Download Chapter 1 Human Body

Chapter 1
Human Body
In this passage you will learn:
Classification of organ systems
Structure and function of each organ system
To understand the human body it is necessary to understand how its parts are
put together and how they function. The study of the body's structure is called
anatomy; the study of the body's function is known as physiology. Other studies of
human body include biology, cytology, embryology, histology, endocrinology,
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hematology, immunology, psychology etc.
Anatomists find it useful to divide the human body into ten systems, that is, the
skeletal system, the muscular system, the circulatory system, the respiratory system,
the digestive system, the urinary system, the endocrine system, the nervous system,
the reproductive system and the skin. The principal parts of each of these systems are
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described in this article.
The skeletal system is made of bones, joints between bones, and cartilage. Its
function is to provide support and protection for the soft tissues and the organs of the
body and to provide points of attachment for the muscles that move the body. There
are 206 bones in the human skeleton. They have various shapes - long, short, cube -
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shaped, flat, and irregular. Many of the long bones have an interior space that is
filled with bone marrow, where blood cells are made.
A joint is where bones are joined together. The connection can be so close that
no movement is possible, as is the case in the skull. Other kinds of joints permit
movement: either back and forth in one plane - as with the hinge joint of the elbow -
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or movement around a single axis - as with the pivot joint that permits the head to
rotate. A wide range of movement is possible when the ball - shaped end of one bone
fits into a socket at the end of another bone, as they do in the shoulder and hip joints.
Cartilage is a more flexible material than bone. It serves as a protective,
cushioning layer where bones come together. It also connects the ribs to the
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breastbone and provides a structural base for the nose and the external ear. An
infant's skeleton is made of cartilage that is gradually replaced by bone as the infant
grows into an adult.
The muscular system allows the body to move, and its contractions produce
heat, which helps maintain a constant body temperature. Striated muscles can be
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consciously controlled. The ends of these muscles are attached to different bones by
connective tissue bands so that when the muscle contracts, one bone moves in
relation to the other. This makes it possible to move the whole body, as when
walking, or to move just one part of the body, as when bending a finger.
Contractions of the heart and smooth muscles are not under conscious control.
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Smooth muscles are found in the walls of organs such as the stomach and the
intestines and serve to move the contents of these organs through the body.
The circulatory system All parts of the body must have nourishment and
oxygen in order to function and grow, and their waste products must be removed
before they accumulate and poison the body. The circulatory system distributes
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needed materials and removes unneeded ones. It is made up of the heart, blood
vessels, and blood, which together make up the cardiovascular system. The blood is
also part of the body's defense system. It has antibodies and white blood cells that
protect the body against foreign invaders.
The heart is a muscle that is divided into two nearly identical halves: one half
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receives blood from the lungs and sends it to the rest of the body, the other half sends
blood that has traveled through the body back to the lungs. When the heart muscle
contracts, the blood is forced out into arteries and enters small capillaries. Blood
returns to the heart through veins.
Also functioning in circulation is the lymphatic system. Some of the fluid that
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surrounds cells does not reenter the blood vessels directly. This fluid, called lymph,
returns to the heart by way of another system of channels - the lymph vessels.
Lymph nodes along these vessels filter the fluid before it reenters the blood. The
spleen is a large lymphatic organ that filters the blood.
The respiratory system takes in oxygen from the air and expels carbon dioxide
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and water vapor. Air enters the nose and mouth and travels through the larynx, and
trachea. The trachea divides to enter each of the two lungs and then divides more
than 20 times to form a very large number of small air spaces. Oxygen from the air
enters the blood through capillaries in the walls of these air spaces, and the blood
release carbon dioxide into the air spaces to be exhaled.
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The digestive system consists of a tube extending from the mouth to the anus.
In it, food and fluids are taken in, moved through the body, and broken down into
small molecules that are absorbed into the circulatory system. This breakdown,
known as digestion, is both a mechanical and a chemical process.
Food enters through the mouth, where chewing and saliva start to break it up
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and make it easier to swallow. Next, the food travels down through the esophagus to
the stomach. Contractions of the stomach's muscular wall continue to break down
the food mechanically, and chemical digestion continues when acid and enzymes are
secreted into the stomach cavity.
The liquified food gradually passes into the small intestine. In the first part of
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the small intestine, called the duodenum, enzymes from the pancreas are added.
These enzymes complete the chemical breakdown of the food. The digestion of fat is
aided by bile, which is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. The small
intestine of an adult is about 21 feet (6.4 meters) long. Most of its length is devoted
to absorbing the nutrients released during these digestive activities.
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The liquid remainder of the food enters the large intestine, or colon, which is
about 12 feet (3.7 meters) long. It is more than twice as wide as the small intestine.
In the large intestine most of the fluid is absorbed, and the relatively dry residues are
expelled.
The urinary system maintains normal levels of water and of certain small
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molecules such as sodium and potassium in the body. It does this by passing blood
through the kidneys, two efficient filtering organs that get rid of any excess of
various molecules and conserve those molecules that are in short supply.
The fluid that leaves the kidneys, known as urine, travels through a tube called
the ureter to the bladder. The bladder holds the urine until it is voided from the body
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through another tube, the urethra.
The endocrine system. The two systems that control body activities are the
endocrine system and the nervous system. The former exerts its control by means of
chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones are produced by a variety of
endocrine glands, which release the hormones directly into the blood stream.
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A major gland is the pituitary, which is located under the brain in the middle of
the head. It produces at least eight hormones, which affect growth, kidney function,
and development of the sex organs. Because some of the pituitary's hormones
stimulate other glands to produce their own hormones, the pituitary called the master
gland.
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Another gland, the thyroid, is located between the collar bones. Its hormone
controls the rate of the body's metabolism. The sex organs (ovaries end testes) make
the sex cells and also make hormones that control certain characteristics of males
and females. Located on top of each kidney is the adrenal gland, which produces
cortisone and adrenaline. The pancreas produces not only digestive enzymes but also
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insulin and glucagon, which control the body's use of sugar and starches.
