pair may partially
develop but seldom erupt; the third pair are tush-like and variable,
probably erupting after seven or eight years.
The canine teeth are four in number. The upper canine is in the
maxilla very near the suture with the premaxilla.
The cheek teeth are 22 in number, 12 in the upper jaw and ten
in the lower jaw. The teeth do not have the long crown embedded,
as in the horse, but do have teeth similar to the ox. The last upper cheek
tooth is below the orbit. They do not project into the maxillary sinus.
The first premolar is tush-like and is in the interdental space of the
upper and lower jaws.
THE SALIVARY GLANDS
This term is usually applied to the three pairs of glands-the parotid,
the mandibular and the sublingual-situated on the sides of the face and
adjacent parts of the neck. These glands are very easily recognized and
follow the form of those of the horse.
The parotid duct crosses the masseter muscle and perforates the cheek
opposite the junction of the second and third upper cheek teeth, probably
because the gland does not develop as far ventrally as in the horse.
The mandibular gland is developed in close proximity to the atlas;
its duct pursues the usual course to the floor of the mouth beneath the tip
of the tongue.
The sublingual glands occupy a space beneath the mucous membrane
of the mouth between the body of the tongue and the ramus of the mandible.
The numerous ducts empty on the sublingual fold.
40
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
PHARYNX
The pharynx is a musculo-membranous sac which belongs to the
digestive and respiratory tracts in common.
There are no guttural pouches in the camel. The principal relations
of the pharynx are: dorsally, the base of the cranium, the atlas and the
ventral straight muscles of the head- there is a narrow interval between
these muscles which permits the pharynx to contact the atlas; ventrally,
the larynx; laterally, the medial pterygoid muscle, the great and middle
corn ua of the hyoid bone, the external carotid and external maxillary
arteries, the glosso-pharyngeal, anterior laryngeal and hypo-glossal nerves,
and the mandibular salivary gland.
The cavity of the pharynx (Cavum phmyngis) presents seven openings.
Through the posterior nares or choanae it communicates dorsally with the
nasal cavity. The pharyngeal orifices of the two eustachian tubes
( Ostia pharyngea tubae auditivae ) are high on the lateral wall. The isthmus
faucium is the oral opening; it is closed by the soft palate except during
swallowing. The aditus Iaryngis occupies the greater part of the ventral
wall or floor of the pharynx; it is open except during degLutition.
Behind this is the aditus esophagi, the entrance to the oesophagus.
The cavity is divided by a major transverse fold (Plica pharyngis
transversis ) * (Fig. 11 ) suspended from the dorsal. wall and also attached to
the lateral walls.
The ventral border is free, thickened and folded. The pocket anterior
to the fold is the seat of the bot larvae. Behind this major fold may be
found a minor fold crossing the dorsal waH or roof of the cavity about midway to the meeting of the posterior pillars of the soft palate and the major
fold.
The mucous membrane of the pharynx is continuous with that of the
several cavities which open into it.
A horizontal fold, the posterior
pillars of the soft palate (Arcus phmyngo-palatinus) passes along the ventral
part of the lateral wall and unites with its fellow over the entrance to the
oesophagus.
The dorsal part of the cavity (Pars respiratoria) is lined with ciliated
epithelium. The communication between the two is oval and is bounded
by the free edge of the soft palate and its posterior pillars; it is termed the
pharyngeal isthmus.
OESOPHAGUS
The oesophagus (Figs. 9 and 13) is a musculo-membranous tube
which extends from the pharynx to the stomach. In its form and structure
it is similar to that of the ox, except that it is much longer in the camel.
*Suggested name
-_
-
_
- - -- - _
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
FIG.
13.
1. Trachea;
muscle;
plexus;
41
TRANSVERSE SECTION OF CERVICAL REGION (BEHIND HEAD)
2. Oesophagus; 3. Jugular vein; 4. Carotid artery; 5, Longus colli
6. Body of the vertebra; 7. Spinal cord; 8. Ligamentum nuchae; 9. Com10. Brachiocephalicus; 1 I. Sternocephalicus; 12. Intertransversalis.
42
ANATOMY
OF THE CAMEL
r
j
FIG.
14.
LIVER-VISCERAL SURFACE OF ADULT
PELVIC CAVITY
The pelvic cavity is somewhat similar to that of the horse. The
dorsal wall is concave in both directions, with the slope being much
steeper than in the horse. The ventral wall, or floor of the pelvis, is very
similar to that of the horse. The inlet is narrow and oval in outline.
PERITONEUM
The peritoneum is the thin serous membrane which lines the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity (in part) and covers, to a more or less
extent, the viscera contained therein. The peritoneum which lines the
cavity is termed the parietal peritoneum (Lamina parietalis); that which is
reflected off of the walls to cover the visceral organs is termed the visceral
layer (Lamina visceralis). The connecting folds are termed mesenteries,
omenta and ligaments. The mesenteries of the camel are different, (I)
in that of the small intestine-as the duodenum is usually marked by
being the fixed part, or the part with a very short fold of peritoneum, and
where the bowel enters the expanded fold is considered the beginning
of the second portion, the jejunum. The remainder of the small intestines
is in this common fold. The first portion had a mesentery, a fixed position
and the remainder in a mesentery; (2) the colon has at its beginning, a
plain mesentery, followed by a spirally coiled portion (Ansa spiralis) arranged in centripetal and centrifugal (Gyri centripetales et centrifugales) coils arranged in a separated mesentery spiralled around the artery supplying this
portion; on leaving the spiral portion, it enters a mesentery where it
continues to the rectum.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
43
The omentum is much less extensive than In the ox. It does not
pass beneath the intestinal mass and the rumen, but instead, the intestinal
mass lies behind and beneath the omentum. The ventral surface of the
rumen is placed in contact with the parietal layer of the peritoneum on the
.abdominal floor. The omentum connects the liver to the stomach without
.a great expenditure of tissue.
