Download Unit 7A - Cognition: Memory Notes

UNIT 7A
Algorithms
Problem
Solving
Techniques
Representativeness
Heuristic
Compensatory
Models
Heuristics
We are
here
Decision
Making
Techniques
Availability
Heuristic
Unit 7:
Cognition
Obstacles to
Problem
Solving
Obstacles to
Decision
Making
Biological
Factors
Acquisition
and use of
Language
Cognitive
Factors
Information
Processing
Model
7A:Memory
Cultural
Factors
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Algorithms
Representativeness
Heuristic
Compensatory
Models
Heuristics
Decision
Making
Techniques
Problem
Solving
Techniques
Availability
Heuristic
Unit 7:
Cognition
Obstacles to
Problem
Solving
We are
here
Biological
Factors
Acquisition
and use of
Language
Cognitive
Factors
Obstacles to
Decision
Making
Information
Processing
Model
7A:Memory
Cultural
Factors
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval


The ability to remember things we have
experienced, imagined, or learned
Memory is often seen as steps in an
information-processing model
 Encoding – The process of putting information
into digital format
 Storage – Hard Drive
 Retrieval – Accessing the Hard Drive
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
All the rest
We are
here
External
Stimuli
Sensory Registers
Retrieval
Short Term Memory

Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful, Sleepy, Smiley,
Jumpy, Hopeful, Mopey, Shy, Droopy, Dopey,
Sniffy, Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy, Lazy,
Pop, Grumpy, Bashful, Cheerful, Teach,
Shorty, Nifty, Happy, Doc, Wheezy, and
Stubby.

It depends on several
things….
 If you like Disney
movies?
 When was the last time
you have seen the
movie?
 Are people around you
being loud and annoying
so you cannot
Dopey, Grumpy, Doc, Bashful, Sleepy, Sneezy,
and Happy
concentrate?
Three step process….
1.
Encoding: The processing of information into the memory system.
2.
Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3.
Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory
storage.
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
We are
here
Retrieval
Short Term Memory


Sensory memory is the first stop for all
sensory information
Information stays for only a very short time

Visual (iconic) memory holds images, or
icons, that represent all aspects of a visual
image
 Icons normally last about ¼ second in the visual
register

Auditory (echoic) memory holds echoes of
sound
 Echoes can last up to several seconds in the
auditory register



I will flash the next picture for just ¼ of a
second.
DON’T BLINK
After the image flashes we’ll return to a
white screen and you can tell me everything
you saw.

DON’T BLINK
SELECTIVE ATTENTION:
 Selects certain information for further
processing
 We normally pay attention to only a
SMALL
(PLEASE ENJOY THE IRONIC FONT SELECTION)
portion of incoming information
THREE-STAGE PROCESSING
MODEL OF MEMORY
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Retrieval
Sensory Registers
Short Term Memory
We are
here


Short-term memory holds information we
are aware of or thinking about at any given
moment
Sometimes referred to as working memory
Research indicates that STM can hold 7
+/- 2 bits of information
 Current research has demonstrated that
STM can hold whatever is rehearsed in
1.5 - 2 seconds
 Larger amounts of information can be held
by using the process of chunking
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9754
68259
913825
5963827
86951372
719384273
9152438162
15284673189
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97-54
68-259
913-825
596-3827
869-513-72
719-384-273
9-152-438-162
1-528-467-3189
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Much information is stored in STM
phonologically (according to how it sounds)
Some information is stored visually
Research has shown that memory for
visually encoded information is better than
phonologically encoded information
THREE-STAGE PROCESSING
MODEL OF MEMORY



Information can be held in STM by using
rote rehearsal, also called maintenance
rehearsal
Rote rehearsal involves repeating
information over and over
This technique is not very effective in
creating long term memories
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
Retrieval
We are
here
Short Term Memory


Everything that is learned is stored in longterm memory
Capacity of long-term memory
 Vast amounts of information may be stored for
many years
 No known limits to capacity



