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Chapter 1 Human Body In this passage you will learn: Classification of organ systems Structure and function of each organ system To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology, 5 hematology, immunology, psychology etc. Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system, the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system, the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are 10 described in this article. The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube - 15 shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made. A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow - 20 or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints. Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective, cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the 25 breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant grows into an adult. The muscular system allows the body to move, and its contractions produce heat, which helps maintain a constant body temperature. Striated muscles can be 1 30 consciously controlled. The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when walking, or to move just one part of the body, as when bending a finger. Contractions of the heart and smooth muscles are not under conscious control. 35 Smooth muscles are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and the intestines and serve to move the contents of these organs through the body. The circulatory system All parts of the body must have nourishment and oxygen in order to function and grow, and their waste products must be removed before they accumulate and poison the body. The circulatory system distributes 40 needed materials and removes unneeded ones. It is made up of the heart, blood vessels, and blood, which together make up the cardiovascular system. The blood is also part of the body's defense system. It has antibodies and white blood cells that protect the body against foreign invaders. The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halves: one half 45 receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs. When the heart muscle contracts, the blood is forced out into arteries and enters small capillaries. Blood returns to the heart through veins. Also functioning in circulation is the lymphatic system. Some of the fluid that 50 surrounds cells does not reenter the blood vessels directly. This fluid, called lymph, returns to the heart by way of another system of channels - the lymph vessels. Lymph nodes along these vessels filter the fluid before it reenters the blood. The spleen is a large lymphatic organ that filters the blood. The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air and expels carbon dioxide 55 and water vapor. Air enters the nose and mouth and travels through the larynx, and trachea. The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood release carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled. 60 The digestive system consists of a tube extending from the mouth to the anus. In it, food and fluids are taken in, moved through the body, and broken down into small molecules that are absorbed into the circulatory system. This breakdown, known as digestion, is both a mechanical and a chemical process. Food enters through the mouth, where chewing and saliva start to break it up 2 65 and make it easier to swallow. Next, the food travels down through the esophagus to the stomach. Contractions of the stomach's muscular wall continue to break down the food mechanically, and chemical digestion continues when acid and enzymes are secreted into the stomach cavity. The liquified food gradually passes into the small intestine. In the first part of 70 the small intestine, called the duodenum, enzymes from the pancreas are added. These enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of the food. The digestion of fat is aided by bile, which is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The small intestine of an adult is about 21 feet (6.4 meters) long. Most of its length is devoted to absorbing the nutrients released during these digestive activities. 75 The liquid remainder of the food enters the large intestine, or colon, which is about 12 feet (3.7 meters) long. It is more than twice as wide as the small intestine. In the large intestine most of the fluid is absorbed, and the relatively dry residues are expelled. The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small 80 molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply. The fluid that leaves the kidneys, known as urine, travels through a tube called the ureter to the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is voided from the body 85 through another tube, the urethra. The endocrine system. The two systems that control body activities are the endocrine system and the nervous system. The former exerts its control by means of chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are produced by a variety of endocrine glands, which release the hormones directly into the blood stream. 90 A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function, and development of the sex organs. Because some of the pituitary's hormones stimulate other glands to produce their own hormones, the pituitary called the master gland. 95 Another gland, the thyroid, is located between the collar bones. Its hormone controls the rate of the body's metabolism. The sex organs (ovaries end testes) make the sex cells and also make hormones that control certain characteristics of males and females. Located on top of each kidney is the adrenal gland, which produces cortisone and adrenaline. The pancreas produces not only digestive enzymes but also 3 100 insulin and glucagon, which control the body's use of sugar and starches. The nervous system. The brain, the spinal cord and the nerve - also controls body activities. The lower parts of the brain control basic functions such as breathing and heart rate as well as body temperature, hunger, and thirst. Above these regions are the centers for sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste, and the regions that direct 105 voluntary muscular activities of the arms and legs. Performed here are the higher functions of integrating and processing information. The brain receives and sends information by means of nerves, many of which lie partly in the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column. Nerves enter and leave the spinal cord at each level of the body, traveling to and 110 from the arms, legs, and trunk. These nerves bring information from the various sense organs. The information is processed by the brain, and then messages are carried back to muscles and glands through out the body. The reproductive system is constructed differently for males and females. The male reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting and maintaining 115 viable sperm (the male sex cell). It also produces the male sex hormone, testosterone, which regulates the development of a beard, pubic hair, a deep voice and other bodily characteristics of the adult male. The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova (the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by 120 sperm, nourishing and providing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child. The female reproductive system also produces the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate the development of breasts and other bodily characteristics of the mature female. The skin is a complete layer that protects the inner structures of the body, and it 125 is the largest of the body's organs. It keeps out foreign substances and prevents excessive water evaporation. The nerves in the skin provide tactile information. The skin also helps keep the body's temperature close to 37 °C, heat is conserved by reducing blood flow through the skin or is expended by increasing blood flow and by evaporation of sweat from the skin. Hair and nails are accessory structures of the 130 skin. New Words and Phrases Accessory adj 附属的 Adrenal gland n. 肾上腺 Adrenaline n. 肾上腺素 Anatomy [ə`nætəmi] n. Antibody n. 抗体 Anus n. 肛门 解剖学 4 Artery n. 动脉 Axis n. 轴线 Bile n. 胆汁 Bladder n. 膀胱 Blood vessel n. 血管 Bone marrow n. 骨髓 Breakdown n. 分解 Breastbone n. 胸骨 Capillary n. 毛细血管 Carbon dioxide n. 二氧化碳 Cardiovascular adj. 心血管的 Cartilage n. 软骨 Circulatory adj. 循环的 Collar bone n. 锁骨 Colon n. 结肠 Conserve v. 保留 Cortisone n. 可的松 Duodenum n. 十二指肠 Embryology n. 胚胎学 Endocrine adj. 内分泌 Endocrinology n. 内分泌学 Enzyme n. 酶 Esophagus n. 食管 Estrogen n. 雌激素 Evaporation n. 蒸发 Exhale v. 呼出 Expel v. 排除 Gall bladder n. 胆囊 Gland n. 腺体 Glucagon n. 高血糖素 Hematology n. 血液学 Hinge joint n. 结合点 Histology n. 组织学 Hormone n. 激素 Immunology 免疫学 Insulin n. 胰岛素 Integrate v. 整合 Intestine n. 肠子 Kidney n. 肾 Larynx n. 喉管 Liquify v. 使液体化 Lymph n. 淋巴 Lymph node n. 淋巴结 Lymphatic adj. 淋巴的 Messenger n. 信使 Metabolism n. 新陈代谢 Molecule n. 分子 Newborn adj. 新生的 Nourishment n. 营养 Nutrient n. 营养素 Ovary n. 卵巢 Ovum n. 卵子 Pancreas n. 胰腺 Physiology n. 生理学 Pivot joint n. 枢轴点 Pituitary n. 脑垂体 Potassium n. 钾 Progesterone n. 孕酮 Psychology n. 心理学 Pubic hair n. 阴毛 Remainder n. 剩余物 Reproductive adj. 生殖的 Residue n. 残余物 Respiratory adj. 呼吸的 Saliva n. 唾液 Skeletal adj. 骨骼的 Smooth muscle n. 平滑肌 Socket n. 臼槽 Sodium n. 钠 Sperm n. 精子 Spinal column n. 脊柱 Spinal cord n. 脊髓 Spleen n. 脾 Starch n. 淀粉 Striated muscle n. 横纹肌 Tactile adj. 触觉的 Testis n. 睾丸 Testosterone n. 睾酮 Thyroid n. 甲状腺 Trachea [trə`kiə] n. 气管 Ureter n. 输尿管 Urethra n. 尿道 Urinary adj. 