Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
UNIT 7A Algorithms Problem Solving Techniques Representativeness Heuristic Compensatory Models Heuristics We are here Decision Making Techniques Availability Heuristic Unit 7: Cognition Obstacles to Problem Solving Obstacles to Decision Making Biological Factors Acquisition and use of Language Cognitive Factors Information Processing Model 7A:Memory Cultural Factors Encoding Storage Retrieval Algorithms Representativeness Heuristic Compensatory Models Heuristics Decision Making Techniques Problem Solving Techniques Availability Heuristic Unit 7: Cognition Obstacles to Problem Solving We are here Biological Factors Acquisition and use of Language Cognitive Factors Obstacles to Decision Making Information Processing Model 7A:Memory Cultural Factors Encoding Storage Retrieval The ability to remember things we have experienced, imagined, or learned Memory is often seen as steps in an information-processing model Encoding – The process of putting information into digital format Storage – Hard Drive Retrieval – Accessing the Hard Drive Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval All the rest We are here External Stimuli Sensory Registers Retrieval Short Term Memory Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy, Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful, Mopey, Shy, Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy, Pop, Grumpy, Bashful, Cheerful, Teach, Shorty, Nifty, Happy, Doc, Wheezy, and Stubby. It depends on several things…. If you like Disney movies? When was the last time you have seen the movie? Are people around you being loud and annoying so you cannot Dopey, Grumpy, Doc, Bashful, Sleepy, Sneezy, and Happy concentrate? Three step process…. 1. Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system. 2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time. 3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage. Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers We are here Retrieval Short Term Memory Sensory memory is the first stop for all sensory information Information stays for only a very short time Visual (iconic) memory holds images, or icons, that represent all aspects of a visual image Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual register Auditory (echoic) memory holds echoes of sound Echoes can last up to several seconds in the auditory register I will flash the next picture for just ¼ of a second. DON’T BLINK After the image flashes we’ll return to a white screen and you can tell me everything you saw. DON’T BLINK SELECTIVE ATTENTION: Selects certain information for further processing We normally pay attention to only a SMALL (PLEASE ENJOY THE IRONIC FONT SELECTION) portion of incoming information THREE-STAGE PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Retrieval Sensory Registers Short Term Memory We are here Short-term memory holds information we are aware of or thinking about at any given moment Sometimes referred to as working memory Research indicates that STM can hold 7 +/- 2 bits of information Current research has demonstrated that STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in 1.5 - 2 seconds Larger amounts of information can be held by using the process of chunking 9754 68259 913825 5963827 86951372 719384273 9152438162 15284673189 97-54 68-259 913-825 596-3827 869-513-72 719-384-273 9-152-438-162 1-528-467-3189 Much information is stored in STM phonologically (according to how it sounds) Some information is stored visually Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information THREE-STAGE PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY Information can be held in STM by using rote rehearsal, also called maintenance rehearsal Rote rehearsal involves repeating information over and over This technique is not very effective in creating long term memories Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers Retrieval We are here Short Term Memory Everything that is learned is stored in longterm memory Capacity of long-term memory Vast amounts of information may be stored for many years No known limits to capacity Most information is encoded in terms of meaning Some information is stored verbatim Some information is coded in terms of nonverbal images Research has shown that memory for visually encoded information is better than phonologically encoded information Explicit memory Episodic Memory Semantic Memory Implicit memory Procedural Memory @#$!& @#$!& Emotional Memory MODIFIED THREE-STAGE PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY MODIFIED THREE-STAGE PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY Automatic Processing Parallel processing Automatic processing 1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page. 2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take place in a day. 3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that happen to you. Effortful Processing Rehearsal (conscious repetition) Ebbinghaus curve Ebbinghaus curve Overlearning “the process of practicing a skill” Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than practicing all at once (massed practice). You can memorize a poem a lot easier if you break it down into 5 parts over 5 days instead of all at once. Serial position effect Recency effect Primacy effect Levels of Processing Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images. Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words. Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning. Self-reference effect ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN WHAT WE ENCODE Visual Encoding Imagery Mnemonics ▪ ROYGBIV ▪ PEMDAS ▪ HOMES The grouping of information into meaningful units for easier handling by short term memory. MSNNASACIACOM Or MSN NASA CIA COM Hierarchies: Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories. Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval All the rest We are here External Stimuli Sensory Registers Retrieval Short Term Memory Sperling’s memory Iconic memory Echoic memory experiment Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Retrieval Sensory Registers We are here Short Term Memory Magic number Seven Plus or minus 2 The list of magic sevens Seven wonders of world Seven seas Seven deadly sins Seven primary colors Seven musical scale notes Seven days of the week Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers We are here Long Term Memory Retrieval Short Term Memory Unlimited nature of long-term memory Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) A long-lasting change in the structure or function of a synapse that increases the efficiency of neural transmission. Synaptic Changes Memory trace Long-term potentiation (LTP) Memory boosting drugs ▪ CREB ▪ glutamate Stress Hormones and Memory Epinephrine and glucose Emotions and memories HEIGHTENED EMOTIONS = STRONGER MEMORIES!! Flashbulb memory •Flashbulb memories – Vivid memories of dramatic event – May occur because of strong emotional content Explicit memory Memory for information we can readily express and are aware of having This information can be intentionally recalled Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in a specific time and place Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and concepts not linked to a specific time Implicit memory Memory for information that we cannot readily express and may not be aware of having Cannot be intentionally retrieved Procedural memories: Motor skills and habits Emotional memories: Learned emotional responses to various stimuli Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories Amnesia H.M. Studies ▪ Anterograde amnesia ▪ Unable to make new explicit memories but can form new implicit (procedural) memories Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory) Explicit memory (declarative memory) Hippocampus Cerebellum STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION STORING MEMORIES IN THE BRAIN Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers We are here Retrieval Short Term Memory Recall Ability to retrieve information not in conscious awareness Recognition Clues to help us remember Relearning Faster time relearning 2nd time than first Retrieval cues Mnemonic devices To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming. Context effects Can prime memory retrieval Déjà vu being in a similar context to one we have been in before may trigger 2/3 of us have experienced ▪ increases with tiredness/stress RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT CONTEXT EFFECTS State dependent memory Mood Congruent memory Schacter’s sevens sins of memory Sins of Forgetting ▪ Absent-mindedness ▪ inattention to details leads to encoding failure ▪ Transience ▪ storage decay over time ▪ Blocking ▪ inaccessibility of stored information Schacter’s sevens Sins of distortion ▪ Misattribution sins of memory ▪ confusing the source of information ▪ Suggestibility ▪ lingering effects of misattribution ▪ Bias ▪ belief-colored recollections Sin of intrusion ▪ Persistence ▪ unwanted memories Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers Retrieval We are here Short Term Memory Encoding failure Encoding failure What we fail to encode, we will never remember Age can affect encoding efficiency Without effort, many new memories simply do not form We cannot remember what we do not encode Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers We are here Retrieval Short Term Memory Storage decay Ebbinghaus curve Ebbinghaus Curve Information Processing Model 1. Encoding gone Long Term Memory 2. Storage 3. Retrieval External Stimuli All the rest Sensory Registers Retrieval We are here Short Term Memory Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). Proactive interference (forward acting) Retroactive interference (backward-acting) Proactive interference This is when new information is being tested. The old information already in your LTM interferes. FORWARD ACTING Psychologists have found that recall of later items can be improved by making them distinctive from early items. For example, people being fed groups of numbers to remember did much better when they were suddenly fed a group of words instead. This is called release from proactive interference Retroactive interference Occurs when new information interferes with information already in memory Retro means old In this term the old information is being tested Thus the new information is doing the interference. BACKWARD-ACTING Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information. Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information. Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number. Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name. Self-serving personal histories Repression Motivated Forgetting: People unknowingly revise their memories. Culver Pictures Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Sigmund Freud While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in missing pieces of information to make our recall more coherent. Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event. Loftus memory studies Misinformation effect Source amnesia (source misattribution) we retain the memory of the event, but not the context in which we acquired it Shown to be unreliable People’s recall for events may be influenced by what they heard or constructed after the incident Memory is reconstructed Memories are not stored like snapshots, but are instead like sketches that are altered and added to every time they are called up Elizabeth Loftus has shown subjects who are given false information about an event or scene tend to incorporate it into their memories, and "recall" the false information as a part of their original memory even two weeks later. Loftus gives the example of the sniper attacks in the fall of 2002. "Everybody was looking for a white van even though the bad guys ended up having a dark Chevy Caprice." That's because some people reported seeing a white van at the scene of the crime. "Witnesses overhear each other," says Loftus, and police may also unintentionally influence people's memories when they talk about a crime. Study after study has shown that there is no correlation between the subjective feeling of certainty one has about a memory, and the memory’s accuracy Involved the recall of long-forgotten dramatic event May be the result of suggestion Some evidence that memories can be repressed and recalled later Children’s memories of abuse Suggestibility Areas of agreement Sexual abuse happens Injustice happens Forgetting happens Recovered memories are incomplete Memories before 3 years are unreliable Hypnotic memories are unreliable Memories can be emotionally upsetting Loftus studies with children Study repeatedly Make the material meaningful Activate retrieval cues Use mnemonic devices Minimize interference Sleep more Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it and to help determine what you do not yet know