The nervous system. The brain, the spinal cord and the nerve - also controls
body activities. The lower parts of the brain control basic functions such as breathing
and heart rate as well as body temperature, hunger, and thirst. Above these regions
are the centers for sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste, and the regions that direct
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voluntary muscular activities of the arms and legs. Performed here are the higher
functions of integrating and processing information.
The brain receives and sends information by means of nerves, many of which
lie partly in the spinal cord. The spinal cord is protected by the spinal column.
Nerves enter and leave the spinal cord at each level of the body, traveling to and
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from the arms, legs, and trunk. These nerves bring information from the various
sense organs. The information is processed by the brain, and then messages are
carried back to muscles and glands through out the body.
The reproductive system is constructed differently for males and females. The
male reproductive system is responsible for producing, transporting and maintaining
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viable sperm (the male sex cell). It also produces the male sex hormone, testosterone,
which regulates the development of a beard, pubic hair, a deep voice and other
bodily characteristics of the adult male.
The female productive system is responsible for producing and transporting ova
(the female sex cells), eliminating ova from the body when they are not fertilized by
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sperm, nourishing and providing a place for growth of an embryo when an ovum is
fertilized by sperm, and nourishing a newborn child. The female reproductive system
also produces the female sex hormones, estrogen and progesterone, which regulate
the development of breasts and other bodily characteristics of the mature female.
The skin is a complete layer that protects the inner structures of the body, and it
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is the largest of the body's organs. It keeps out foreign substances and prevents
excessive water evaporation. The nerves in the skin provide tactile information. The
skin also helps keep the body's temperature close to 37 °C, heat is conserved by
reducing blood flow through the skin or is expended by increasing blood flow and by
evaporation of sweat from the skin. Hair and nails are accessory structures of the
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skin.
New Words and Phrases
Accessory adj 附属的
Adrenal gland n. 肾上腺
Adrenaline n. 肾上腺素
Anatomy [ə`nætəmi] n.
Antibody n. 抗体
Anus n. 肛门
解剖学
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Artery n. 动脉
Axis n. 轴线
Bile n. 胆汁
Bladder n. 膀胱
Blood vessel n. 血管
Bone marrow n. 骨髓
Breakdown n. 分解
Breastbone n. 胸骨
Capillary n. 毛细血管
Carbon dioxide n. 二氧化碳
Cardiovascular adj. 心血管的
Cartilage n. 软骨
Circulatory adj. 循环的
Collar bone n.
锁骨
Colon n. 结肠
Conserve v. 保留
Cortisone n. 可的松
Duodenum n. 十二指肠
Embryology n. 胚胎学
Endocrine adj. 内分泌
Endocrinology n. 内分泌学
Enzyme n. 酶
Esophagus n. 食管
Estrogen n. 雌激素
Evaporation n. 蒸发
Exhale v. 呼出
Expel v. 排除
Gall bladder n. 胆囊
Gland n. 腺体
Glucagon n. 高血糖素
Hematology n. 血液学
Hinge joint n. 结合点
Histology n. 组织学
Hormone n. 激素
Immunology 免疫学
Insulin n. 胰岛素
Integrate v. 整合
Intestine n. 肠子
Kidney n. 肾
Larynx n. 喉管
Liquify v. 使液体化
Lymph n. 淋巴
Lymph node n. 淋巴结
Lymphatic adj. 淋巴的
Messenger n. 信使
Metabolism n. 新陈代谢
Molecule n. 分子
Newborn adj. 新生的
Nourishment n. 营养
Nutrient n. 营养素
Ovary n. 卵巢
Ovum n. 卵子
Pancreas n. 胰腺
Physiology n. 生理学
Pivot joint n. 枢轴点
Pituitary n. 脑垂体
Potassium n. 钾
Progesterone n. 孕酮
Psychology n. 心理学
Pubic hair n. 阴毛
Remainder n. 剩余物
Reproductive adj. 生殖的
Residue n. 残余物
Respiratory adj. 呼吸的
Saliva n. 唾液
Skeletal adj. 骨骼的
Smooth muscle n. 平滑肌
Socket n. 臼槽
Sodium n. 钠
Sperm n. 精子
Spinal column n. 脊柱
Spinal cord n. 脊髓
Spleen n. 脾
Starch n. 淀粉
Striated muscle n. 横纹肌
Tactile adj. 触觉的
Testis n. 睾丸
Testosterone n. 睾酮
Thyroid n. 甲状腺
Trachea [trə`kiə] n. 气管
Ureter n. 输尿管
Urethra n. 尿道
Urinary adj. 泌尿的
Urine n. 尿液
Vein n. 静脉
Viable adj. 能存活的
Void v. 使排空
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Chapter 2
The cardiovascular system
Structure of the cardiovascular system
Primary functions of organs
The cardiovascular system is made up of the heart and blood vessels. The heart
is situated between the lungs with its apex directed toward the left. The thick muscle
layer of the heart wall is the myocardium, which is lined on the inside within a
fibrous sac, the pericardium.
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The upper receiving chambers of the heart are the atria. The lower pumping
chambers are the ventricles. The interventricular septum separates the two ventricles;
the interatrial septum divides the two atria.
There are three major types of blood vessels, i.e., arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Arteries lead blood away from the heart. These blood vessels have the thickest walls
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because they receive the pumping drive from the ventricles of the heart. There are
three coats (tunics) which resemble the three tissue layers of the heart. These are: 1)
the innermost membrane of endothelium, which forms a smooth surface over which
the blood may easily move; 2) the second, more bulky layer, which is made of
involuntary muscle combined with elastic connective tissue; and 3) and outer tunic,
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which is made of a supporting connective tissue. The largest artery, the aorta, is
about 1 inch in diameter and has the thickest wall. The smallest subdivisions of
arteries, the arterioles, have thinner walls in which there are very little connective
tissues but relatively more muscle. These smaller branches of the arteries carry blood
to the tiniest of blood vessels, the capillaries.