泌尿的 Urine n. 尿液 Vein n. 静脉 Viable adj. 能存活的 Void v. 使排空 5 Chapter 2 The cardiovascular system Structure of the cardiovascular system Primary functions of organs The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart and blood vessels. The heart is situated between the lungs with its apex directed toward the left. The thick muscle layer of the heart wall is the myocardium, which is lined on the inside within a fibrous sac, the pericardium. 5 The upper receiving chambers of the heart are the atria. The lower pumping chambers are the ventricles. The interventricular septum separates the two ventricles; the interatrial septum divides the two atria. There are three major types of blood vessels, i.e., arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries lead blood away from the heart. These blood vessels have the thickest walls 10 because they receive the pumping drive from the ventricles of the heart. There are three coats (tunics) which resemble the three tissue layers of the heart. These are: 1) the innermost membrane of endothelium, which forms a smooth surface over which the blood may easily move; 2) the second, more bulky layer, which is made of involuntary muscle combined with elastic connective tissue; and 3) and outer tunic, 15 which is made of a supporting connective tissue. The largest artery, the aorta, is about 1 inch in diameter and has the thickest wall. The smallest subdivisions of arteries, the arterioles, have thinner walls in which there are very little connective tissues but relatively more muscle. These smaller branches of the arteries carry blood to the tiniest of blood vessels, the capillaries. 20 Capillaries have walls that are only one epithelial cell thick. The capillary walls are transparent and are made of smooth plate like cells that continue from the lining of the arteries. The walls are so thin that they can allow passage of oxygen and nutrients out of the bloodstream and into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells. At the same time, waste products such as carbon dioxide and water pass out of the cells and 25 into the thin-walled capillaries. The capillary boundaries are the most important center of activity of then entire circulatory system. Veins are thinner-walled than arteries. They conduct waste-filled blood toward the heart from the tissues. Veins have little elastic tissue and less connective tissue than arteries, and blood pressure in veins is extremely low compared with pressure in 30 arteries. The smallest veins, called venule, are formed by the union of capillaries. 6 Their walls are only slightly thicker than those of the capillaries. As the veins become larger, the walls become thicker. However, veins have much thinner walls than those of comparable arteries. Although there are three layer of material in the walls of the larger veins, as in the artery walls, the middle tunic is relatively thin in 35 vein walls. Therefore, veins are easily collapsed, and slight pressure by a tumor or some other mass may interfere with the return blood flow. Most veins are equipped with one-way valves that permit the blood to flow in only one direction. They are most numerous in the veins of the extremities. The heart pumps blood through two circuits. The right side of the heart pumps 40 blood to the lungs to be oxygenated through the pulmonary circuit. Pulmonary vessels include the pulmonary artery and its branches, and the veins that drain the lung capillaries. The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the right ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen from the lungs into the left atrium. This circuit concerns itself with eliminating carbon dioxide from the 45 blood and replenishing its supply of oxygen. The left side of the heart pumps blood to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit. This circuit is concerned with supplying food and oxygen to all the tissues of the body and carrying away waste materials from the tissues for disposal. Blood returning from tissues other than the lungs enters the heart by way of the 50 venae cavae; the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The venae cavae empty into the right atrium. When the atria contracts, blood in the right atrium is forced through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the ventricles contract, blood in the right ventricle is forced through the pulmonary semilunar valve into the pulmonary artery; at the same time, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent the 55 backward flow of blood into the atrium. Blood that enters the pulmonary artery is carried to the lungs. There it undergoes oxygenation, a process in which carbon dioxide (a waste product of cellular metabolism) is exchanged for oxygen from the environment. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart by way of pulmonary veins, which empty 60 into the left atrium. Atrial contractions force blood from the left atrium through the mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle. When the ventricles contract, blood in the left ventricle is force through the aortic semilunar valve into the aorta, the body’s largest artery, for distribution to the tissues. The aorta is one continuous tube divided into the following regions: 1) the ascending aorta, which is 65 near the heart and inside the pericardial sac; 2) the aortic arch, which curves from the 7 right to the left, and also extends backward; 3) the thoracic aorta, which lies just in front of the vertebral column behind the heart and in the space behind the pleura; and 4) the abdominal aorta, which is the longest section of the aorta, spanning the abdominal cavity. 70 There are two phases of the heartbeat: diastole (relaxation) and systole (contraction). This diastole-systole cardiac cycle (relaxation-filling, then contractionpumping) lasts about 0.9 second and occurs between 70 and 80 times per minute. This is to say, the ventricles pump blood into the arteries regularly about 70 to 80 times a minute. The force of ventricular contraction stars a wave of increased 75 pressure which begins at the heart and travels along the arteries. This wave is called the pulse. It can be felt in the arteries that are relatively close to the surface, particularly if the vessel can be pressed down against a bone. At the wrist the radial artery passes over the bone on the thumb side of the forearm, and the pulse is most commonly obtained here. Other vessels sometimes used for obtaining the pulse 80 include the carotid artery in the neck and the dorsalis pedis of the top of the foot. Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood on the walls of the arteries. This pressure varies over the course of the cardiac cycle, increasing when blood is ejected from the heart (during systole), and decreasing as the heart relaxes (during diastole). Since the pressure inside the blood vessels varies with the condition of the heart and 85 the arteries as well as with other factors, the measurement of blood pressure together with careful interpretation may prove a valuable guide in the care and evaluation of a person’s health. The pressure decreases as the blood flows from arteries into capillaries and finally into veins. Ordinarily, measurements are made of arterial pressure only. The instrument used is called a sphygmomanometer. The two 90 measurements made are of: 1) the systolic pressure, which occurs during heart muscle contraction and averages around 120, expressed in millimeters of mercury; and 2) the diastolic pressure, which occurs during relaxation of the heart muscle and averages around 80 millimeters of mercury. A blood pressure recording of 120/80 mmHg, therefore, indicates a systolic pressure of 120 and a diastolic pressure of 80 95 millimeters of mercury. Blood pressure is valuable diagnostic measurement that is easily obtained. 8 New words and phrases abdominal aorta n. 腹主动脉 aorta adj. 主动脉 aortic arch n. 主动脉弓 ascending aorta n. 升主动脉 arteriole n. 小动脉 atrial adj 心房的 atrium n. 心房 atria (pl) bicuspid valve n. 二尖瓣 bloodstream n. 血流 carotid artery n. 颈动脉 diastole n. 舒张期 diastolic pressure n. 舒张压 dorsalis pedis n. 足背 endocardium n. 心内膜 endothelium n. 内皮 epicardium n. 心外膜 inferior vena cava n. 下腔静脉 interventricular adj. 心室间的 lining n. 内层 mercury n. 汞 mitral valve n. 二尖瓣 myocardium n. 心肌 oxygenate v. 氧合 pericardium n. 心包 radial artery n.桡动脉 replenish v. 补充 semilunar adj. 半月形的 septum n. 膈 subdivision n. 细分;分支 superior vena cava n. 上腔静脉 systemic circuit n. 体循环 systole n. 收缩期 systolic pressure n. 收缩压 thoracic aorta n. 胸主动脉 tricuspid valve n. 三尖瓣 tunic n. 膜 valve n. 瓣膜 vena cava n. 腔静脉 ventricle n. 心室 venule n. 小静脉 vertebral column n. 脊柱 9 Chapter 3 The Skeletal System In this passage you will learn: Functions of the skeletal system Types of bones Replacement of bones Without the skeletal system we would be unable to perform movements, such as walking or grasping. The slightest jar to the head or chest could damage the brain or heart. It would even be impossible to chew food. The framework of bones and cartilage that protects our organs and allows us to move is called the skeletal system. 