The ligaments are folds which pass between the viscera and the other
parts of the digestive tube, or connect them with the abdominal
walL
The arrangement of the peritoneum in the pelvic cavity IS usually
-considered from the standpoint of the viscera covered by it, thus there is an
.anterior peritoneal and a posterior retro-peritoneal part of the cavity.
In the camel the retro-peritoneal portion is very much reduced; the
recto-genital pouch extends nearly the length of the rectum, the vesicogenital pouch extends to about the half way position and the vesico-pubic
pouch extends to the half way position.
ABDOMINAL CAVITY
The abdominal cavity of the camel encroaches upon the space within
the thorax in much the same manner as in the case of the ox. The posterior
portion of the cavity is shaped more in the form of that of the horse.
STOMACH
The stomach (Figs. 9 and 10) of the camel is a very large and compound structure, and consists of four parts, viz., rumen, reticulum, omasum
.and abomasum, and it takes its form very early in life. The compartments
are not as clearly indicated by constrictions or furrows as they are in the
-case of other domesticated ruminants.
The walls of the cavities are not
-constructed on their inner surfaces to make them easily identified.
The rumen (Fig. 9) has a well marked anterior pillar; the posterior
pillar is less evident. The oesophageal groove leads from the cardia backward, crossing the anterior pillar, then turns forward to the reticulum. The
groove has one lip which is evident and is dorsal to the groove. There are
two groups of pouches on the anterior portion of the floor of the rumen
which have been considered as water storing units. This is a subject for
further study.
The reticulum is much smaller; the inner waH is not smooth, but
has fold~ or ridges on its surface; it does not have even a slight: resemblance
to the reticulum of the ox.
The omasum and abomasum are a continuous cavity with no constriction to set them apart.
44
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
INTESTINE
The intestine of the camel has the usual designation of small and largeintestine.
The small intestine has a length of about 65 feet (ca. 23'8 m.).
The fit'st portion-about one foot in length-of the duodenum is usually
a dilated portion o£about five or six inches (ca. 12'5 to 15'2 cm.) diameter.
The hepatic and pancreatic ducts join and empty into the duodenum by a
common duct.
The large intestine has a length of about 78 feet (ca. 24 m.) including
the caecum, which is 14 inches (ca. 35 em.) in length. The large intestine,.
small in caliber, is about one inch (ca. 2'5 em.) in diameter; there are nosacculations.
The colon begins as a direct continuation of the caecum and is supported by a simple mesentery for about 14 feet (ca. 4'2 ro.); it then entersthe spiralled portion which takes the form of a flattened truncated cone;
on leaving the spiralled portion it again enters a simple mesentery for the
remainder of its course.
PANCREAS
The pancreas of the camel lies almost entirely to the right of the
median plane. Its weight is about one pound (ca. 0'4536 kg-.). Its duct
joins the hepatic duct before reaching the duodenum.
LIVER
The liver (Hepar) (Fig. 14) is the largest gland in the body and lies
mostly to the right of the median plane. It weighs about 18 pounds in the
adult.
Its parietal surface (Facies diaphragmatica) is strongly convex in its
lower anterior part where it lies against the diaphragm.
The gland has many small incisures which divide the ventral portion
into a great many small lobular areas.
There is no gaB bladder. The hepatic duct (Ductus hepaticus)
joins the pancreatic duct before entering the duodenum. The visceral
surface (Facies vicemlis) faces, in general, ventrally and backward; it is
concave and carries the impression of the organs which lie against it. The
dorsal! border (Margo dorsalis) is thick for the most part. It presents from
right to left: (a) the right lateral ligament; (b) the renal impression
(lmpressio renalis) for the right kidney ; (c) the adrenal impression (Impressil)
adrenalis) for the right adrenal which is very firmly attached to the liver;
(d) a notch, which is the dorsal end of the fossa venae cavae; and (e) the
left lateral ligament. The ventral border (Margo ventralis) is thin and
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
45
marked by the umbilical (Incisura umbilicalis) ; the latter contains the umbilical vein in the foetus which is transformed into the round ligament after
birth, and is in the concave free edge of the falciform ligament. Both
the right border (Margo dexter) and the left border (Margo sinister) are thil}.
SPLEEN
The spleen (Lien) of the camel (Fig. 15) is the largest of the group of
organs, which are usually designated as the endocrine or ductless glands
(In the true sense, the spleen is not a gland; it is not epithelial in origin,
but is mesenchymatous). It is more the form of the spleen of the horse.
FIG.
15.
SPLEEN
It is attached to the dorsal wall between the rumen and the left kidney
(Fig. 12).
It is not adherent to the rumen as is the case in the ox, and it
has a peritoneal covering for most of the organ, with the exception of the
hilus.
The spleen weighs about two pounds (ca. 1 kg.).
5. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The respiratory system comprises the nasal cavity, the pharynx,
the larynx, the trachea, the bronchi and the lungs. The nasal cavity opens
exteriorly at the nostrils, and communicates behind with the pharynx
through the choanae or posterim" nares.
It contains the peripheral part
of the organ of smell.
The pharynx is a common passage for air and food, and has been
described with the digestive system (page 40).
The larynx is a complex valvular apparatus which regulates the volume
of air passing through it. I t is the chief organ of voice.
The trachea and the bronchi formed by its bifurcation, are permanently open conducting tubes.