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Capillaries have walls that are only one epithelial cell thick. The capillary walls
are transparent and are made of smooth plate like cells that continue from the lining
of the arteries. The walls are so thin that they can allow passage of oxygen and
nutrients out of the bloodstream and into the tissue fluid surrounding the cells. At the
same time, waste products such as carbon dioxide and water pass out of the cells and
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into the thin-walled capillaries. The capillary boundaries are the most important
center of activity of then entire circulatory system.
Veins are thinner-walled than arteries. They conduct waste-filled blood toward
the heart from the tissues. Veins have little elastic tissue and less connective tissue
than arteries, and blood pressure in veins is extremely low compared with pressure in
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arteries. The smallest veins, called venule, are formed by the union of capillaries.
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Their walls are only slightly thicker than those of the capillaries. As the veins
become larger, the walls become thicker. However, veins have much thinner walls
than those of comparable arteries. Although there are three layer of material in the
walls of the larger veins, as in the artery walls, the middle tunic is relatively thin in
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vein walls. Therefore, veins are easily collapsed, and slight pressure by a tumor or
some other mass may interfere with the return blood flow. Most veins are equipped
with one-way valves that permit the blood to flow in only one direction. They are
most numerous in the veins of the extremities.
The heart pumps blood through two circuits. The right side of the heart pumps
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blood to the lungs to be oxygenated through the pulmonary circuit. Pulmonary
vessels include the pulmonary artery and its branches, and the veins that drain the
lung capillaries. The pulmonary arteries carry blood low in oxygen from the right
ventricle, while the pulmonary veins carry blood high in oxygen from the lungs into
the left atrium. This circuit concerns itself with eliminating carbon dioxide from the
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blood and replenishing its supply of oxygen. The left side of the heart pumps blood
to the remainder of the body through the systemic circuit. This circuit is concerned
with supplying food and oxygen to all the tissues of the body and carrying away
waste materials from the tissues for disposal.
Blood returning from tissues other than the lungs enters the heart by way of the
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venae cavae; the superior vena cava and the inferior vena cava. The venae cavae
empty into the right atrium. When the atria contracts, blood in the right atrium is
forced through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the ventricles
contract, blood in the right ventricle is forced through the pulmonary semilunar valve
into the pulmonary artery; at the same time, the tricuspid valve closes to prevent the
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backward flow of blood into the atrium. Blood that enters the pulmonary artery is
carried to the lungs. There it undergoes oxygenation, a process in which carbon
dioxide (a waste product of cellular metabolism) is exchanged for oxygen from the
environment.
Oxygenated blood returns to the heart by way of pulmonary veins, which empty
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into the left atrium. Atrial contractions force blood from the left atrium through the
mitral valve, also called bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle. When the ventricles
contract, blood in the left ventricle is force through the aortic semilunar valve into
the aorta, the body’s largest artery, for distribution to the tissues. The aorta is one
continuous tube divided into the following regions: 1) the ascending aorta, which is
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near the heart and inside the pericardial sac; 2) the aortic arch, which curves from the
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right to the left, and also extends backward; 3) the thoracic aorta, which lies just in
front of the vertebral column behind the heart and in the space behind the pleura; and
4) the abdominal aorta, which is the longest section of the aorta, spanning the
abdominal cavity.
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There are two phases of the heartbeat: diastole (relaxation) and systole
(contraction). This diastole-systole cardiac cycle (relaxation-filling, then contractionpumping) lasts about 0.9 second and occurs between 70 and 80 times per minute.
This is to say, the ventricles pump blood into the arteries regularly about 70 to 80
times a minute. The force of ventricular contraction stars a wave of increased
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pressure which begins at the heart and travels along the arteries. This wave is called
the pulse. It can be felt in the arteries that are relatively close to the surface,
particularly if the vessel can be pressed down against a bone. At the wrist the radial
artery passes over the bone on the thumb side of the forearm, and the pulse is most
commonly obtained here. Other vessels sometimes used for obtaining the pulse
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include the carotid artery in the neck and the dorsalis pedis of the top of the foot.
Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood on the walls of the arteries. This
pressure varies over the course of the cardiac cycle, increasing when blood is ejected
from the heart (during systole), and decreasing as the heart relaxes (during diastole).
Since the pressure inside the blood vessels varies with the condition of the heart and
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the arteries as well as with other factors, the measurement of blood pressure together
with careful interpretation may prove a valuable guide in the care and evaluation of a
person’s health. The pressure decreases as the blood flows from arteries into
capillaries and finally into veins. Ordinarily, measurements are made of arterial
pressure only. The instrument used is called a sphygmomanometer. The two
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measurements made are of: 1) the systolic pressure, which occurs during heart
muscle contraction and averages around 120, expressed in millimeters of mercury;
and 2) the diastolic pressure, which occurs during relaxation of the heart muscle and
averages around 80 millimeters of mercury. A blood pressure recording of 120/80
mmHg, therefore, indicates a systolic pressure of 120 and a diastolic pressure of 80
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millimeters of mercury. Blood pressure is valuable diagnostic measurement that is
easily obtained.
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New words and phrases
abdominal aorta n. 腹主动脉
aorta adj. 主动脉
aortic arch n. 主动脉弓
ascending aorta n. 升主动脉
arteriole n. 小动脉
atrial adj 心房的
atrium n. 心房 atria (pl)
bicuspid valve n. 二尖瓣
bloodstream n. 血流
carotid artery n. 颈动脉
diastole n. 舒张期
diastolic pressure n. 舒张压
dorsalis pedis n. 足背
endocardium n. 心内膜
endothelium n. 内皮
epicardium n. 心外膜
inferior vena cava n. 下腔静脉
interventricular adj. 心室间的
lining n. 内层
mercury n. 汞
mitral valve n. 二尖瓣
myocardium n. 心肌
oxygenate v. 氧合
pericardium n. 心包
radial artery n.桡动脉
replenish v. 补充
semilunar adj. 半月形的
septum n. 膈
subdivision n. 细分；分支
superior vena cava n. 上腔静脉
systemic circuit n. 体循环
systole n. 收缩期
systolic pressure n. 收缩压
thoracic aorta n. 胸主动脉
tricuspid valve n. 三尖瓣
tunic n. 膜
valve n. 瓣膜
vena cava n. 腔静脉
ventricle n. 心室
venule n. 小静脉
vertebral column n. 脊柱
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Chapter 3
The Skeletal System
In this passage you will learn:
Functions of the skeletal system
Types of bones
Replacement of bones
Without the skeletal system we would be unable to perform movements, such as
walking or grasping. The slightest jar to the head or chest could damage the brain or
heart. It would even be impossible to chew food. The framework of bones and
cartilage that protects our organs and allows us to move is called the skeletal system.