5 Functions. The skeletal system performs several basic functions. Support: The skeleton provides a framework for the body and, as such, it supports soft tissues and provides a point of attachment for many muscles. Protection: Many internal organs are protected from injury, by the skeleton. For example, the brain is protected by the cranial bones, the spinal cord by the 10 vertebrae, the heart and lungs by the rib cage, and internal reproductive organs by the pelvic bones. Movement: Bones serve as levers to which muscles are attached. When the muscles contract, the bones act as levers produce movement. Mineral storage: Bones store several minerals that can be distributed to other 15 parts of the body on demand. The principal stored minerals are calcium and phosphorus. Blood cell production: Red marrow in certain bones is capable of producing blood cells, a process called hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis. Red marrow consists of blood cells in immature stages, fat cells, and macrophages. Red marrow produces red 20 blood cells, some white blood cells, and platelets. Types of Bones Almost all the bones of the body may be classified into four principal types on the basis of shape: long, short, flat, and irregular. Long bones have greater length than width and consist of a diaphysis and a variable number of epiphyses. For 25 example, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges have only one epiphysis. The femur actually has four. Other long bones have two. Long bones are slightly curved for strength. A curved bone is structurally designed to absorb the stress of the body weight at several different points so the 10 stress is evenly distributed, if such bones were straight, the weight of the body would 30 be unevenly distributed and the bone would easily fracture. Examples of long bones include bones of the thighs, legs, toes, arms, forearms, and fingers. Short bones are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width. Their texture is spongy except at the surface, where there is a thin layer of compact bone. Examples of short bones are the wrist and ankle bones. 35 Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Flat bones afford considerable protection and provide extensive areas for muscle attachment. Examples of flat bones include the cranial bones (which protect the brain), the sternum and ribs (which protect organs in the thorax), and the scapulae. 40 Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the three categories just described. They also vary in the amount of spongy and compact bone present. Such bones include the vertebrae and certain facial bones. There are two additional types of bones that are not included in this classification by shape. 45 Sutural or Wormian bones are small bones between the joints of certain cranial bones. Their number varies greatly from person to person. Sesamoid bones are small bones in tendons where considerable pressure develops, for instance, in the wrist. These, like sutural bones, are also variable in number. Two sesamoid bones, the patellas (kneecaps) are present in all individuals. 50 Bone Replacement. Bones undergoing either intramembranous or endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from the time that initial calcification occurs until the final structure appears. Remodeling is the replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. Compact bone is formed by the transformation of spongy bone. The diameter of a long bone is increased by the 55 destruction of the bone closest to the marrow cavity and the construction of new bone around the outside of the diaphysis. However, even after bones have reached their adult shapes and sizes, old bone is perpetually destroyed and new bone tissue is formed in its place. Bones is never metabolically at rest; it constantly remodels and reappropriates its matrix and minerals along lines of mechanical stress. 60 Bones shares with skin the feature of replacing itself throughout adult life. Remodeling takes place at different rates in various body regions. The distal portion of the femur (thighbone) is replaced about every 4 months. By contrast, bone in certain areas of the shaft will not be completely replaced during the individual's life. 11 Remodeling allows worn or injured bone to be removed and replaced with new 65 tissue. It also allows bone to serve as the body's storage area for calcium. Many other tissues in the body need calcium in order to perform their functions. For example, nerve cell needs calcium for nerve impulse conduction, muscle needs calcium to contract, and blood needs calcium to clot. The blood continually trades off calcium with the bones, removing calcium when it and other tissues are not receiving enough 70 of this element and resupplying the bones with dietary calcium to keep them from losing too much bone mass. The cells believed to be responsible for the resorption (loss of a substance through a physiological or pathological process) of bone tissue are osteoclasts. In the healthy adult, a delicate homeostasis is maintained between the action of the 75 osteoclasts in removing calcium and the action of the bone-making osteoblasts in depositing calcium. Should too much new tissue be formed, the bones become abnormally thick and heavy. If too much calcium is deposited in the bone, the surplus may form thick bumps, or spurs, on the bone that interferes with movement at joints. A loss of too much tissue or calcium weakens the bones and allows them to 80 break easily or to become very flexible. A greatly accelerated remodeling process results in a condition called Paget's disease. In the process of resorption, it is believed that osteoclasts send out projections that secrete protein-digesting enzymes released from lysosomes and several acids (lactic and citric). The enzymes may function by digesting the collagen and other 85 organic substances, while the acids may cause the bone salts (minerals) to dissolve. It is also presumed that the osteoclastic projections may phagocytose whole fragments of collagen and bone salts. Magnesium deficiency inhibits the activity of osteoclasts. Normal bone growth in the young and bone replacement in the adult depend on 90 several factors. First, sufficient quantities of calcium and phosphorus, components of the primary salt that makes bone hard, must be included in the diet. Manganese may also be important in bone growth. It has been shown that manganese deficiency significantly inhibits laying down new bone tissue. Second, the individual must obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins, particularly 95 vitamin D, which participates in the absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal tract into the blood, calcium removal from bone, and kidney reabsorption of calcium that might otherwise be lost in urine. Third, the body must manufacture the proper amounts of the hormones 12 responsible for bone tissue activity. Growth hormone (GH), secreted by the pituitary 100 gland, is responsible for the general growth of bones. Too much or too little of this hormone during childhood makes the adult abnormally tall or short. Other hormones specialize in regulating the osteoclasts. Calcitonin (CT), produced by the thyroid gland, inhibits osteoclastic activity and accelerates calcium absorption by bones, while parathormone (PTH), parathormone (parathyroid hormone) synthesized by the 105 parathyroid glands, increases the number and activity of osteoclasts. PTH also releases calcium and phosphate from bones into blood, transports calcium from urine into blood, and transports phosphate from blood into urine. And still others, especially the sex hormones, aid osteoblastic activity and thus promote the growth of new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of 110 new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates. Because of the sex hormones, the typical adolescent experiences a spurt of growth during puberty, when sex hormone levels start to increase. The individual then quickly completes the growth process as the epiphyseal cartilage disappears. Premature puberty can actually prevent one from reaching an average 115 adult height because of the simultaneous premature degeneration of the plates. Aging and the skeletal system. There are two principal effects of aging on the skeletal system. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones. This loss usually begins after age 40 in females and continues thereafter until as much as 30 percent of the calcium in bones is lost by age 70. In males, calcium loss typically does not 120 begin until after age 60. The loss of calcium from bones is one of the factors related to a condition called osteoporosis. The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic portion of bone matrix. As a consequence, bone matrix accumulates a lesser 125 proportion of organic matrix and a greater proportion of inorganic matrix. In some elderly individuals, this process can cause their bones to become quite brittle and more susceptible to fracture. New Words and Phrases Absorption Accelerate Accelerated Adolescent n. 吸收 v. 加速 adj. 加速的 n. 青少年;adj. 青少年的 Brittle adj. 易碎的,脆的 Calcitonin(CT) n. (甲状腺)降钙素 Calcium n. 钙 Citric acid n. 枸橼酸,柠檬酸 13 Clot v. 凝固 Compact adj. 紧密的 Cranial adj. 颅的,颅侧的 Cube-shaped adj. 立方体形的 Diaphysis n. 骨干 Dietary adj. 饮食的 Distal daj. 远侧的;末梢的 Endochondral adj. 软骨内的 Epiphyseal adj. 骨骺的 Epiphysis n. (骨)骺,松果体 Facial n. 脸部的 Femur n. 股骨,股 Fracture v. 使骨折 n. 骨折 Growth hormone(GH) n. 生长激素 Hematopoiesis n. 血细胞生成,造血 Immature adj. 不成熟的 Inhibit v. 抑制 Inorganic adj. 无机的 Intramembranous adj. 膜内的 Jar n. 震动 Kneecap n. 膝盖骨 Lactic acid n. 乳酸 Lever n. 杠杆 Macrophage n. 巨噬细胞 Magnesium n. 镁 Manganese n. 锰 Matrix n. 基质,基层 Mechanical stress n. 机械应力 Metabolically adv. 在代谢方面 Metacarpal n. 掌骨; adj. 掌的 Metatarsal n. 跖骨 adj. 跖的 Ossification n. 钙化,沉淀(作用) Osteoblast n. 成骨细胞 Osteoclast n. 破骨细胞 Osteoporosis n. 骨质疏松(症) Paget’disease n. 