Most information is encoded in terms of
meaning
Some information is stored verbatim
Some information is coded in terms of
nonverbal images
 Research has shown that memory for visually
encoded information is better than
phonologically encoded information

Explicit memory
 Episodic Memory
 Semantic Memory

Implicit memory
 Procedural Memory
@#$!&
@#$!&
 Emotional Memory
MODIFIED THREE-STAGE
PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY
MODIFIED THREE-STAGE
PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY
 Automatic
Processing
 Parallel processing
 Automatic processing
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you automatically
encode the place of a picture on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events that take
place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of things that
happen to you.
 Effortful Processing
 Rehearsal (conscious
repetition)
 Ebbinghaus
curve
 Ebbinghaus
curve
 Overlearning
 “the process of practicing a skill”
Distributing
rehearsal (spacing effect) is better than
practicing all at once (massed practice). You can
memorize a poem a lot easier if you break it down into
5 parts over 5 days instead of all at once.
 Serial
position effect
 Recency effect
 Primacy effect
 Levels
of Processing
 Visual Encoding: the encoding of
picture images.
 Acoustic Encoding: the encoding
of sound, especially the sounds of
words.
 Semantic Encoding: the encoding
of meaning.
 Self-reference
effect
ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN
WHAT WE ENCODE
 Visual
Encoding
 Imagery
 Mnemonics
▪ ROYGBIV
▪ PEMDAS
▪ HOMES

The grouping of information into
meaningful units for easier handling by
short term memory.
MSNNASACIACOM
Or
MSN NASA CIA COM
Hierarchies: Complex information broken down
into broad concepts and further subdivided into
categories and subcategories.
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
All the rest
We are
here
External
Stimuli
Sensory Registers
Retrieval
Short Term Memory
 Sperling’s memory
 Iconic memory
 Echoic memory
experiment
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Retrieval
Sensory Registers
We are
here
Short Term Memory
 Magic
number Seven
 Plus or minus 2
 The






list of magic sevens
Seven wonders of world
Seven seas
Seven deadly sins
Seven primary colors
Seven musical scale notes
Seven days of the week
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
We are
here
Long Term
Memory
Retrieval
Short Term Memory
 Unlimited
nature of long-term memory
Long-Term
Potentiation (LTP) A
long-lasting change in
the structure or
function of a synapse
that increases the
efficiency of neural
transmission.
 Synaptic
Changes
 Memory trace
 Long-term potentiation
(LTP)
 Memory boosting drugs
▪ CREB
▪ glutamate
Stress Hormones and
Memory
 Epinephrine and glucose
 Emotions and memories
 HEIGHTENED EMOTIONS =
STRONGER MEMORIES!!
 Flashbulb memory
•Flashbulb memories
– Vivid memories of dramatic event
– May occur because of strong emotional
content

Explicit memory
 Memory for information we can readily express
and are aware of having
 This information can be intentionally recalled
 Episodic Memories - Memories for personal events in
a specific time and place
 Semantic Memories - Memory for general facts and
concepts not linked to a specific time

Implicit memory
 Memory for information that we cannot readily
express and may not be aware of having
 Cannot be intentionally retrieved
 Procedural memories: Motor skills and habits
 Emotional memories: Learned emotional
responses to various stimuli
 Storing
Implicit and Explicit Memories
 Amnesia
 H.M. Studies
▪ Anterograde amnesia
▪ Unable to make new explicit memories but can form new
implicit (procedural) memories
 Storing
Implicit and Explicit Memories
 Implicit memory (nondeclarative memory)
 Explicit memory (declarative memory)
 Hippocampus
 Cerebellum
STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION
STORING MEMORIES IN THE BRAIN
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
We are
here
Retrieval
Short Term Memory