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Functions. The skeletal system performs several basic functions.
Support: The skeleton provides a framework for the body and, as such, it
supports soft tissues and provides a point of attachment for many muscles.
Protection: Many internal organs are protected from injury, by the skeleton.
For example, the brain is protected by the cranial bones, the spinal cord by the
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vertebrae, the heart and lungs by the rib cage, and internal reproductive organs by
the pelvic bones.
Movement: Bones serve as levers to which muscles are attached. When the
muscles contract, the bones act as levers produce movement.
Mineral storage: Bones store several minerals that can be distributed to other
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parts of the body on demand. The principal stored minerals are calcium and
phosphorus.
Blood cell production: Red marrow in certain bones is capable of producing
blood cells, a process called hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis. Red marrow consists of
blood cells in immature stages, fat cells, and macrophages. Red marrow produces red
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blood cells, some white blood cells, and platelets.
Types of Bones
Almost all the bones of the body may be classified into four principal types on
the basis of shape: long, short, flat, and irregular. Long bones have greater length
than width and consist of a diaphysis and a variable number of epiphyses. For
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example, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges have only one epiphysis. The
femur actually has four. Other long bones have two.
Long bones are slightly curved for strength. A curved bone is structurally
designed to absorb the stress of the body weight at several different points so the
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stress is evenly distributed, if such bones were straight, the weight of the body would
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be unevenly distributed and the bone would easily fracture. Examples of long bones
include bones of the thighs, legs, toes, arms, forearms, and fingers.
Short bones are somewhat cube-shaped and nearly equal in length and width.
Their texture is spongy except at the surface, where there is a thin layer of compact
bone. Examples of short bones are the wrist and ankle bones.
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Flat bones are generally thin and composed of two more or less parallel plates
of compact bone enclosing a layer of spongy bone. Flat bones afford considerable
protection and provide extensive areas for muscle attachment. Examples of flat
bones include the cranial bones (which protect the brain), the sternum and ribs
(which protect organs in the thorax), and the scapulae.
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Irregular bones have complex shapes and cannot be grouped into any of the
three categories just described. They also vary in the amount of spongy and compact
bone present. Such bones include the vertebrae and certain facial bones.
There are two additional types of bones that are not included in this
classification by shape.
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Sutural or Wormian bones are small bones between the joints of certain cranial
bones. Their number varies greatly from person to person. Sesamoid bones are small
bones in tendons where considerable pressure develops, for instance, in the wrist.
These, like sutural bones, are also variable in number. Two sesamoid bones, the
patellas (kneecaps) are present in all individuals.
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Bone
Replacement.
Bones
undergoing
either
intramembranous
or
endochondral ossification are continually remodeled from the time that initial
calcification occurs until the final structure appears. Remodeling is the replacement
of old bone tissue by new bone tissue. Compact bone is formed by the
transformation of spongy bone. The diameter of a long bone is increased by the
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destruction of the bone closest to the marrow cavity and the construction of new
bone around the outside of the diaphysis. However, even after bones have reached
their adult shapes and sizes, old bone is perpetually destroyed and new bone tissue is
formed in its place. Bones is never metabolically at rest; it constantly remodels and
reappropriates its matrix and minerals along lines of mechanical stress.
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Bones shares with skin the feature of replacing itself throughout adult life.
Remodeling takes place at different rates in various body regions. The distal portion
of the femur (thighbone) is replaced about every 4 months. By contrast, bone in
certain areas of the shaft will not be completely replaced during the individual's life.
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Remodeling allows worn or injured bone to be removed and replaced with new
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tissue. It also allows bone to serve as the body's storage area for calcium. Many other
tissues in the body need calcium in order to perform their functions. For example,
nerve cell needs calcium for nerve impulse conduction, muscle needs calcium to
contract, and blood needs calcium to clot. The blood continually trades off calcium
with the bones, removing calcium when it and other tissues are not receiving enough
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of this element and resupplying the bones with dietary calcium to keep them from
losing too much bone mass.
The cells believed to be responsible for the resorption (loss of a substance
through a physiological or pathological process) of bone tissue are osteoclasts. In the
healthy adult, a delicate homeostasis is maintained between the action of the
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osteoclasts in removing calcium and the action of the bone-making osteoblasts in
depositing calcium. Should too much new tissue be formed, the bones become
abnormally thick and heavy. If too much calcium is deposited in the bone, the
surplus may form thick bumps, or spurs, on the bone that interferes with movement
at joints. A loss of too much tissue or calcium weakens the bones and allows them to
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break easily or to become very flexible. A greatly accelerated remodeling process
results in a condition called Paget's disease.
In the process of resorption, it is believed that osteoclasts send out projections
that secrete protein-digesting enzymes released from lysosomes and several acids
(lactic and citric). The enzymes may function by digesting the collagen and other
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organic substances, while the acids may cause the bone salts (minerals) to dissolve.
It is also presumed that the osteoclastic projections may phagocytose whole
fragments of collagen and bone salts. Magnesium deficiency inhibits the activity of
osteoclasts.
Normal bone growth in the young and bone replacement in the adult depend on
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several factors. First, sufficient quantities of calcium and phosphorus, components of
the primary salt that makes bone hard, must be included in the diet. Manganese may
also be important in bone growth. It has been shown that manganese deficiency
significantly inhibits laying down new bone tissue.
Second, the individual must obtain sufficient amounts of vitamins, particularly
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vitamin D, which participates in the absorption of calcium from the gastrointestinal
tract into the blood, calcium removal from bone, and kidney reabsorption of calcium
that might otherwise be lost in urine.