佩吉特病(变形性骨炎) Parathormone(PTH) n. 甲状旁腺激素 Parathyroid gland n. 甲状旁腺 Patella n. 髌(骨) Perpetually adv. 永恒的 Phagocytose v. 吞噬 Phalanx n. 指骨;趾骨 Phosphate n. 磷酸盐 Phosphorus n. 磷 Platelet n. 血小板 Puberty n. 青春期 Reappropriate v. 重新调整 Remodel v. 重建 Rib cage n. 肋骨架 Scapula n. 肩胛(骨) Secrete v. 分泌 Sesamoid adj. 籽样的 Spongy adj. 海绵状的;多孔的 Spur n. 骨刺 Spurt n. 冲刺 Sternum n. 胸骨 Sutural adj. 骨缝的 Texture n. 质地 Thereafter adv. 其后 Thigh n. 大腿,股 Thorax n. 胸 Trades off v. 交换 Transformation n. 转化 Unevenly adv. 不平均地 Vertebra n. 椎骨,脊椎 Wormian bone n. 缝间骨 14 Chapter 4 Human Diseases In this passage you will learn: disease and pathology the classification of diseases germs' invasion of the human body the body's defense against invasion the body's immunity to diseases The brief survey of the human body in Chapter One has given us a glimpse into two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of medical sciences, namely anatomy and physiology. However, the picture is not complete without considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural and functional 5 changes produced by the disease. In fact, the modern approach to the study of disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body diseases. Then what is a disease? It may be defined as a condition that impairs the proper 10 function of the body or of one of its parts. Every living thing, both plants and animals, can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by tiny bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by even more minute viruses. Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own particular set of symptoms and signs, clues that enable a physician to diagnose the problem. A 15 symptom is something a patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal body organ. Diseases can be classified differently. For instance, an epidemic disease is one that strikes many persons in a community. When it strikes the same region year after 20 year it is an endemic disease. An acute disease has a quick onset and runs a short course. An acute heart attack, for example, often hits without warning and can be quickly fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and runs a sometimes years-long course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute. 25 Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, an infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons 15 such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses. So can tiny worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects 30 and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a person who shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it. Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow. 35 Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system, and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet deficiencies, lapses in the body's defense system, or a poorly operating nervous system. Disability and illnesses can also be provoked by psychological and social 40 factors. These ailments include drug addiction, obesity, malnutrition, and pollution-caused health problems. Furthermore, a thousand or more inheritable birth defects result from alternations in gene patterns. Since tiny genes are responsible for producing the many chemicals needed by the body, missing or improperly operating genes can 45 seriously impair health. Genetic disorders that affect body chemistry are called inborn errors of metabolism. Some forms of mental retardation are hereditary. How Germs Invade the Body Humans live in a world where many other living things compete for food and places to breed. The pathogenic organisms, or pathogens, often broadly called germs, 50 that cause many diseases are able to invade the human body and use its cells and fluids for their own needs. Ordinarily, the body's defense system can ward off these invaders. Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some - such as these that cause the common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis - are breathed in. Others - 55 such as those that cause venereal diseases - enter through sexual contact of human bodies. Still others - such as those that cause hepatitis, colitis, cholera, and typhoid fever-get in the body through contaminated food, water or utensils. Insects can spread disease by acting as vectors, or carriers. Flies can carry germs from human waste or other tainted materials to food and beverages. Germs 60 may also enter the body through the bite of a mosquito, louse, or other insect vector. How the Body Fights Disease 16 As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers against infection. The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its openings offer considerable resistance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious 65 organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops. In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however, large areas of the body might become infected. Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are lined with mucus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also, 70 minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract. In addition, foreign matter in the breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and throat clearing. Unfortunately, repeated infection, smoking and other causes can damage the respiratory passageways and make them more susceptible to infection. 75 Many potential invaders cannot stand body temperature (98.6 °F or 37 °C). Even those that thrive at that temperature may be destroyed when the body assumes higher, fever temperatures. Wax in the outer ear canals and tears from eye ducts can slow the growth of some bacteria. And stomach acid can destroy certain swallowed germs. 80 The body's second line of defense is in the blood and lymph. Certain white blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize the infection by forming pus-filled abscesses. Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the infection is likely to spread. When this happens, the infection is first blocked by local lymph glands. For example, an infection in the hand travels up the arm, 85 producing red streaks and swollen, tender lymph glands in the armpit. Unless the infection is brought under control, it will result in blood poisoning. Phagocytes are located at various sites to minimize infection. One type in the spleen and liver keeps the blood clean. Others in such high-risk areas as the walls of the bronchi and the intestines remove certain bacteria and shattered cells. 90 We Become Immune to Disease The body has a special way of handling infection. It has a system that fends off the first traces of an infectious substance and then, through a "memory," gives the body a long-lasting immunity against future attacks by the same kind of invader. Many substances could harm the body if they ever entered it. These substances, 95 or antigens, range from bacteria and pollen to a transplanted organ (viewed by the body as an invader). To fight them the body makes special chemicals known as 17 antibodies. Antibodies are a class of proteins called immunoglobulins. Each antibody is made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chain of 100 them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their complements on the antigen molecule. When an antibody hooks up with an antigen, it often puts the antigen out of action by inactivating or covering a key portion of the harmful substance. In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies "butter" the surface of some antigens and make them "tastier" to phagocytes, which 105 engulf the antigens. Sometimes an antibody hooks to a bacterial antigen but needs an intermediate, or complement, to actually destroy the bacterium. As the antibodyantigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex "fixes" complement to it. In turn, the complement causes powerful enzymes to eat through the bacterial cell wall and make the organism burst. 110 There are several kinds of immunoglobulins - IgM, the largest; IgG, the most plentiful and versatile; and IgA, the next most plentiful and specially adapted to work in areas where body secretions could damage other antibodies. Other immunoglobulins are tied in with allergic reactions, IgM is made at the first signs of an antigen, and it is later supplanted by the more effective IgG. 115 When infection first strikes, the immunity system does not seem to be working. During the first day or so, antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the blood. But this is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves. The antibody level starts to rise on about the second day of infection and then zooms upward. By the 120 fifth day the antibody level has risen a thousandfold. The first antibodies, the large IgM type, are not the best qualified to fight a wide range of antigens, but they are particularly effective against bacteria. The more versatile IgG is circulating in the blood on about the fourth day of infection. Its production is stimulated by the rising level of IgM in the blood. At this time, IgM 125 production drops off and the immunity systems concentrates on making IgG. The IgG type of antibody sticks well to antigens and eventually covers them so that the antigens can no longer stimulate the immune response and IgG production is switched off. This is an example of negative feedback control. 18 New Words and Phrases Abscess n. 脓肿 Airborne adj. 空气传播的 Allergic adj. 过敏的 Amino acid n. 氨基酸 Antigen n. 抗原 Armpit n. 