Recall
 Ability to retrieve
information not in
conscious awareness

Recognition
 Clues to help us
remember

Relearning
 Faster time relearning 2nd
time than first
 Retrieval
cues
 Mnemonic
devices
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
priming.
 Context
effects
 Can prime memory
retrieval
 Déjà
vu
 being in a similar context to one we have been
in before may trigger
 2/3 of us have experienced
▪ increases with tiredness/stress
RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT
CONTEXT EFFECTS
 State
dependent
memory
 Mood Congruent
memory
 Schacter’s
sevens sins of memory
 Sins of Forgetting
▪ Absent-mindedness
▪ inattention to details leads to encoding failure
▪ Transience
▪ storage decay over time
▪ Blocking
▪ inaccessibility of stored information
 Schacter’s sevens
 Sins of distortion
▪ Misattribution
sins of memory
▪ confusing the source of information
▪ Suggestibility
▪ lingering effects of misattribution
▪ Bias
▪ belief-colored recollections
 Sin of intrusion
▪ Persistence
▪ unwanted memories
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
Retrieval
We are
here
Short Term Memory
 Encoding
failure
 Encoding
failure
 What we fail to encode, we will
never remember
 Age can affect encoding efficiency
 Without effort, many new
memories simply do not form
We cannot remember what we
do not encode
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
We are
here
Retrieval
Short Term Memory
 Storage
decay
 Ebbinghaus curve
Ebbinghaus Curve
Information Processing
Model
1. Encoding
gone
Long Term
Memory
2. Storage
3. Retrieval
External
Stimuli
All the rest
Sensory Registers
Retrieval
We are
here
Short Term Memory
Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon.
Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject
says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).


Proactive interference (forward acting)
Retroactive interference (backward-acting)

Proactive interference
 This is when new information is being tested.
 The old information already in your LTM interferes.
FORWARD ACTING
 Psychologists have found that recall of later items can
be improved by making them distinctive from early
items. For example, people being fed groups of numbers
to remember did much better when they were suddenly
fed a group of words instead. This is called release from
proactive interference

Retroactive interference
 Occurs when new information interferes with
information already in memory
 Retro means old
 In this term the old information is being tested
 Thus the new information is doing the
interference.
BACKWARD-ACTING

Retroactive
Interference: new
information blocks
out old information.

Proactive
Interference: old
information blocks
out new information.
Getting a new bus
number and
forgetting old bus
number.
Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s
name.
 Self-serving
personal histories
 Repression
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly revise
their memories.
Culver Pictures
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing thoughts,
feelings, and memories
from consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in
missing pieces of information to make our
recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading
information into one's memory of an event.
 Loftus
memory studies
 Misinformation effect
 Source
amnesia
(source
misattribution)
 we retain the
memory of the event,
but not the context in
which we acquired it




Shown to be unreliable
People’s recall for events may be
influenced by what they heard or
constructed after the incident
Memory is reconstructed
Memories are not stored like snapshots, but
are instead like sketches that are altered
and added to every time they are called up
Elizabeth Loftus has shown subjects who are
given false information about an event or scene
tend to incorporate it into their memories, and
"recall" the false information as a part of their
original memory even two weeks later.
 Loftus gives the example of the sniper attacks in
the fall of 2002. "Everybody was looking for a
white van even though the bad guys ended up
having a dark Chevy Caprice." That's because
some people reported seeing a white van at the
scene of the crime. "Witnesses overhear each
other," says Loftus, and police may also
unintentionally influence people's memories when
they talk about a crime.


Study after study has shown that there is no
correlation between the subjective feeling
of certainty one has about a memory, and
the memory’s accuracy



Involved the recall of long-forgotten
dramatic event
May be the result of suggestion
Some evidence that memories can be
repressed and recalled later
 Children’s
memories of abuse
 Suggestibility
 Areas of agreement
 Sexual abuse happens
 Injustice happens
 Forgetting happens
 Recovered memories are incomplete
 Memories before 3 years are unreliable
 Hypnotic memories are unreliable
 Memories can be emotionally upsetting
 Loftus
studies with children

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
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

Study repeatedly
Make the material meaningful
Activate retrieval cues
Use mnemonic devices
Minimize interference
Sleep more
Test your own knowledge, both to rehearse it
and to help determine what you do not yet
know