Third, the body must manufacture the proper amounts of the hormones
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responsible for bone tissue activity. Growth hormone (GH), secreted by the pituitary
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gland, is responsible for the general growth of bones. Too much or too little of this
hormone during childhood makes the adult abnormally tall or short. Other hormones
specialize in regulating the osteoclasts. Calcitonin (CT), produced by the thyroid
gland, inhibits osteoclastic activity and accelerates calcium absorption by bones,
while parathormone (PTH), parathormone (parathyroid hormone) synthesized by the
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parathyroid glands, increases the number and activity of osteoclasts. PTH also
releases calcium and phosphate from bones into blood, transports calcium from urine
into blood, and transports phosphate from blood into urine. And still others,
especially the sex hormones, aid osteoblastic activity and thus promote the growth of
new bone. The sex hormones act as a double-edged sword. They aid in the growth of
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new bone, but they also bring about the degeneration of all the cartilage cells in
epiphyseal plates. Because of the sex hormones, the typical adolescent experiences a
spurt of growth during puberty, when sex hormone levels start to increase. The
individual then quickly completes the growth process as the epiphyseal cartilage
disappears. Premature puberty can actually prevent one from reaching an average
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adult height because of the simultaneous premature degeneration of the plates.
Aging and the skeletal system. There are two principal effects of aging on the
skeletal system. The first effect is the loss of calcium from bones. This loss usually
begins after age 40 in females and continues thereafter until as much as 30 percent of
the calcium in bones is lost by age 70. In males, calcium loss typically does not
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begin until after age 60. The loss of calcium from bones is one of the factors related
to a condition called osteoporosis.
The second principal effect of aging on the skeletal system is a decrease in the
rate of protein formation that results in a decreased ability to produce the organic
portion of bone matrix. As a consequence, bone matrix accumulates a lesser
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proportion of organic matrix and a greater proportion of inorganic matrix. In some
elderly individuals, this process can cause their bones to become quite brittle and
more susceptible to fracture.
New Words and Phrases
Absorption
Accelerate
Accelerated
Adolescent
n. 吸收
v.
加速
adj. 加速的
n. 青少年；adj. 青少年的
Brittle adj. 易碎的，脆的
Calcitonin(CT) n. (甲状腺)降钙素
Calcium n. 钙
Citric acid n. 枸橼酸，柠檬酸
13
Clot v. 凝固
Compact adj. 紧密的
Cranial adj. 颅的，颅侧的
Cube-shaped adj. 立方体形的
Diaphysis n. 骨干
Dietary adj. 饮食的
Distal daj. 远侧的；末梢的
Endochondral adj. 软骨内的
Epiphyseal adj. 骨骺的
Epiphysis n. (骨)骺，松果体
Facial n. 脸部的
Femur n. 股骨，股
Fracture v. 使骨折 n. 骨折
Growth hormone(GH) n. 生长激素
Hematopoiesis n. 血细胞生成，造血
Immature adj. 不成熟的
Inhibit v. 抑制
Inorganic adj. 无机的
Intramembranous adj. 膜内的
Jar n. 震动
Kneecap n. 膝盖骨
Lactic acid n. 乳酸
Lever n. 杠杆
Macrophage n. 巨噬细胞
Magnesium n. 镁
Manganese n. 锰
Matrix n. 基质，基层
Mechanical stress n. 机械应力
Metabolically adv. 在代谢方面
Metacarpal n. 掌骨； adj. 掌的
Metatarsal n. 跖骨 adj. 跖的
Ossification n. 钙化，沉淀(作用)
Osteoblast n. 成骨细胞
Osteoclast n. 破骨细胞
Osteoporosis n. 骨质疏松(症)
Paget’disease n. 佩吉特病(变形性骨炎)
Parathormone(PTH) n. 甲状旁腺激素
Parathyroid gland n. 甲状旁腺
Patella n. 髌(骨)
Perpetually adv. 永恒的
Phagocytose v. 吞噬
Phalanx n. 指骨；趾骨
Phosphate n. 磷酸盐
Phosphorus n. 磷
Platelet n. 血小板
Puberty n. 青春期
Reappropriate v. 重新调整
Remodel v. 重建
Rib cage n. 肋骨架
Scapula n. 肩胛(骨)
Secrete v. 分泌
Sesamoid adj. 籽样的
Spongy adj. 海绵状的；多孔的
Spur n. 骨刺
Spurt n. 冲刺
Sternum n. 胸骨
Sutural adj. 骨缝的
Texture n. 质地
Thereafter adv. 其后
Thigh n. 大腿，股
Thorax n. 胸
Trades off v. 交换
Transformation n. 转化
Unevenly adv. 不平均地
Vertebra n. 椎骨，脊椎
Wormian bone n. 缝间骨
14
Chapter 4
Human Diseases
In this passage you will learn:
disease and pathology
the classification of diseases
germs' invasion of the human body
the body's defense against invasion
the body's immunity to diseases
The brief survey of the human body in Chapter One has given us a glimpse into
two different studies that are considered the fundamentals of medical sciences,
namely anatomy and physiology. However, the picture is not complete without
considering pathology, the science that deals with the structural and functional
5
changes produced by the disease. In fact, the modern approach to the study of
disorder emphasizes the close relationship of the pathological and physiological
aspects and the need to understand the fundamentals of each in treating any body
diseases.
Then what is a disease? It may be defined as a condition that impairs the proper
10
function of the body or of one of its parts. Every living thing, both plants and
animals, can succumb to disease. People, for example, are often infected by tiny
bacteria, but bacteria, in turn, can be infected by even more minute viruses.
Hundreds of different diseases exist. Each has its own particular set of
symptoms and signs, clues that enable a physician to diagnose the problem. A
15
symptom is something a patient can detect, such as fever, bleeding, or pain. A sign is
something a doctor can detect, such as a swollen blood vessel or an enlarged internal
body organ.