The thorax, its muscles and the pleural Sacs it contains, are a part
of the system.
The thyroid and thymus are not a part of the system, but
topographic reasons they will be described in this section.
for
ASAL CAVITY
The first segment of the respiratory tract is a long, somewhat
cylindrical passage, enclosed by all of the fa·c ial bones with the exception
of the mandible and hyoid. It is separated from the mouth cavity
ventrally by the palate.
The nostrils are slit-like openings and are placed obliquely, so that
they almost meet in the groove which extends upward from the cloven
upper lip.
The naso-Iacrimal orifice, a small slit-like opening, and the external
openings of the naso-lacrimal duct, is situated on the lateral wall of the
nasal cavity, lateral to the naso-palatine duct (ductus incisivus). There
is another similar orifice, just lateral to it, that opens from a mucous membrane-lined tube or pouch, that extends backward on the per'i osteum,
beneath the muscles, vessels and nerves of the lips and nos .rils, to just
beneath the facial vein, and between the dorsal and lateral nasal veins.
The pouch is about seven inches long and lies on the maxilla and nasal
process of the premaxilla. These two orifices are slit.like, the slits are
sagittal in direction and are close together.
The vomero-nasal organ lies along the ventral part of the lateral
surface of the nasal septum, but not resting on the floor of the nasal cavity.
46
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
47
It extends posteriorly about seven inches (ca. 17'5 cm. ) ending blindly.
The slit-like opening of the vomero-nasal organ i's on the medial side of the
naso-palatine duct, just opposite to the orifice of the naso-Iacrimal duct.
The nasal cavity (Fig'. 11 ) is divided into similar halves by the
nasal septum. The osseus septum is formep by the perpendicular plate
of the ethmoid behind and th.e vomer ventrally. The vomer contacts the
palatine processes of the palatine and maxilla bones. The major portion
of the septum is formed by cartilage of the septum nasi. The dorsal border
is attached along the frontal and nasal sutures and extends beyond the
nasal sutures. The ventral border of the cartilage is thick; it lies in the
groove of the vomer and the palatine process of the premaxillae.
The two turbinate bones (Fig. 16) project from the lateral waH
and divide the outer part of the cavity into three meatuses: dorsal, middle
and ventral.
FIG. 16.
VENTRAL TURBINATE
The dorsal nasal meatus is a narrow passage, bounded dorsally by the
roof of the cavity, and ventrally by the dorsal turbinate bone. It is closed
posteriorly by the junction of the inner plate of the frontal bone, with the
cribriform plate and lateral mass of the ethmoid.
48
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The middle meatus is between the two turbinate bones. It is not
a straight cavity like the dorsal meatus but is curved, and is divided
posteriorly into two branches-the upper branch leads into the ethmoid
meatuses and the lower branch curves ventrally and curves past the ventral
border of the great ethmo-turbinate. The largest ethmo-turbinate is so
extensive as to be termed a third or middle turbinate; it projects forward
between the dorsal and ventral turbinate bones.
The ventral nasal meatus is larger than the other two meatuses and
is the direct passage between the nostrils and the pharynx. It is situated
between the ventral turbinate and the floor of the nasal cavity. There
are four openings in the anterior part of this meatus; the ductus incisivus
is in the floor, the vomero-nasal orifice is medial, and the naso-Iacrimal
duct is lateral to it. The mucous-lined pouch on the face has its opening
lateral to the naso-lacrimal orifice.
The common nasal meatus is situated between the septum and the
turbinates, and is continuous laterally with the other meatuses.
The lateral masses of the ethmoid bone project into the posterior
part of the nasal cavity.
The choanae or posterior nares are two, elongated, oval-shaped
orifices which slope upward and backward from the hard palate at about
an angle of 50° and are separated by the vomer.
The nasal mucous membrane is highly vascular and is firmly attached
over the hard structures of the walls. It is continuous in front with the
skin which lines the nostrils, and behind with the mucous membrane of
the pharynx. It is also continuous with the mucous membrane which
lines the sinuses.
LARYNX
The larynx is a complex, valvular apparatus which regulates the
volume of air in respiration, prevents aspiration of foreign bodies and
is the chief organ of voice. It is situated in the neck behind the angle
of the mandible. It is related dorsally to the pharynx and to the beginning
of the oesophagus. Ventrally, it is covered by the skin, fascia and sternohyoid and omo-hyoid muscles. It is attached to the body and the thyroid
cornua of the hyoid bone and thus indirectly, to the base of the cranium....
Its cavity communicates dorsally with the pharynx and posteriorly with the
trachea. It is lined with mucous membrane. Its framework consists of
five cartilages which are connected by joints and ligaments or membranes,
and is moved by extrinsic and intrinsic muscles.
Cartilages if the Larynx: The cartilages of the larynx resemble those of
the horse rather than those of the ox. There are three single and one pair
of cartilages. The single are the cricoid, thyroid and epiglottic; the arytenoid cartilages are paired.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
49
The cavity of the larynx is very similar to that of the horse. The
pharyngeal aperture (Aditus laryngis) is a large, oval opening facing
into the ventral part of the pharynx. It is bounded in front by the epi.
glottis, behind by the arytenoid cartilages, and laterally by the ary-epiglotic
folds of mucous membrane which stretch between the epiglottis and the
arytenoid cartilages.