腋窝 Asymptomatic adj. 无症状的 Boil n. 疖子 Bronchi n. 支气管 Beverage n. 饮料 Causative adj. 成因的 Chronic disease n. 慢性疾病 Cilia n. 纤毛 Colitis n. 结肠炎 Contaminate v. 污染 Complement n. 补体 Deficiency n. 不足 Degeneration n. 退化 Diagnose v. 诊断 Disability n. 残废 Disturbance n. 干扰 Drug addiction n. 吸毒成瘾 Duct n. 管 Eject v. 弹出 Endemic disease n. 地方病 Engulf v. 吞噬 Epidemic disease n. 流行病 Erratic adj. 不稳定的,奇怪的,异常的 Fend off v. 阻止 Fungi n. 真菌 Hereditary adj. 遗传的 Hepatitis n. 肝炎 Immunity n. 免疫力 Immunoglobulin n. 免疫球蛋白 Impair v. 损害 Infection n. 感染 Infectious adj. 传染性的 Lapse n. 下降 Malfunction n. 功能失调 Malnutrition n. 营养不良 Mental retardation n. 智力发育迟缓 Minimize v. 使变小 Mucous adj. 粘膜的 Noninfectious adj. 非感染性的 Obesity n. 肥胖 Onset n. 发作 Opsonization n. 调理素作用 Pathogen adj. 病原体 Pathogenic adj. 病原的 Pathology n. 病理学 Pneumonia n. 肺炎 Phagocyte n. 吞噬细胞 Pimple n. 小脓疱 Pus n. 脓 Rheumatic fever n. 风湿热 Shatter v. 使粉碎 Streak n. 线(条) Subacute adj. 亚急性 Subunit n. 亚单位 Succumb to v. 屈从于;死 Supplant v. 取代 Susceptible to adj. 易受到… Tuberculosis n. 肺结核 Thousandfold adj. 千倍 Utensil n. 器皿 Vector n. 载体 Versatile adj. 多面的;多才多艺的 Venereal disease n. 性病 Vulnerable adj. 易受伤害的 Ward off v. 防止 Zoom v. 上升 19 Chapter 5 DNA Cloning: an overview DNA cloning Classically, detailed molecular analysis of proteins or other constituents of most organisms were rendered difficult or impossible by their scarcity and the consequent difficulty of their purification in large quantities. One approach is to isolate the 5 gene(s) responsible for the expression of a protein or the formation of a product. However, every organism’s genome is large and complex, and any sequence of interest usually occurs only once or twice per cell. Hence, standard chemical or biochemical methods cannot be used to isolate a specific region of the genome for study, particularly as the required sequence of DNA is chemically identical to all the 10 others. The solution to this dilemma is to place a relatively short fragment of a genome, which might contain the gene or other sequence of interest, in an autonomously replicating piece of DNA, known as a vector, forming recombinant DNA, which can be replicated independently of the original genome, and normally in another host species altogether. Propagation of the host organism containing the 15 recombinant DNA forms a set of genetically identical organisms, or a clone. This process is hence known as DNA cloning. Amongst the exploding numbers of applications of DNA cloning, often collected together under the term genetic engineering, are the following: DNA sequencing, and hence the derivation of protein sequence. 20 Isolation and analysis of gene promoters and other control sequences. Investigation of protein/enzyme/RNA function by large-scale production of normal and altered forms. Identification of mutations, for example gene defects leading to disease. Biotechnology; the large-scale commercial production of proteins and other 25 molecules of biological importance, for example human insulin and growth hormone. Engineering animals and plants, and gene therapy. Engineering proteins to alter their properties Hosts and vectors 30 The initial isolation and analysis of DNA fragments is almost always carried out using the bacterium E. coli as the host organism, although the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is being used to manipulate very large fragments of the human genome. A wide variety of natural replicons have the properties required to allow them to act as 20 cloning vectors. Vectors must normally be capable of being replicated and isolated 35 independently of the host’s genome, although some are designed to incorporate DNA into the host genome for longer term expression of cloned genes. Vectors also incorporate a selectable marker, a gene which allows host cells containing the vector to be selected from amongst those which do not, usually by conferring resistance to a toxin, or enabling their survival under certain growth conditions. 40 The first E. coli vectors were extrachromosomal circular plasmids, and a number of bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacteria) have also been used in E. coli. Phage λ can be used to clone fragments larger than plasmid vectors, and phage M13 allows cloned DNA to be isolated in single-stranded form. More specialist vectors have been engineered to use aspects of plasmids and bacteriophages, such as the 45 plasmid- bacteriophage λ hybrids known as cosmids. Very large genomic fragments from humans and other species have been cloned in S. cerevisiae as yeast artificial chromosomes. Plasmid and phage vectors have been used to express genes in a range of bacteria other than E. coli, and some phages may be used to incorporate DNA into 50 the host genome, for example phage λ. Plasmid vectors have been developed for use in yeast (yeast episomal plasmids), while in plants; a bacterial plasmid (Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid) can be used to integrate DNA into the genome. In other eukaryotic cells in culture, vectors have often been based on viruses which naturally infect the required species, either by maintaining their DNA 55 extrachromosomally or by integration into the host genome (examples include SV40, baculovirus, retroviruses). Subcloning The simplest kind of cloning experiment, which exemplifies many of the basic techniques of DNA cloning, is the transfer of a fragment of cloned DNA from one 60 vector to another, a process known as subcloning. This might be used to investigate a short region of a large cloned fragment in more detail, or to transfer a gene to a vector designed to express it in a particular species, for example. In the case of plasmid vectors in E. coli, the most common situation, the process may be divided into the following steps: 65 Isolation of plasmid DNA containing the cloned sequence of interest. Digestion (cutting of the plasmid into discrete fragments with restriction endonucleases. Separation of the fragments by agarose gel electrophoresis. 21 Purification of the desired target fragment. 70 Ligation (joining) of the fragment into a new plasmid vector, to form a new recombinant molecule. Transfer of the ligated plasmid into an E. coli strain (transformation). Selection of transformed bacteria. Analysis of recombinant plasmids. 75 DNA libraries There are two main sources from which DNA is derived for cloning experiments designed to identify an unknown gene - bulk genomic DNA from the species of interest and, in the case of eukaryotes, bulk mRNA from a cell or tissue where the gene is known to be expressed. They are used in the formation of genomic 80 libraries and cDNA libraries respectively. DNA libraries are sets of DNA clones (a clone is a genetically distinct individual or set of identical individuals), each of which has been derived from the insertion of a different fragment into a vector followed by propagation in the host. Genomic libraries are prepared from random fragments of genomic DNA. However, 85 genomic libraries may be an inefficient method of finding a gene, particularly in large eukaryotic genomes, where much of the DNA is noncoding. The alternative is to use as the source of the library the mRNA from a cell or tissue which is known to express the gene. DNA copies (cDNA) are synthesized from the mRNA by reverse transcription and are then inserted into a vector to form a cDNA library. cDNA 90 libraries are efficient for cloning a gene sequence, but yield only the coding region, and not the surrounding genomic sequences. Screening libraries Since it is not apparent which clone in a library contains the gene of interest, a method for screening for its presence is required. This is often based on the use of a 95 radioactively labeled DNA probe which is complementary or partially complementary to a region of the gene sequence, and which can be used to detect it by hybridization. The probe sequence might be an oligonucleotide derived from the sequence of the protein product of the gene, if it is available, or from a related gene from another species. An increasingly important method for the generation of probes 100 is the polymerase chain reaction. Other screening methods rely on the expression of the coding sequences of the clones in the library, and identification of the protein product from its activity, or with a specific antibody, for example. Analysis of a clone 22 Once a clone containing a target gene is identified, the structure of the cloned 105 fragment may be investigated further using restriction mapping, the analysis of the fragmentation of the DNA with restriction enzymes, or ultimately by the sequencing of the entire fragment. The sequence can then be analyzed by comparison with other known sequences from databases, and the complete sequence of the protein product determined. The sequence is then available for manipulation in any of the 110 applications of cloning. New Words and Phrases Eukaryote 真核生物 Agarose 琼脂糖 Hybridization 片段 Insulin 片段 Bacteriophage 噬菌体 Bacterium 细菌 Ligation 连接 Mutation 突变 Biotechnology 生物技术 Complementary 互补的 Oligonucleotide 突变 Plasmid 突变 Cosmid 互补的 Electrophoresis 电泳 Probe 探针 Promoter 启动子 Endonuclease 核酸内切酶 Eukaryotic 真核的 Replicon 复制子 Sequence 序列 Extrachromosomal 染色体外的 Fragment 片段 Strain 菌株 Yeast 醇母 Genome 基因组 Hybrid 杂交 23 Appendix Prefixes and suffixes The following is an alphabetical list of medical prefixes and suffixes, along with their meaning, origin, and an English example. Prefix/suffix Meaning a-, an- Denotes an absence of ababdomin(o)- away from Of or relating to the