Diseases can be classified differently. For instance, an epidemic disease is one
that strikes many persons in a community. When it strikes the same region year after
20
year it is an endemic disease. An acute disease has a quick onset and runs a short
course. An acute heart attack, for example, often hits without warning and can be
quickly fatal. A chronic disease has a slow onset and runs a sometimes years-long
course. The gradual onset and long course of rheumatic fever makes it a chronic
ailment. Between the acute and chronic, another type is called subacute.
25
Diseases can also be classified by their causative agents. For instance, an
infectious, or communicable, disease is the one that can be passed between persons
15
such as by means of airborne droplets from a cough or sneeze. Tiny organisms such
as bacteria and fungi can produce infectious diseases. So can viruses. So can tiny
worms. Whatever the causative agent might be, it survives in the person it infects
30
and is passed on to another. Sometimes, a disease-producing organism gets into a
person who shows no symptoms of the disease. The asymptomatic carrier can then
pass the disease on to someone else without even knowing he has it.
Noninfectious diseases are caused by malfunctions of the body. These include
organ or tissue degeneration, erratic cell growth, and faulty blood formation and flow.
35
Also included are disturbances of the stomach and intestine, the endocrine system,
and the urinary and reproductive systems. Some diseases can be caused by diet
deficiencies, lapses in the body's defense system, or a poorly operating nervous
system.
Disability and illnesses can also be provoked by psychological and social
40
factors. These ailments include drug addiction, obesity, malnutrition, and
pollution-caused health problems.
Furthermore, a thousand or more inheritable birth defects result from
alternations in gene patterns. Since tiny genes are responsible for producing the
many chemicals needed by the body, missing or improperly operating genes can
45
seriously impair health. Genetic disorders that affect body chemistry are called
inborn errors of metabolism. Some forms of mental retardation are hereditary.
How Germs Invade the Body
Humans live in a world where many other living things compete for food and
places to breed. The pathogenic organisms, or pathogens, often broadly called germs,
50
that cause many diseases are able to invade the human body and use its cells and
fluids for their own needs. Ordinarily, the body's defense system can ward off these
invaders.
Pathogenic organisms can enter the body in various ways. Some - such as these
that cause the common cold, pneumonia, and tuberculosis - are breathed in. Others -
55
such as those that cause venereal diseases - enter through sexual contact of human
bodies. Still others - such as those that cause hepatitis, colitis, cholera, and typhoid
fever-get in the body through contaminated food, water or utensils.
Insects can spread disease by acting as vectors, or carriers. Flies can carry
germs from human waste or other tainted materials to food and beverages. Germs
60
may also enter the body through the bite of a mosquito, louse, or other insect vector.
How the Body Fights Disease
16
As a first line of defense, a healthy body has a number of physical barriers
against infection. The skin and mucous membranes covering the body or lining its
openings offer considerable resistance to invasion by bacteria and other infectious
65
organisms. If these physical barriers are injured or burned, infection resistance drops.
In minor cases, only boils or pimples may develop. In major cases, however, large
areas of the body might become infected.
Breathing passages are especially vulnerable to infection. Fortunately, they are
lined with mucus-secreting cells that trap tiny organisms and dust particles. Also,
70
minute hairs called cilia line the breathing passages, wave like a field of wheat, and
gently sweep matter out of the respiratory tract. In addition, foreign matter in the
breathing passages can often be ejected by nose blowing, coughing, sneezing, and
throat clearing. Unfortunately, repeated infection, smoking and other causes can
damage the respiratory passageways and make them more susceptible to infection.
75
Many potential invaders cannot stand body temperature (98.6 °F or 37 °C).
Even those that thrive at that temperature may be destroyed when the body assumes
higher, fever temperatures.
Wax in the outer ear canals and tears from eye ducts can slow the growth of
some bacteria. And stomach acid can destroy certain swallowed germs.
80
The body's second line of defense is in the blood and lymph. Certain white
blood cells flock to infected areas and try to localize the infection by forming
pus-filled abscesses. Unless the abscess breaks and allows the pus to drain, the
infection is likely to spread. When this happens, the infection is first blocked by
local lymph glands. For example, an infection in the hand travels up the arm,
85
producing red streaks and swollen, tender lymph glands in the armpit. Unless the
infection is brought under control, it will result in blood poisoning.
Phagocytes are located at various sites to minimize infection. One type in the
spleen and liver keeps the blood clean. Others in such high-risk areas as the walls of
the bronchi and the intestines remove certain bacteria and shattered cells.
90
We Become Immune to Disease
The body has a special way of handling infection. It has a system that fends off
the first traces of an infectious substance and then, through a "memory," gives the
body a long-lasting immunity against future attacks by the same kind of invader.
Many substances could harm the body if they ever entered it. These substances,
95
or antigens, range from bacteria and pollen to a transplanted organ (viewed by the
body as an invader). To fight them the body makes special chemicals known as
17
antibodies.
Antibodies are a class of proteins called immunoglobulins. Each antibody is
made of a heavy chain of chemical subunits, or amino acids, and a light chain of
100
them. The light chain has special sites where the amino acids can link with their
complements on the antigen molecule. When an antibody hooks up with an antigen,
it often puts the antigen out of action by inactivating or covering a key portion of the
harmful substance. In some cases, through the process of opsonization, antibodies
"butter" the surface of some antigens and make them "tastier" to phagocytes, which
105
engulf the antigens. Sometimes an antibody hooks to a bacterial antigen but needs an
intermediate, or complement, to actually destroy the bacterium. As the antibodyantigen complex circulates in the blood, the complex "fixes" complement to it. In
turn, the complement causes powerful enzymes to eat through the bacterial cell wall
and make the organism burst.
110
There are several kinds of immunoglobulins - IgM, the largest; IgG, the most
plentiful and versatile; and IgA, the next most plentiful and specially adapted to
work in areas where body secretions could damage other antibodies. Other
immunoglobulins are tied in with allergic reactions, IgM is made at the first signs of
an antigen, and it is later supplanted by the more effective IgG.
115
When infection first strikes, the immunity system does not seem to be working.
During the first day or so, antibodies against the infection cannot be found in the
blood. But this is only because the basic cells involved in antibody production have
been triggered by the presence of antigen to multiply themselves. The antibody level
starts to rise on about the second day of infection and then zooms upward. By the
120
fifth day the antibody level has risen a thousandfold.