The vestibule of the larynx is the part of the cavity which extends
from the aditus to the vocal folds. On its lateral walls are the ventricular
folds, each of which consists of a fold of mucous membrane covering the
ventricular ligament and the cuneiform process. Behind them is a pocketlike depression termed the lateral ventricle of the larynx. This is the
entrance of the laryngeal saccule, a cul-de-sac of mucous membrane which
is about an inch (ca. 2·5 cm.) in length, and extends upward and backward
on the medial surface of the thyroid lamina. The saccule of the camel is
not as deep as in the horse. The middle, narrow part of the cavity is termed the glottis (Rima glottidis). It is bounded on either side by the vocal
fold and the medial surface of the arytenoid cartilage. The vocal folds
or true vocal cords are situated behind the lateral ventricles. They extend
from the angle of the junction of the body and laminae of the thyroid
cartilage to the vocal processes of the arytenoid cartilages. The mucous
membrane of the cord is thin and intimately attached to the underlying
vocal ligaments.
The posterior compartment of the cavity of the larynx is continuous
with the trachea. It is clearly marked off laterally by the vocal cords and
the projecting posterior border of the arytenoid cartilage.
TRACHEA AND BRONCHI
The trachea (Fig. 13) extends from the larynx to the hilus of the
lungs, where it divides into the bronchi, one to each lung. A small
bronchus for the apical lobe of the right lung is given off. It is kept
permanently open by cartilaginous rings which are imbedded in its wall.
There are three chief bronchi, similar to those of the ox.
LUNGS
The lungs (Fig. 17) of the camel are not divided into lobes by deep
interlobular fissures; the left lung may be regarded as consisting of a chief
part, the body of the lung and the apex. In addition to these, the right
lung has an intermediate lobe, which is separated from the body of the
lung by a fissure, which forms in its dorsal part, a passage for the posterior
vena cava and the right phrenic nerve, which are enclosed in the plica
venae cavae.
The root of the lung is composed of the structures which enter and
leave the lung at the hilus, which is situated on the mediastinal surface.
These are: (i) the bronchus, (ii) the pulmonary artery, (iii) the pulmonary
50
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
veins, (iv) the bronchial artery, (v ) the pulmonary nerves, and (vi) the pulmonary lymph vessels, which go to the bronchial lymph glands.
The lobation is very well marked in a fat animal, as the fat appears
to be deposited, making a very nicely-mottled surface.
FlO. 17.
LEFT LUNG ( MEDTASTINAL SURFACE)
1. Bronchus; 2. Pulmonary artery;
3 . Pulmonary vein; 4. Dorsal border;
5 . Cardiac impression; 6. Apex; 7. Diaphragmatic surface; 8. Basal border.
THYROID AND THYMUS GLA IDS
The thyroid gland is situated dorso-Iaterally over the larynx and the
beginning of the trachea (first four rings in the adult; first seven rings in a
nine months old foetus ) . It consists of two lateral lobes and a very narrow
connecting isthmus, which crosses the ventral surface of the trachea.
Each lobe is spindle-shaped and dark coloured.
The thymus gland IS a ductless gland and closely resembles lymphoid
tissue. In the nine months old foetus, it extended from the region behind
the mandible to the heart. We found a large remnant of thymus in the
mediastinum in a gelded male camel, which was said to be 18: years
of age.
6. UROGENITAL SYSTEM
The urogenital apparatus (Apparatus urogenitalis) includes two groups
of organs, the urinary and the genital.
THE URINARY ORGANS
The urinary organs (Organa uropoictica) are the kidneys,. ureters,
bladder and urethra.
The kidneys (Figs. 18 and 19) are not lobulated.
crest and are provided with a renal pelvis.
FIG. 18.
1, 1'. Renal arteries;
They have a renal
KIDNEY (CROSS-SECTION)
2, 2'. Renal veins;
3. Ureter;
4. Renal crest.
The right kidney is situated against the dorsal wall beneath the
transverse processes of the first three lumbar vertebrae. It has a smooth
surface and is bean shaped.
The anterior pole is related to the right
51
52
ANATOMY OF THE GAMEL
adrenal and the renal impression of the liver. The right renal artery
branches off of the aorta beneath the second lumbar vertebra. A single
vein joins the posterior vena cava directly beneath the origin of the right
renal artery from the aorta. The weight of the right kidney is 38 ounces
(ca. }'08 kg.).
The left kidney (Fig. 9) is situated against the dorsal waH beneath the
transverse processes of the last three lumbar vertebrae. It has a smooth
surface and its anterior-lateral curvature is flattened, giving the anterior
pole a pointed appearance. The left renal artery branches off of the aorta
beneath the third lumbar vertebra. The left kidney has two veins leading
away from the hilus, the larger one joins the posterior vena cava beneath
the second lumbar vertebra and the other joins the posterior vena cava
beneath the third lumbar vertebra. The weight of the left kidney is about
40 ounces (ca. 1'13 kg.).
r
FIG. 19.
1. Cortex;
KIDNEY (LONGITUDINAL SECTION)
2. Medulla;
3. Pelvis;
4. Ureter.
The ureiey leads from the pelvis of the kidney backward, and on
reaching the pelvic inlet it inclines a little ventrally on the lateral waH of
the pelvic cavity, turns medially and pierces the dorsal wall of the bladder
near the neck.
The urinary bladder (Vesica urinaris) varies in size, form and position
according to the amount of its contents (In the specimens examined, the
UROCmNITAL SYSTEM
53
bladder was empty and contracted to the size of a fist; it was drawn well
back on the floor of the pelvis).