Abdomen -ac acous(o)acr(o)-acusis -ad ad- pertaining to Of or relating to hearing extremity/topmost hearing condition toward, in the direction of increase, adherence, motion toward, very Of or relating to a gland aden(o)-, aden(i)adip(o)- Of or relating to fat or fatty tissue adren(o)Of or relating to adrenal glands -aemia (Br) blood condition aer(o)air, gas aesthesio- (Br) sensation -al pertaining to albDenoting a white or pale color alge(si)pain -algia pain alg(i)opain alloDenoting something as different, or as an addition ambiDenoting something as positioned on both sides; Describing both of two annot, without anaup or through an(o) anus Origin language and Example(s) etymology Ancient Greek, without, Apathy not Abduction Latin, abdomen, fat Abdomen around the belly Adduction Ancient Greek, an acorn; Adenology a gland Latin (adeps, adip-), fat Adipocyte Greek, without blood Anaemia Latin, white Abdominal Albino Myalgia Ancient Greek, another, Alloantigen, allopathy other Latin, both, on both sides Ambidextrous Greek Analgesia anatomy 24 andr/o angi/o anisoankyl(o)-, ancyl(o)ante- antiapoarteri(o)- arthr(o)- pertaining to a man blood vessel Describing something as unequal Denoting something as crooked or bent Describing something as positioned in front of another thing Describing something as 'against' or 'opposed to' another separated from, derived from Of or pertaining to an artery bacteri(o)- Of or pertaining to the joints, limbs joint pertaining to enzyme weakness process Of or pertaining to the ear self, same Of or pertaining to the armpit [uncommon as a prefix] bacteria balan(o)bibioblast(o)blephar(o)brachi(o)- glans penis or glans clitoridis twice, double life germ or bud Of or pertaining to the eyelid Of or relating to the arm brachybradybronch(i)- Indicating something as 'short' or less commonly 'little' Indicating something as 'slow' bronchus bucc(o)burs(o)capillcapit- Of or pertaining to the cheek bursa Of or pertaining to hair Pertaining to the head (as a articul(o)-ary -ase -asthenia -ation aur(i)aut(o)axill- Ancient Greek, unequal Angiogram Anisotropic Ancient Greek, crooked, Ankylosis curved Latin, before, in front of antepartum Ancient Greek, against Ancient Greek, a windpipe, artery (used distinctly versus a vein) Ancient Greek, a joint, limb Antibody, antipsychotic Apoptosis Artery, Arteriology Arthritis Articulation Lactase Myasthenia gravis Latin, the ear Latin, armpit Aural Autoimmune Axilla Bactericide , Bacteriophage Greek, acorn Ancient Greek, eyelid Latin, Ancient Greek, arm Ancient Greek, short; little, shallow Ancient Greek, slow Latin, cheek Latin, hair Latin, the head Biology Blastomere Blepharoplast Brachium brachycephalic Bradycardia Bronchiolitis obliterans Buccolabial Bursitis Capillus Capitation 25 carcin(o)cardi(o)carp(o)cata-cele -centesis cephal(o)cerat(o)cerebell(o)cerebr(o)cervicchem(o)chir(o)-, cheir(o)chlor(o)chol(e)cholecyst(o)chondr(i)ochrom(ato)-cidal, -cide cilicircumcisclast cocol-, colo-, colonocolp(o)comcontra corcor-, core-, whole) cancer Of or pertaining to the heart Of or pertaining to the wrist. down pouching, hernia surgical puncture for aspiration Of or pertaining to the head (as a whole) Of or pertaining to the cornu; a horn Of or pertaining to the cerebellum Of or pertaining to the brain Of or pertaining to the neck, the cervix chemistry, drug Of or pertaining to the hand Denoting a green color Of or pertaining to bile Of or pertaining to the gallbladder cartilage, gristle, granule, granular color killing, destroying Of or pertaining to the cilia, the eyelashes; eyelids Denoting something as 'around' another on this side break with, together, in association colon Of or pertaining to the vagina with, together against with, together Of or pertaining to eye's pupil Ancient Greek, heart Latin, Ancient Greek, wrist Carcinoma Cardiology Carpopedal Cataract Hydrocele Amniocentesis Ancient Greek, the head Cephalalgy Ancient Greek, a horn Ceratoid Latin (cerebellum), little Cerebellum brain Latin (cerebrum), brain Cerebrology Latin, neck, cervix Cervicodorsal Ancient Greek, hand Chemotherapy Chiropractor Ancient Greek, green, Chlorophyll yellow-green Ancient Greek, bile Cholaemia Ancient Greek, bile, gall Cholecystectomy + bladder Chondrocalcinosis Hemachromatosis Latin (cilium), eyelash; Ciliary eyelid Latin (circum), around Circumcision Latin (cis) Colonoscopy Ancient Greek, bosom, womb; hollow, depth Colposcopy Contraindicate Ancient Greek, girl, doll; Corectomy 26 corocordicornu- cost(o)coxcrani(o)- -crine cry(o)cutanecyan(o)cyclcyph(o)cyst(o)-, cyst(i)cyt(o)-cyte dacriodactyl(o)- Of or pertaining to the heart [Uncommon as a prefix] Applied to processes and parts of the body describing them likened or similar to horns Of or pertaining to the ribs Of or relating to the hip, haunch, or hip-joint Belonging or relating to the cranium to secrete cold skin Denotes a blue color circle, cycle Denotes something as bent [uncommon as a prefix] Of or pertaining to the urinary bladder cell cell tear Of or pertaining to a finger, toe deaway from, cessation dentOf or pertaining to teeth dermat-, derm- Of or pertaining to the skin -desis dextr(o)didia- binding right, on the right side separation, two [same as Greek meaning] difdigit- separation Of or pertaining to the finger [rare as a root] separation, taking apart Of or pertaining to the back disdors(o)-, dors(i)duodeno- duodenum - upper part of the small intestine, connects to the stomach pupil of the eye Latin (cor, cordi-), heart Cardiology Latin, horn Cardiology Latin, rib Latin, hip Costochondral Coxopodite Latin, Ancient Greek, the Craniology cranium, skull, bones enclosing the brain Endocrine Cryoablation Subcutaneous Ancient Greek, blue Cyanopsia Ancient Greek, bent, Cyphosis hunchback Ancient Greek, bladder; Cystotomy cyst Cytokine Leukocyte Ancient Greek, finger, toe Dactylology Latin (dens), tooth Ancient Greek, skin, human skin Dentist Dermatology Dextrocardia Ancient Greek, through, Diacetyl during, across Latin (digitus), finger, toe Latin (dorsum), back Digit Dissection Dorsal, Dorsocephalad Duodenal atresia 27 dynamo-dynia dys-eal ecect(o)-ectasis -ectomy -emesis -emia encephal(o)endoenter(o)epi- episi(o)erythr(o)-esophageal, -esophago esthesioeuexexoextrafaci(o)fibr(o) filli-form, -iform frontgalact(o)gastr(o)-gen -genic genu- force, energy pain bad, difficult pertaining to out, away outer, outside expansion, dilation Denotes a surgical operation or removal of a body part vomiting condition blood condition (Am) Of or pertaining to the brain Denotes something as 'inside' or 'within' Of or pertaining to the intestine [Same as Greek meaning] Of or pertaining to the pubic region, the loins Denotes a red color gullet (Am) sensation (Am) good, well out of, away from Denotes something as 'outside' another outside Of or pertaining to the face fiber fine, hair like Used to form adjectives indicating 'having the form of' Of or pertaining to the forehead milk Of or pertaining to the stomach Dysphagia/ dysphasia Greek Greek Ectopic pregnancy Ancient Greek Ancient Greek, excision Mastectomy Greek, without blood Ancient Greek, the brain Ancient Greek, inside, internal Ancient Greek, intestine Ancient Greek, before, upon, on, outside, outside of Ancient Greek, the pubic area, loins; vulva Ancient Greek, red Greek Greek Latin Ancient Greek, outside of, external Latin Latin, the face, countenance Anemia Encephalogram Endocrinology, Endospore Gastroenterology Epistaxis Episiotomy Erythrocyte Eubacteria Exoskeleton Facioplegic Fibroblast Latin (forma), form, shape Latin, the forehead Cuneiform Frontonasal Galactorrhea Ancient Greek, stomach, Gastric bypass belly (1) Denotes the sense 'born in, Ancient Greek, to be (1) Endogen; (2) from' (2) Denotes the sense 'of a born Heterogenous certain kind' Formation Cardiogenic shock Of or pertaining to the knee Latin, knee Genu valgum 28 gingivglauc(o)gloss(o)-, glott(o)glucoglycognath(o)gon/o -gram -graph Of or pertaining to the gums Denoting a grey, bluish-grey color Of or pertaining to the tongue glucose sugar Of or pertaining to the jaw seed; semen. record or picture record or picture -graphy process of recording gyn(o)-, woman gynae(co)(Br), gyne(co)(Am) hallucto wander in mind hemat-, Of or pertaining to blood haemato(haem-, hem-) hema or hemo- blood (Am) hemihepat(hepatic-) hetero- one-half Of or pertaining to the liver Denotes something as 'the other' (of two), as an addition, or different hidr(o)sweat hist(o)-, histio- tissue homoDenotes something as 'the same' as another, alike, or common humer(o)Of or pertaining to the shoulder (or [rarely] the upper arm) hydr(o)water hyperDenotes something as 'extreme' or 'beyond normal' hyp(o)hyster(o)- Denotes something as 'below normal' Of or pertaining to the womb, Latin, gum Ancient Greek, grey, bluish-grey Ancient Greek, tongue Ancient Greek, jaw Ancient Greek Ancient Greek, written, drawn, graphic interpretation Gingivitis Glaucoma Glossology Glucocorticoid Glycolysis Gnathodynamometer Gonorrhea Angiogram Electrocardiograph Angiography Gynecoid Classical Latin to wander Hallucinosis in mind Latin, Ancient Greek, Hematology, older blood form Haematology Hematological malignancy Ancient Greek, "half" Cerebral hemisphere Ancient Greek, the liver Hepatology Ancient Greek, the other Heterogeneous (of two), another; different Hyperhidrosis Histology Ancient Greek, the same; Homosexuality alike; common Latin, shoulder Humerus Ancient Greek, over, above; beyond, to the extreme Ancient Greek, below, under Ancient