The first antibodies, the large IgM type, are not the best qualified to fight a wide
range of antigens, but they are particularly effective against bacteria. The more
versatile IgG is circulating in the blood on about the fourth day of infection. Its
production is stimulated by the rising level of IgM in the blood. At this time, IgM
125
production drops off and the immunity systems concentrates on making IgG. The
IgG type of antibody sticks well to antigens and eventually covers them so that the
antigens can no longer stimulate the immune response and IgG production is
switched off. This is an example of negative feedback control.
18
New Words and Phrases
Abscess n. 脓肿
Airborne adj. 空气传播的
Allergic adj. 过敏的
Amino acid n. 氨基酸
Antigen n. 抗原
Armpit n. 腋窝
Asymptomatic adj. 无症状的
Boil n. 疖子
Bronchi n. 支气管
Beverage n. 饮料
Causative adj. 成因的
Chronic disease n. 慢性疾病
Cilia n. 纤毛
Colitis n. 结肠炎
Contaminate v. 污染
Complement n. 补体
Deficiency n. 不足
Degeneration n. 退化
Diagnose v. 诊断
Disability n. 残废
Disturbance n. 干扰
Drug addiction n. 吸毒成瘾
Duct n. 管
Eject v. 弹出
Endemic disease n. 地方病
Engulf v. 吞噬
Epidemic disease n. 流行病
Erratic adj. 不稳定的，奇怪的，异常的
Fend off v. 阻止
Fungi n. 真菌
Hereditary adj. 遗传的
Hepatitis n. 肝炎
Immunity n. 免疫力
Immunoglobulin n. 免疫球蛋白
Impair v. 损害
Infection n. 感染
Infectious adj. 传染性的
Lapse n. 下降
Malfunction n. 功能失调
Malnutrition n. 营养不良
Mental retardation n. 智力发育迟缓
Minimize v. 使变小
Mucous adj. 粘膜的
Noninfectious adj. 非感染性的
Obesity n. 肥胖
Onset n. 发作
Opsonization n. 调理素作用
Pathogen adj. 病原体
Pathogenic adj. 病原的
Pathology n. 病理学
Pneumonia n. 肺炎
Phagocyte n. 吞噬细胞
Pimple n. 小脓疱
Pus n. 脓
Rheumatic fever n. 风湿热
Shatter v. 使粉碎
Streak n. 线(条)
Subacute adj. 亚急性
Subunit n. 亚单位
Succumb to v. 屈从于;死
Supplant v. 取代
Susceptible to adj. 易受到…
Tuberculosis n. 肺结核
Thousandfold adj. 千倍
Utensil n. 器皿
Vector n. 载体
Versatile adj. 多面的；多才多艺的
Venereal disease n. 性病
Vulnerable adj. 易受伤害的
Ward off v. 防止
Zoom v. 上升
19
Chapter 5
DNA Cloning: an overview
DNA cloning
Classically, detailed molecular analysis of proteins or other constituents of most
organisms were rendered difficult or impossible by their scarcity and the consequent
difficulty of their purification in large quantities. One approach is to isolate the
5
gene(s) responsible for the expression of a protein or the formation of a product.
However, every organism’s genome is large and complex, and any sequence of
interest usually occurs only once or twice per cell. Hence, standard chemical or
biochemical methods cannot be used to isolate a specific region of the genome for
study, particularly as the required sequence of DNA is chemically identical to all the
10
others. The solution to this dilemma is to place a relatively short fragment of a
genome, which might contain the gene or other sequence of interest, in an
autonomously replicating piece of DNA, known as a vector, forming recombinant
DNA, which can be replicated independently of the original genome, and normally
in another host species altogether. Propagation of the host organism containing the
15
recombinant DNA forms a set of genetically identical organisms, or a clone. This
process is hence known as DNA cloning.
Amongst the exploding numbers of applications of DNA cloning, often
collected together under the term genetic engineering, are the following:
DNA sequencing, and hence the derivation of protein sequence.
20
Isolation and analysis of gene promoters and other control sequences.
Investigation of protein/enzyme/RNA function by large-scale production of
normal and altered forms.
Identification of mutations, for example gene defects leading to disease.
Biotechnology; the large-scale commercial production of proteins and other
25
molecules of biological importance, for example human insulin and growth
hormone.
Engineering animals and plants, and gene therapy.
Engineering proteins to alter their properties
Hosts and vectors
30
The initial isolation and analysis of DNA fragments is almost always carried out
using the bacterium E. coli as the host organism, although the yeast Saccharomyces
cerevisiae is being used to manipulate very large fragments of the human genome. A
wide variety of natural replicons have the properties required to allow them to act as
20
cloning vectors. Vectors must normally be capable of being replicated and isolated
35
independently of the host’s genome, although some are designed to incorporate DNA
into the host genome for longer term expression of cloned genes. Vectors also
incorporate a selectable marker, a gene which allows host cells containing the vector
to be selected from amongst those which do not, usually by conferring resistance to a
toxin, or enabling their survival under certain growth conditions.
40
The first E. coli vectors were extrachromosomal circular plasmids, and a
number of bacteriophages (viruses infecting bacteria) have also been used in E. coli.
Phage λ can be used to clone fragments larger than plasmid vectors, and phage M13
allows cloned DNA to be isolated in single-stranded form. More specialist vectors
have been engineered to use aspects of plasmids and bacteriophages, such as the
45
plasmid- bacteriophage λ hybrids known as cosmids. Very large genomic fragments
from humans and other species have been cloned in S. cerevisiae as yeast artificial
chromosomes.
Plasmid and phage vectors have been used to express genes in a range of
bacteria other than E. coli, and some phages may be used to incorporate DNA into
50
the host genome, for example phage λ. Plasmid vectors have been developed for use
in yeast (yeast episomal plasmids), while in plants; a bacterial plasmid
(Agrobacterium tumefaciens Ti plasmid) can be used to integrate DNA into the
genome. In other eukaryotic cells in culture, vectors have often been based on
viruses which naturally infect the required species, either by maintaining their DNA
55
extrachromosomally or by integration into the host genome (examples include SV40,
baculovirus, retroviruses).