The adrenal bodies or glands (Glandulae adrenalis) are two small, flattened
organs which usually lie in contact with the kidneys. In the camel, the right
adrenal is adherent to, and deeply embedded in the medial portion of the
renal impression of the liver, contacting the posterior vena cava. It
lies beneath the first lumbar vertebra. It is irregularly triangular in outline, 2 inches (ca. 5 cm.) greatest dimension, 1'5 inches (ca. 3'75 cm.)
wide, and about 0'75 inches (ca. 1-S7 cm.) thick. The weight is 0'5
ounce (ca. 14'18 gm.). The weight in a nine months foetus is l'S gm.
and in a week-old calf is about 3'95 gm.
The left adrenal, quadrangular in outline, is situated beneath the
third lumbar vertebra} not in contact with the kidney. It is about 2 inches
( ca. 5 cm.) X 2 inches (ca. 5 em.) X 0'5 inch (ca. 1'25 cm.) thick.
Weight is about 0'5 ounce (ca. 14'18 gm.). The weight in a nine months
old foetus is 1 gm., and in a week-old calf about 3'95 gm.
THE MALE GENITAL ORGANS
The genital organs (Organa genitalia masculina) of the male camel
are: (i) two testicles, the essential reproductive glands, with their coverings and appendages; (ii) the ductus deferens, the ducts of the testicles;
(iii) the prostate, a muscolo-glandular organ; (iv) the bulbo-urethral or
Cowper's glands; (v) the male urethra, a muscolo-membranous tube
which transmits the generative and urinary secretions; and (vi) the penis,
the male copulatory organ. The vesiculae seminales are absent.
The testicles (testes) are situated behind the thigh, a few inches
below the ischial arch, enclosed in a diverticulum of the abdomen, termed
the scrotum. The posterior extremity is slightly higher than the anterior
extremity. The attached border is concave and dorsal, and the free
border is Convex and ventraL The epididymis is adherent to the attached
border. It is covered by the tunica vaginalis propria and a thin albuginea.
It consists of several coiled tubules, which are grouped into lobules. The
tubules of the lobules unite to form a single tube, the duct of the epididymis
which, by its complex coils, forms the body and tail of the epididymis, and
terminates in the ductus deferens.
The ductus diferens, commonly termed the vas deferens, extends from
the tail of the epididymis to the pelvic part of the urethra. It passes
forward between the thighs from the tail of the epididymis to the inguinal
region, where it passes upwards through the inguinal canal. At the
vaginal ring, it separates from the othel structures of the spermatic cord
and turns backward and medially into the pelvic cavity. For some distance
it lies in the free edge of the genital fold, by which it is attached to the
inguinal part of the abdominal waH and the ventral part of the wall of the
54
ANATOMY OF 'tHE CAMEL
pelvis. In its further course, it leaves the edge of the fold and inclines
medially over the bladder to the neck, where the two ducts are close
together, and disappear under the prostate and continue through the
wall of the urethra.
The prostate (Prostata) is a lobulated gland which lies on the neck
of the bladder and the beginning of the urethra, ventral to the rectum.
There are several ducts on either side which perforate the urethra.
The bulbo-urethml glands (Glandulae bulbourethrales) are two in number,
and are situated on either side of the pelvic part of the urethra, close to the
ischial arch. Each gland has several excretory ducts which open into the
urethra behind the prostatic ducts.
The male urethra (Urethra masculina) is the long mucous tube which
extends from the bladder to the glans penis. I t passes backward on the
floor of the pelvis, turns around the ischial arch, and passes forward as a
part of the penis, enclosed in the corpus cavernosum urethrae. It may be
divided into two parts, pelvic and extra-pelvic. Behind the prostate, the
pelvic portion dilates and receives the ducts of the prostate glands, the
ducts of the bulbo*urethral glands and the lateral urethral glands; it then
contracts, forming the isthmus urethrae. The extra~pelvic part passes
between the two crura of the penis and runs along the groove on the
ventral surface of the corpus cavemosum penis. Its lumen is very small.
The penis is cylindrical and similar to that of the bull.
In the
prepubic region it forms an S~shaped curve, the sigmoid flexure; thus, about
one foot of the penis is folded up when it is fully retracted.
Muscles qf the Penis: The ischio-cavernosus is a strong paired muscle
which arises from the tuber ischii and the adjacent part of the sacra-sciatic
ligament. It is inserted on the crus and the adjacent part of the body
of the penis.
The retractor penis is an unstriped muscle which is a continuation
of the suspensory ligaments of the anus. It arises on the ventral surface
of the first and second coccygeal vertebrae, and passes down over the
sides of the rectum to meet below the anus. Here there is a decussatipn
of fibres, thus forming a suspensory apparatus for the posterior part of the
rectum and anus.
The two parts pass forward and end on the body
of the penis, beyond the ventral curvature .o f the penis.
The prepuce (Preputium), popularly called the 'sheath', IS a long
triangular structure which covers the free portion of the penis when not
erect. The preputial orifice is on the apex of the triangle and it is directed
ventrally and backward; it is about 1.2 inches (ca. 30 em.) behind the
umbilicus; it also contains the preputial muscles, fascia, lymph glands and
blood vessels. On each lateral surface two papillae are located, which are
rudimentary teats. The preputial orifice (Ostium praeputuale) is the opening where the skin is reflected, and is continuous with the internal lining
55
UROGENIT AI.. SYSTEM
of the sheath; it reflects upon the penis to cover it, except for the external
urethral orifice.
There are two pairs of preputial muscles (Fig. 20). The anterior
preputial muscles or protractors of the prepuce (Mm. preputiales craniales)
are two fiat bands nearly two inches (ca. 4 to 5 em.) in width, which ariSe
close together in the region of the umbilicus. Traced backward, th~y
diverge and are attached to a fibrous development around the preputial
orifice. They draw the prepuce forward. The posterior preputial muscles
or retractors of the prepuce (Mm. preputiales caudales) arise in the inguinal
region and converge to insert in the fibrous development about the preputial
orifice. They draw the prepuce backward.