Greek, womb Hydrophobe Hypertension Hypovolemia, Hysterectomy 29 -ia(sis) iatr(o)- -iatry -ic -icle -ics idioileoinfrainterintra- the uterus condition Of or pertaining to medicine, or a physican [uncommon as a prefix; common as as suffix, see -iatry] Denotes a field in medicine of a certain body component pertaining to small organized knowledge, treatment self, one's own ileum below between, among within Ancient Greek, healer, physician Ancient Greek, healer, physician Mydriasis Iatrochemistry Podiatry, Psychiatry Hepatic artery Ovarian follicle Greek, idios, "one's own" Idiopathic Ileocecal valve Infrahyoid muscles Interarticular ligament Intracranial hemorrhage irid(o)iris Iridectomy ischioOf or pertaining to the ischium, Ancient Greek, hip-joint, Ischiorrhogic the hip-joint ischium -ism condition, disease Dwarfism -ismus spasm, contraction isoDenoting something as being Ancient Greek, equal Isotonic 'equal' -ist one who specializes in Pathologist -ite the nature of, resembling Hermaphrodite -itis inflammation Tonsillitis -ium structure, tissue karyonucleus Greek, "nut" Eukaryote kerat(o)cornea (eye or skin) Keratoscope kin(e)-, kin(o), movement Kinesthesia kinesi(o)kyph(o)humped Kyphoscoliosis labi(o)Of or pertaining to the lip Latin (labium), lip Labiodental lacrim(o)tear Lacrimal canaliculi lact(i)-, lact(o) milk Lactation lapar(o)Of or pertaining to the Ancient Greek, flank Laparotomy abdomen-wall, flank laryng(o)Of or pertaining to the larynx, Ancient Greek, throat, Larynx the lower throat cavity where gullet the voice box is laterolateral Lateral pectoral nerve lei(o)smooth Leiomyoma -lepsis, -lepsy attack, seizure Epilepsy, nacrolepsy 30 leptolight, slender leuc-, leuk(o)- Denoting a white color lingu(a)-, lingu(o)lip(o)lith(o)log(o)-logist Of or pertaining to the tongue Ancient Greek, white, bright Latin (lingua), tongue Leukocyte Linguistics lymph(o)lys(o)-, -lytic -lysis macr(o)-malacia mamm(o)- fat stone, calculus speech Denotes someone who studies a certain field: -ology Denotes the academic study or practice of a certain field lymph dissolution Destruction large, long softening Of or pertaining to the breast manumast(o)- Of or pertaining to the hand Of or pertaining to the breast meg(a)-, megal(o)-, megaly melan(o)- enlargement Denoting a black color Ancient Greek, black; dark mening(o)mes(o)meta-meter -metry metr(o)- Meningitis Ancient Greek, "middle" Mesoderm Metacarpus Sphygmomanometer Optometry Ancient Greek, womb, Metrorrhagia uterus Ancient Greek, small Microscope mon(o)- meninges middle after, behind measurement process of measuring Pertaining to conditions or instruments of the uterus denoting something as small, or relating to smallness single morph(o)muscul(o)- form, shape muscle my(o)- Of or relating to muscle -logy micro- Liposuction Lithotripsy Ancient Greek, studier, practitioner Ancient Greek, study Latin (mamma), breast; udder Latin, hand Ancient Greek, breast, women's breast; man's pectoral muscle Ancient Greek, muscle; mouse; mussel Oncologist, pathologist hematology, urology Lymphedema Lysosome Paralysis Macrophage Osteomalacia Mammogram Manufacture Mastectomy Melanin Infectious mononucleosis Morphology Musculoskeletal system Myoblast 31 myc(o)myel(o)- fungus Of or relating to bone marrow myring(o)myx(o)nas(o)necr(o)neonephr(o)nerv- eardrum mucus Of or pertaining to the nose death new Of or pertaining to the kidney Of or pertaining to nerves and the nervous system neur(i)-, neur(o)normoocul(o)odont(o)odyn(o)-oesophageal, oesophago(Br) -oid ole olig(o)- Of or pertaining to nerves and the nervous system normal Of or pertaining to the eye Of or pertaining to teeth pain gullet resemblance to small or little Denoting something as 'having Ancient Greek, few little, having few' Of or pertaining to the shoulder Ancient Greek, shoulder tumor om(o)-oma (singular), -omata (plural) omphal(o)Of or pertaining to the navel, the umbilicus oncotumor, bulk, volume onych(o)Of or pertaining to the nail (of a finger or toe) ooOf or pertaining to the an egg, a woman's egg, the ovum oophor(o)Of or pertaining to the woman's ovary ophthalm(o)- Of or pertaining to the eye optic(o)Of or relating to chemical properties of the eye or(o)orchi(o)-, Onychomycosis Ancient Greek, marrow; Myeloblast bone-marrow Myringotomy Myxoma Latin, nose nasal Necrotizing fasciitis Neoplasm Ancient Greek, kidney Nephrology Latin, tendon; nerve; Nerve Cognate with the Greek (neuron) Ancient Greek, tendon, Neurofibromatosis sinew; nerve Normocapnia Latin (oculus), the eye Oculist Ancient Greek, tooth orthodontist Of or pertaining to the mouth testis Ancient Greek, navel, belly-button Ancient Greek, nail; claw; talon Ancient Greek, egg, ovum Ancient Greek, ovary, egg-bearing Ancient Greek, the eye Middle French, Greek; Cognate with Latin oculus, relating to the eye Latin, mouth Greek Sarcoidosis Oligotrophy Omoplate Sarcoma, Teratoma Omphalotomy Oncology Onychophagy Oogenesis Oophorectomy Ophthalmology Opticochemical Oral Orchiectomy, 32 orchidoorth(o)- Orchidectomy Denoting something as straight Ancient Greek, straight, Orthodontist or correct correct, normal -osis a condition, disease or increase Harlequin type ichthyosis osseobony ossibone Peripheral ossifying fibroma ost(e)-, oste(o)- bone Osteoporosis ot(o)Of or pertaining to the ear Ancient Greek, the ear Otopathy -otomy Tracheotomy, radial keratotomy -ous pertaining to ovari(o)Of or pertaining to the ovaries Latin, ovary Ovariectomy ovo-, ovi-, ov- Of or pertaining to the eggs, the Latin, egg, ovum Ovogenesis ovum oxoaddition of oxygen oxysharp, acid, acute, oxygen pachythick pachyderma palpebrOf or pertaining to the eyelid Latin, eyelid Palpebra [uncommon as a root] pan-, pant(o)- Denoting something as Ancient Greek, all, every panophobia, 'complete' or containing panopticon 'everything' papillOf or pertaining to the nipple Latin (papilla), nipple; Papillitis (of the chest/breast) dimunitive of papula papul(o)Indicates papulosity, a small Latin, pimple, pustle; a Papulation elevation or swelling in the small elevation or skin, a pimple, swelling swelling in the skin paraalongside of, abnormal -paresis slight paralysis hemiparesis path(o)disease Pathology -pathy Denotes (with a negative sense) Ancient Greek, suffering, sociopathy, a disease, or disorder accident neuropathy ped-, -ped-, Of or pertaining to the foot; Latin, foot Pedoscope -pes -footed pelv(i)-, hip bone Pelvis pelv(o)-penia deficiency osteopenia peoOf or pertaining to the penis Greek Peotomy -pepsia Denotes something relating to Ancient Greek, cooked, Dyspepsia digestion, or the digestive tract. digested, boil, cook; digest perthrough 33 peri- Denoting something with a position 'surrounding' or 'around' another -pexy fixation phacolens-shaped -phage, -phagia Forms terms denoting conditions relating to eating or ingestion phagoeating, devouring -phagist: Forms nouns that denote a person who 'feeds on' the first element or part of the word -phagy Forms nouns that denotes 'feeding on' the first element or part of the word phallophallus pharmacodrug, medication pharyng(o)Of or pertaining to the pharynx, the upper throat cavity -phil(ia) attraction for phleb(o)Of or pertaining to the (blood) veins, a vein phob(o)exaggerated fear, sensitivity phon(o)sound phosOf or pertaining to light or its chemical properties, now historic and used rarely. See the common root phot(o)- below. phot(o)Of or pertaining to light phren(i)-, diaphragm phren(o)-, phrenico physi -plasia formation, development -plasty surgical repair, reconstruction -plegia paralysis pleur(o)-, Of or pertaining to the ribs pleur(a) pneum(o)- Of or pertaining to the lungs pneumat(o)pod-, -pod-, -pus air, lung Of or pertaining to the foot, -footed Ancient Greek, around Periodontal Cataplexy Ancient Greek, to eat Sarcophagia phagocyte Ancient Greek, eater; see Lotophagis -phagia Ancient Greek, eating; see -phagia Anthropophagy Greek (phallos) Aphallia Ancient Greek, throat, windpipe; chasm Pharyngitis, Pharyngoscopy Hemophilia Phlebography, Phlebotomy arachnophobia Ancient Greek, blood-vessel, vein Ancient Greek, light Phosphene Ancient Greek, light Photopathy Phrenic nerve Greek, nature or origin physiology Achondroplasia rhinoplasty paraplegia Latin (pleura) Ancient Pleurogenous Greek, rib, side of the body Ancient Greek, lung Pneumonocyte, pneuma, wind, spirit Pneumonia Ancient Greek, foot Podiatry 34 -poiesis poliopolypor(o)porphyr(o)postpre- presby(o)primpro- proct(o)prot(o)psych(e)-, psych(o) -ptosis -ptysis pulmon-, pulmopyel(o)pyopyroquadr(i)rachi(o)radiorerect(o)ren(o)reticul(o)retrorhabd(o)rhin(o)rhod(o)- production Denoting a grey color Denotes a 'plurality' of something pore, porous Denotes a purple color Denotes something as 'after' or 'behind' another Denotes something as 'before' another (in [physical] position or time) old age Denotes something as 'first' or 'most-important' Denotes something as 'before' another (in [physical] position or time) anus, rectum Denotes something as 'first' or 'most-important' Of or pertaining to the mind Ancient Greek, grey Ancient Greek, much, many Ancient Greek, purple Porphyroblast Latin (post), after, behind Postoperation, Postmortem Medieval Latin (pre-) Prematurity (Classical) Latin (præ), before, in front of Presbyopia Latin, first, most Primary important Ancient Greek, before, in Procephalic front of proctology Protoneuron Ancient Greek, first; principle, most important Ancient Greek, breath, Psychology, life, soul Psychiatry Apoptosis falling, downward placement, prolapse (a spitting), spitting, hemoptysis, the spitting of blood derivied from the lungs or bronchial tubes Of or relating to the lungs. Latin, a lung pelvis pus fever four spine radiation, again, backward rectum Of or pertaining to the kidney net backward, behind rod shaped, striated Of or pertaining to the nose Denoting a rose-red color hematopoiesis Poliomyelitis Polymyositis Ancient Greek (pyelos) pulmonary Pyelonephritis Antipyretic quadriceps Latin, kidney Renal retroverted Ancient Greek, nose Ancient Greek, rose Rhinoceros Rhodophyte 35 -rrhage -rrhagia -rrhaphy -rrhea (Am) -rrhexis -rrhoea (Br) rubr(o)salping(o)sangui-, sanguinesarcoschistoschiz(o)- burst forth rapid flow of blood surgical suturing flowing, discharge rupture flowing, discharge Of or pertaining to the red nucleus of the brain Of or pertaining to the fallopian tubes Of or pertaining to blood muscular, fleshlike split, cleft Denoting something 'split' or 'double-sided' scler(o)scoli(o)-scope -scopy semisial(o)sigmoid(o)sinistr(o)sinus- hardness twisted instrument for viewing use of instrument for viewing one-half, partly saliva, salivary gland sigmoid, sigmoid colon left, left side Of or pertaining to the sinus -sis sitosomat(o)-, somaticospasmosperma-, spermo-, spermatosplanchn(i)-, splanchn(o)splen(o)spondyl(o)- condition of food, grain body, bodily squamos(o)-stasis -staxis Hemorrhage Galactorrhea Latin (ruber), red Diarrhoea Rubrospinal Ancient Greek,trumpet Salpingectomy [literally] Latin (sanguis, sanguin-), Sanguine blood sarcoma Ancient Greek; Irregular Schizophrenia formation of the verb, to cut, split artherosclerosis scoliosis stethoscope endoscopy sialadenoma Latin (sinus), a curve, bend, bay Sinusitis osteoperosis spasm semen, spermatozoa viscera spleen Of or pertaining to the spine, the vertebra Denoting something as 'full of scales' or 'scaly' stop, stand dripping, trickling Greek, the spine Spondylitis Latin, full of scales; scaly Squama 36 sten(o)- steth(o)- sthenostom(a) stomat(o)-stomy subsupersuprasy(l)-, sym-, syn-, sys- tachy-tension, -tensive thel(e)-, thel(o)thely- Denoting something as 'narrow in shape' or pertaining to narrow-ness Of or pertaining to the upper chest, chest, the area above the breast and under the neck strength, force, power mouth Ancient Greek, narrow; short Stenography Ancient Greek, chest, cuirass Stethoscope Of or pertaining to the mouth creation of an opening beneath in excess, above, superior above, excessive Indicates similarity, likeness, or being together; Assimilates before some consonants: before l to syl-, s to sys-, before a labial to sym-. Denoting something as fast, irregularly fast blood pressure Ancient Greek, mouth Of or pertaining to a woman's teat, nipple Denoting something as 'relating to a woman, feminine' therm(o)heat thorac(i)-, Of or pertaining to the upper thorac(o)-, chest, chest; the area above the thoracicobreast and under the neck thromb(o)Of or relating to a blood clot, clotting of blood thyr(o)thyroid -tic pertaining to tocochildbirth -tome cutting instrument -tomy cutting operation tonotone, tension, pressure -tony tension top(o)place, topical tox(i)-, tox(o)-, toxin, poison toxicotrache(o)trachea Ancient Greek, with, together Ancient Greek, fast, quickly stomatognathic system Stomatogastric colostomy subcutaneous tissue superior vena cava supraorbital vein Synalgia, Synesthesia, Syssarcosis Tachycardia Hypertension Ancient Greek, a teat, nipple Ancient Greek, female, feminine Thelephoroid Latin Ancient Greek, chest, cuirass Thorax Ancient Greek, lump, piece, clot of blood Thrombus, Thrombocytopenia Thelygenous Toxoplasmosis 37 trachel(o)transtrich(i)-, trichia, trich(o)-tripsy -trophy -trophy tympan(o)-ula, -ule ultraumbilicunguiun(i)ur(o)- uri(c)-, uricourinuter(o)vaginvaric(o)vas(o)vasculovenventr(o)vesic(o)viscer(o)xanth(o)-y zo(o)zym(o)- Of or pertaining to the neck Ancient Greek, neck Denoting something as moving Latin, across, through or situated 'across' or 'through' Of or pertaining to hair, Ancient Greek, hair hair-like structure crushing tissue, nourishment, development eardrum small beyond, excessive Of or pertaining to the navel, the umbilicus Of or pertaining to the nail, a claw one Of or pertaining to urine, the urinary system; (specifically) pertaining to the physiological chemistry of urine uric acid Of or pertaining to urine, the urinary system Of or pertaining to the uterus or womb Of or pertaining to the vagina swollen or twisted vein duct, blood vessel blood vessel Of or pertaining to the (blood) veins, a vein Of or pertaining to the belly; the stomach cavities Of or pertaining to the bladder Of or pertaining to the internal organs, the viscera Denoting a yellow color, an abnormally yellow color condition or process of animal, animal life fermentation, enzyme Tracheotomy Transfusion Trichotomy Muscular Dystrophy Latin Nodule Latin Latin, navel, belly-button Umbilical Latin (unguis), nail, claw Unguiform, Ungual Latin (unus) Ancient Greek, urine Urology Latin, urine Ancient Greek, see above. Latin, womb, uterus Uriniferous Latin, sheath, scabbard Vagina Uterus Latin, blood-vessel, vein Vein, Venospasm Latin (venter), the belly, the stomach; the womb Latin, bladder; blister Latin, internal organs; plural of, internal organ Ancient Greek, yellow Ventrodorsal Vesica Viscera Xanthopathy Surgery zoogenous Zymogen 38 English Meanings This section contains lists of different root classification (e.g. body components, quantity, description, etc.). Each list is alphabetized by English meanings, with the corresponding Greek and Latin roots given. Roots of the Body Roots of Bodily Concepts Bodily Concept Digestion Disease Eating Greek Root -pepsia -pathy -phagia Latin Root - Other Root - Roots of body parts and components (Internal Anatomy, External Anatomy, Body Fluids, Body Substances) Body Part/Component Abdomen Aorta Arm Armpit Artery Back big toe Bladder Blood blood clot blood vessel Body Bone bone marrow, marrow Brain Breast Chest Cheek Ear eggs, ova Eye Eyelid Face fallopian tubes fat, fatty tissue Finger Forehead Greek Root lapar(o)aort(o)brachi(o)arteri(o)cyst(o)haemat-, hemat- (haem-, hem-) thromb(o)angi(o)somat-, somoste(o)myel(o)encephal(o)mast(o)steth(o)ot(o)ooophthalm(o)blephar(o)sarping(o)lip(o)dactyl(o)- Latin Root abdominaort(o)axilldorsallicvesic(o)sangui-, sanguine- Other Root - vascul-, vascorporossimedullcerebr(o)mamm(o)buccaurovocul(o)cili-; palpebrfaci(o)sarping(o)adipdigitfront(o)- optic(o) [French] 39 Gallbladder Gland glans penis or clitoridis genitals, sexually undifferentiated Gums Hair Hand Head Heart hip, hip-joint Horn Intestine Jaw Kidney Knee Lip Liver loins, pubic region Lungs marrow, bone marrow Mind Mouth Muscle Nail Navel Neck nerve; the nervous system nipple, teat Nose Ovary Pelvis Penis pupil (of the eye) Rib rib cage Shoulder Sinus Skin Skull Stomach Testis throat (upper throat cavity) throat (lower throat cholecyst(o)aden(o)balan(o)phall(o)- fell- - trich(o)cheir(o)-, chir(o)cephal(o)cardi(o)cerat(o)enter(o)gnath(o)nephr(o)goncheil(o)-, chil(o)hepat(o)- (hepatic-) episi(o)pneumonmyel(o)psychstomat(o)my(o)onych(o)omphal(o)trachel(o)neur(o)thelerhin(o)oophor(o)pyel(o)pe(o)cor-, core-, coropleur(o)thorac(i)-, thorac(o)om(o)dermat(o)- (derm-) crani(o)gastr(o)orchi(o)-, orchid(o)pharyng(o)laryng(o)- gingivcapillmanucapit(o)cordicoxcornurengenulabi(o)jecorpudendpulmon(i)- (pulmo-) medullmentorunguiumbiliccervicnervpapillnasovari(o)pelv(i)cost(o)humer(o)sinuscut-, cuticulventr(o)- 40 cavity/voice box) Thumb Tooth Tongue Toe Tumour Ureter Urethra urine, urinary System uterine tubes Uterus Vagina Vein Vulva Womb Wrist odont(o)gloss-, glottdactyl(o)cel-, onc(o)ureter(o)urethr(o)-, urethr(a)ur(o)sarping(o)hyster(o)-, metr(o)colp(o)phleb(o)episi(o)hyster(o)-, metr(o)carp(o)- pollicdent(i)lingu(a)digittumureter(o)urethr(o)-, urethr(a)urin(o)sarping(o)uter(o)vaginvenvulvuter(o)carp(o)- - Roots of Color Color black blue gray, grey green purple red red-yellow white yellow Greek Root in English melanoCyanoPolioChlor(o)porphyr(o)Erythr(o)-, rhod(o)cirrh(o)leuc-, leukXanth(o)- Latin Root in English nigrvirpurpur-, purpureorub-, rubralbflav- Other Root jaun - [French] Roots of Description [Size, Shape, Strength, etc.] Description bad, incorrect bent, crooked Big Biggest broad, wide Cold Dead Equal False female, feminine Flat good, well Great Greek Root in English cac(o)-, dysankyl(o)mega-, megal(o)megisteurycry(o)necr(o)is(o)pseud(o)thelyplatyeumega-, megal(o)- Latin Root in English mal(e)prav(i)magn(i)maximlat(i)frigmortequ(i)fals(i)plan(i)ben(e)-, bon(i)magn(i)- Other Root 41 Hard Heavy Hollow Huge incorrect, bad large; extremely large Largest Long male, masculine Narrow New normal, correct; straight Old Sharp Short Small Smallest Slow Fast Soft straight, normal, correct Thick varied, various well, good wide, broad scler(o)bar(o)coel(o)megal(o)cac(o)-, dysmegamegistmacr(o)arsenosten(o)neoorth(o)paleooxybrachymicr(o)bradytachymalac(o)orth(o)pachypoikiloeueury- dur(i)grav(i)cavmagn(i)mal(e)magn(i)maximlong(i)virangust(i)nov(i)rectveteracbrev(i)parv(i)- (rare) minimtard(i)celermoll(i)rect(i)crass(i)variben(e)lat(i)- - Greek Root in English perimes(o)dexi(o)peri- Latin Root in English circumsinistrmedidextr(o)circum- Other Root Roots of Position Description Around Left Middle Right Surrounding - Roots of quantity (Amount, Quantity) Description Double Equal Few Half many, much Twice Greek Root in English diploisooligohemipolydis- Latin Root in English dupliequipaucisemimultibis- Other Root demi- (French) - 42