FIG. 20.
RETRACTOR PREPUCE MUSCLE
(x)
(LEFT VIEW)
FEMALE GENITAL ORGANS
The ovaries (Ovaria) of the camel are of the form of the bowl part
of a teaspoon, concave on one surface and convex on the other, the border
being elliptical in outline. They are about one and a half to two inches
(ca. 4 to 5 em.) long and half an inch (ca. 1'5 em.) thick. The weight
IS about half an ounce (ca. 15 to 20 gm.).
The ovaries are situated in the sublumbar region under the sixth
or seventh vertebra. They are attached along the mesovarial border
(Margo mesovaricus). They are enclosed in a part of the broad ligament,
termed the mesovarium.
\
56
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEt
The uterine or fallopian tubes are long and flexuous. They follow a
course over a pouch formed by a folding over of the free edge of the
broad ligament which envelopes the ovary. The fimbria is attached to this
free border. The uterine orifice (Ostium uterinum tubae) is small and opens
on the apex of a conical papilla in the anterior blind end of a blunt pointed
cornua. The ostium abdominale tubae is the abdominal opening of the
tube, by which it communicates with the abdominal cavity.
The uterus is a hollow, muscular organ which is continuous with the
uterine tubes anteriorly and opens into the vagina posteriorly. It is
similar in form to that of the mare. It is situated chiefly in the abdominal
cavity, but extends a short distance into the pelvic cavity. It is attached
to the sublumbar region and to the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity by two
folds of peritoneum, termed the broad ligaments. It consists of two horns,
the body and the neck.
The horns or cornua of the uterus (Cornua uteri) are situated entirely
in the abdomen. They may vary considerably in position. Commonly
they are pressed against the dorsal wall by some of the other visceral organs.
They are cylindrical in form, and the anterior extremity of each forms a
blunt point which receives the uterine tube and opens on the summit of a
conical papilla. Posteriorly, they converge and unite with the body.
The body of the uterus (Corpus uteri) is situated partly in the abdominal
cavity and partly in the pelvic cavity. It is cylindrical in form, flattened
dorso-ventrally, the dorsal surface is related to the rectum and other parts
of the intestine. The ventral surface has inconstant relations with other
parts of the intestine.
The neck or cervix part of the uterus (Cervix uteri) is the constricted
posterior part which joins the vagina. The mucous membrane of the
uterus is not different than that of the mare, and there are no carunculae
or cotyledons present.
The vagina is a tubular passage extending horizontally through the
pelvic cavity from the neck of the uterus to the vulva. It is related dorsally
to the rectum, ventrally to the floor of the pelvis (if the bladder is empty),
the bladder and urethra, and laterally to the pelvic wall. The rectogenital pouch of the peritoneum usually extends between the vagina and
the rectum, almost to the sphincter ani muscle. The vesico-genital pouch
of peritoneum does not extend so far posteriorly between the vagina and the
bladder. Thus, a small portion of the vagina is retro-peritoneal.
The vulva or urogenital sinus (Vestibulum vaginae) is the terminal
part of the genital tract. It is continuous in front with the vagina, and
opens externally at the vulvar cleft below the anus. The dorsal commissure
appears to connect with the anal opening. There is no line of demarcation between the vagina and vulva. A transverse fold lies on the floor
of the vagina just anterior to the external urethral orifice which is about
UROGENITAL SYSTEM
57
four inches from the ventral commissure. Beneath the urethral orifice is
a blind pouch, the suburethral diverticulum.
The clitoris occupies a portion of the ventral commissure.
The urethra is four or five inches (ca. 10-12 cm.) in length; it is fused
dorsally with the floor of the vagina, laterally and ventrally it is covered
by the constrictor vaginae muscle.
The mammary glands (Glandulae lactifera) , normally four in number,
are popularly termed the udder. They are modified cutaneous glands
placed on either side of the median plane in the prepubic region. During
lactation the base of each gland is slightly concave and slopes downward
and forward in adaptation to the abdominal wall, to which it is attached
by a suspensory apparatus, which is very similar to that of the cow. It is
in relation to the large supramammary lymph nodes. Four small teats
are present.
Udder: It is customary to consider that the udder consists of four
quarters, and that there is no septum nor a visible division, between the two
quarters of the same side. There is a well developed double median
septum of elastic tissue between the two halves of the udder. Each quarter
is provided with one teat, and each teat has two lactiferous ducts. In
the dry udder, the non-lactating period, the parenchymatous tissue reduces
very greatly, and the gland reduces so much that a vertical transverse
fold of skin exists between where the quarters were, so that the teats of that
half of the udder point in opposite directions, rather than pointing
ventrally.
The supra mammary lymph node
lactating period.
IS
very large, even m the non-
7. ANGIOLOGY AND NEUROLOGY
Angiology is the description of the organs of circulation of the blood
and lymph-the heart and vessels.
The heatt (Fig. 21) of the camel resembles that of the horse in form,
in so far as the vessels leading to and from the heart are concerned.
The vena azygos has fewer radicles uniting in its formation b ecause it has
a smaller number of thoracic vertebrae.
FIG.
21.
HEART (RIGHT VIEW)
1. Aorta; 2. Pulmonary artery; 3. Puhnonary vein; 4. Postel'ior
vena cava; 5. Anterior vena cava; 6. Left auricle; 7. Right auricle; B. Right
ventricle; 9. Left ventricle; 10. Coronary artery; 11. Apex.
The camel's heart may have an as cordis in the septal wall, which is
also common in the heart of the ox.
The branches in some of the systemic arteries show differences;
the same is true of the veins.
The lymphatic system shows no specific diITerences.
The nervous system presents a few specific differences.
58
8. COMMON INTEGUMENT
The common integument (Integumentum commune ) is the protective
covering of the body, and is continuous at the natural openings with
the mucous membranes of the digestive, respiratory and genito-urinary
tractS'. It consists of the skin (Cutis), together with certain appendages or
modifications thereof, as hair, horn, feathers, etc. It contains peripheral
ramifications of the sensory nerves, and is thus an important sense organ.
It is the principal factor in the regulation of the temperature of the body,
and by means of its glands, it plays an important part in secretion and
excretion.
The skin is attached to the underlying parts by the subcutaneous
tissue or subcutis (Tela subcutanea). This consists of connective tissue
containing elastic fibres and fat:.
The skin consists of two distinct strata, viz., a superficial epithelial
layer, the epidermis and a' deep connective tissue layer, the corium.
The
epidermis is a non-vascular stratified epithelium of varying thickness. It
presents the openings of the cutaneous glands and the hair-follicles, and its
deep surface is adapted to the corium.
The corium consists essentially of a feltwork of white and elastic
tissues. It is well supplied with vessels and nerves, and contains the
cutaneous glands, the hair foUicles and unstriped muscle.
Behind the poll on the dorsal surface of the neck on either side of
the median plane is a much thickened area of the skin which contains the
, poU glands'.
The appendages of the skin are modifications of the epidermis, and
comprise hair, hoofs or claws, etc.
The hairs (Pili) cover almost the entire surface of the body of the ,
domesticated mammals.
The skin of the camel is almost entirely covered by hairs of varying
length. On the dorsal surface of the neck, behind the poll and over the
withers and shoulders, they maybe one or two inches (ca. 2' 5 to 5 cm. )
in length. The hair follicles are grouped in clusters of nine or more to a
cluster. On the ventral surface of the body the hairs are very short. There
is no fetlock, mane, and long tail hair.
The tail is 'f lattened dorso-ventrally, with short and half an inch to one inch long hair (ca. 1'6 to 2'5 em. )
covering the dorsal surface; on either border the hairs are three to three
and a half inches (ca. 7'5 to 8'75 em.) long; the ventral surface is sparsely
covered with short hairs.
59
60
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
The ears are covered and lined with hair, and have long hairs
around the inner portion of the rim of the concha.
The nostrils, lips and orbital regions are provided with tactile hairs.
The eyebrow has two to three and a half inches (ca. 5 to 8·75 em.) long
hairs, with most of them grouped in the anterior portion and extending one
and a half inches (ca. 3·85 em.) anterior to the medial canthus. Eye
lashes are found on the upper lid, but are absent or scanty on the lower lid.
There are several areas or callosities on the camel, viz." soles of
the feet, the dorsal surface of the carpus, the point of the elbow, the chest
pad or pedestal: and the anterior surface of the stifle. These areas, with the
exception of the soles, are covered with hair at birth and continue so for
several weeks when they become callused and so remain. The soles of the
feet are callused at birth and are provided with a pad beneath the corium.
This pad is comprised of much elastic tissue attached to the flexor tendons
and the second and third phalanges of each digit. The pad for each
limb is fused to enclose the two digits on one pad.
The claws or nails do not bear weight, but they are keratinized
epithelial tissue which are produced like horn or hoof and protect the
tip of the toe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABDEL-AzIZ NEUMANI, D. 1911. The Comparatiue Osteology of Camel. Le Claire.
BALL, V. 1924. Traite d' Anatomie Pathologique Generale. Vigot Freres, edit., Paris.
BEN DANOU, C. 1913. Note sur les Camclides et leur laine. Bull. de l'Office du Gout. general
de I' Algerie.
BOUCHEMAN, 1935. Material de la vie Bedouine. Institut Francais de Damas. Document
d' Etudes Orientales. 3.
BOUKHART, EI. 1903-0B. Les traditIOns Islamiques. 3. traduits de I'arabe par Houdac,
Pans.
BREHM, A. E. IB90-91. Les marueilles de la nature. 2. Les m!Jmmiferes. J. B. Baillcre, edit.,
Pans.
BRUMPT, E. PreCIs de paraslfologle. 2. Masson, edit., Paris.
BUFFON, G. L. et DAUBENTON. I 749-B9. HIstone naturelle generale et partlculzere, Imprimene
Royale, Paris.
Bulletin Economique de la Chambre de Commerce d'Alep. Annees, 1937-39.
Bulletin Economique de la Chambre de Damas. Annees, 1937-39.
BURKHART, J. L. IB35. Voyages en Arable. 3. Traduction par J. B. Eynes.
CALMETTE. 1936. L'Irifectzon bacillaire et la tuberculose chez l'homme et chez les ammaux. Masson,
edit., Pans.
CAUVET (COMMANDANT). 1926. Le Chameau. 2. J. B. BaiUere, edit., Pans.
CHAVIN. IB64. Memoire sur Ie lait du charmeau a deux bosses. Bull. Soc. Accl. I.
COLIN. IBB8. Tralte de physiologic comparee des animaux. J. B. Baillere, edit., Pans.
CORAN, LE. 1929. Texte arabe. TraductIOn E. Montet, Payot, Cdlt., Pans.
\_CROSS, M. E. The camel and Its diseases. Londres.
CURASSON, G. 1942. Pathologle exotlque. 3. Vigot, edit., Pans.
DACCAK, A. R. 1944. De la production et de la consommatzon des ulandes en ,l,yrie. R. Foulton,
edit., Paris.
DAUMAS (GENERAL). 1862. Les cheuaux du Sahara et les moeurs du desert. Hachette, cdlt., Pans
D,FFLOTH. 1926. ;':,ootechnie coloniale. 2. J. B. Baillere, edit., Paris.
- - - - - Zootechnze generale.
D,REUX. 1941-42. Cours de quatrieme annee sur l'Inspection des uiamdes. Annec, 1941-42,
Ecole NatlOnale Veterinaire d'Alfort.
EL HAGRI, M. A. AI 1954. Etude due .rystem arterial du member thoracique du chameau. Vigot
Freres, edit., 23, rue de I' Ecole-de-Medicine, Paris-6.
1954. Quelques caracterisllques anatomiques des systemes nerueux et musculaire du
membre thoraclque du Chameau. ,(2).
FINBERT, E. J. 1938. La ule due chameau, Ie ualsseau du desert. A. Michel, edit., Paris.
GEOFFROY SAINT HILAIRE, H. 1920. L'eleuage au Maroc. Chalimel, edit., Paris. L'eleuage
dans l'Afrique du Nord. Challamel, edit., Paris.
Haut Commissariat de la Republique en Syrie et an Liban. Mfaires Economiquea.
JAUSSEN PERE, A. 1908. Costumes des Arabes au pays de Maob. Gabaldo, edit., Paris.
L'Originalite du Chameau. 5 (N.S.) No.3. 1951-52. par. A.
LAFENETRE, H. et DEDIEU, P. 1936. Technique Systematique de l'Inspection des viandes de bouchene.
VigOt, ed,t., Pans.
LEESE, A. S. 1907-17. A Treatise on the One-humped Camel Health and Disease. Haynes & Son,
Maiden Lane, Stamford, Lincolnshire.
1909. Deux maladies des jeunes chameaux. J. vet. Sci . .f; and Bull. Pasteur.
Tips on Camels. Londres.
61
62
ANATOMY OF THE CAMEL
LEESE, A. S. A Treatise on the One-humped Camel. Londrcs.
LEFEBURE, E. 1906. Lc chamcau en Egypte. Actes due XIV Congress des Orzentailstes.
LI>ONARD, A. G. 1894. The Camel-Its uses and management. Longmans, Green & Co.,
London and New York.
LESBRE, F. K. 1906. Recherches anatomlques sur les camehdes, difference entre les rdeux
especes de chameau. E:>.tr. Arch due, Mus. HIs. Nat. Lyon.
1923. PreCIs d'anatomle comparee des anzmaux domestlques. 2. J. B. Baillere,
edil., Pans.
,
LETARD, 1944. Cours de l'Instltut de Medlcl1le Vetermazre Exoltque sur la Zootechnie colonzale
Annee 1944. Ecole NatlOnale Veiermmre d'Alfort.
MAKARYTSCHEFF. 1931. Zeltschrift f Flezsch und Mzlchygiene.
MASON (MAJOR), F. E. Trans. Med. physical Soc., Bombay
MOHAMED EL FOURGI, 1950. Le Chameau-Tunzsien. Ecole Nationale Vetennaire
Toulouse. Toulouse, Impnmene Nan-Mestres, 21, Rue d'Embarthe, 21
NEVEU-LEMAIRE, M. 1938. Traite d'helmin. Med. et. Vet. Vigot. edit., Paris.
1938. Traite d'Ent. med. et. vet. Vigot, Paris, Protozoologie.
1943. Trazte de Medicale et Veterinazre. Vigot, edit., Paris.
PANISSET, 1938. Tralte des Maladies mfectleuses des anzmaux domestiques. Vigot, edit., Pans.
PIETTRE, M. 1922. Inspection des vzandes et des aliments d'origzne carnee. 2. J. B. Balllere,
edit., Pans.
PlOT-BEY, J. B. 1889. I.e chameau, revue egyptlenne annee.
Revue D'Elevage et de Medicine Veterinaire-des pats tropicaux 7(3).
ROGIER, F. 1934. Contribution a i'etude du systeme Iympahatic du charmeau. Lyon, edit.,
Toulouse.
ROEUSSY, G., LEROUX, R. et OBERLlNG, C. 1933. PreCIs d'Anatomie Pathologique. Masson,
edit.
SABA, M. 1936. De l'Inspection des viandes et des abattOirs en ~yYle. Les Editions Mazarines,
Paris.
SAKKAL, FATEII, B. 1945. Le Chameau-anzmal de Bouchene. Ne en 1917, a Alep (Syrie) 1945.
Ecole Natwnale Vetermalre d' Alfort-No. 15. Pans Imprimene R. Foulton, 29 rue
Deparcleux.
TABARI, EL. Chromques textearabe.
TAYEB, M. A. F. 1953. Etude sur les Nerfs Pneumogastnque et spinal du Chameau. 6(3).
TraductIOn: P. C. Blin, Chief de travaux d'Anatomle a I'Ecole nationale
veterinalre d'Alfort.
1952. L'Apparezl Gemtal male du Chameau. 5(N.S.) Boue.
1953. Les organes gemtaux de la Chamelle. 6(1). Traduction: P. C. Blin.
VALLON, 1836. Histone naturelle du dromzdalre.
VERGE, J. 1941-42. Cours de quatrieme annee sur le3 maladies contagleuses. Annee.
Ecole Natlonale Vetmnazre d'Alfort.
1936-37. Cours de quetrieme annee suI l'InspectlOn des vlandes. Annee
- - - - - 1936-37. Ecole Nationale Veterznalre d'Alfort.