Subcloning
The simplest kind of cloning experiment, which exemplifies many of the basic
techniques of DNA cloning, is the transfer of a fragment of cloned DNA from one
60
vector to another, a process known as subcloning. This might be used to investigate a
short region of a large cloned fragment in more detail, or to transfer a gene to a
vector designed to express it in a particular species, for example. In the case of
plasmid vectors in E. coli, the most common situation, the process may be divided
into the following steps:
65
Isolation of plasmid DNA containing the cloned sequence of interest.
Digestion (cutting of the plasmid into discrete fragments with restriction
endonucleases.
Separation of the fragments by agarose gel electrophoresis.
21
Purification of the desired target fragment.
70
Ligation (joining) of the fragment into a new plasmid vector, to form a new
recombinant molecule.
Transfer of the ligated plasmid into an E. coli strain (transformation).
Selection of transformed bacteria.
Analysis of recombinant plasmids.
75
DNA libraries
There are two main sources from which DNA is derived for cloning
experiments designed to identify an unknown gene - bulk genomic DNA from the
species of interest and, in the case of eukaryotes, bulk mRNA from a cell or tissue
where the gene is known to be expressed. They are used in the formation of genomic
80
libraries and cDNA libraries respectively.
DNA libraries are sets of DNA clones (a clone is a genetically distinct
individual or set of identical individuals), each of which has been derived from the
insertion of a different fragment into a vector followed by propagation in the host.
Genomic libraries are prepared from random fragments of genomic DNA. However,
85
genomic libraries may be an inefficient method of finding a gene, particularly in
large eukaryotic genomes, where much of the DNA is noncoding. The alternative is
to use as the source of the library the mRNA from a cell or tissue which is known to
express the gene. DNA copies (cDNA) are synthesized from the mRNA by reverse
transcription and are then inserted into a vector to form a cDNA library. cDNA
90
libraries are efficient for cloning a gene sequence, but yield only the coding region,
and not the surrounding genomic sequences.
Screening libraries
Since it is not apparent which clone in a library contains the gene of interest, a
method for screening for its presence is required. This is often based on the use of a
95
radioactively
labeled
DNA probe
which
is
complementary
or
partially
complementary to a region of the gene sequence, and which can be used to detect it
by hybridization. The probe sequence might be an oligonucleotide derived from the
sequence of the protein product of the gene, if it is available, or from a related gene
from another species. An increasingly important method for the generation of probes
100
is the polymerase chain reaction. Other screening methods rely on the expression of
the coding sequences of the clones in the library, and identification of the protein
product from its activity, or with a specific antibody, for example.
Analysis of a clone
22
Once a clone containing a target gene is identified, the structure of the cloned
105
fragment may be investigated further using restriction mapping, the analysis of the
fragmentation of the DNA with restriction enzymes, or ultimately by the sequencing
of the entire fragment. The sequence can then be analyzed by comparison with other
known sequences from databases, and the complete sequence of the protein product
determined. The sequence is then available for manipulation in any of the
110
applications of cloning.
New Words and Phrases
Eukaryote 真核生物
Agarose 琼脂糖
Hybridization 片段
Insulin 片段
Bacteriophage 噬菌体
Bacterium 细菌
Ligation 连接
Mutation 突变
Biotechnology 生物技术
Complementary 互补的
Oligonucleotide 突变
Plasmid 突变
Cosmid 互补的
Electrophoresis 电泳
Probe 探针
Promoter 启动子
Endonuclease 核酸内切酶
Eukaryotic 真核的
Replicon 复制子
Sequence 序列
Extrachromosomal 染色体外的
Fragment 片段
Strain 菌株
Yeast 醇母
Genome 基因组
Hybrid 杂交
23
Appendix
Prefixes and suffixes
The following is an alphabetical list of medical prefixes and suffixes, along with their meaning,
origin, and an English example.
Prefix/suffix
Meaning
a-, an-
Denotes an absence of
ababdomin(o)-
away from
Of or relating to the Abdomen
-ac
acous(o)acr(o)-acusis
-ad
ad-
pertaining to
Of or relating to hearing
extremity/topmost
hearing condition
toward, in the direction of
increase, adherence, motion
toward, very
Of or relating to a gland
aden(o)-,
aden(i)adip(o)-
Of or relating to fat or fatty
tissue
adren(o)Of or relating to adrenal glands
-aemia (Br)
blood condition
aer(o)air, gas
aesthesio- (Br) sensation
-al
pertaining to
albDenoting a white or pale color
alge(si)pain
-algia
pain
alg(i)opain
alloDenoting something as
different, or as an addition
ambiDenoting something as
positioned on both sides;
Describing both of two
annot, without
anaup or through
an(o)
anus
Origin language and
Example(s)
etymology
Ancient Greek, without, Apathy
not
Abduction
Latin, abdomen, fat
Abdomen
around the belly
Adduction
Ancient Greek, an acorn; Adenology
a gland
Latin (adeps, adip-), fat Adipocyte
Greek, without blood
Anaemia
Latin, white
Abdominal
Albino
Myalgia
Ancient Greek, another, Alloantigen, allopathy
other
Latin, both, on both sides Ambidextrous
Greek
Analgesia
anatomy
24
andr/o
angi/o
anisoankyl(o)-,
ancyl(o)ante-
antiapoarteri(o)-
arthr(o)-
pertaining to a man
blood vessel
Describing something as
unequal
Denoting something as crooked
or bent
Describing something as
positioned in front of another
thing
Describing something as
'against' or 'opposed to' another
separated from, derived from
Of or pertaining to an artery
bacteri(o)-
Of or pertaining to the joints,
limbs
joint
pertaining to
enzyme
weakness
process
Of or pertaining to the ear
self, same
Of or pertaining to the armpit
[uncommon as a prefix]
bacteria
balan(o)bibioblast(o)blephar(o)brachi(o)-
glans penis or glans clitoridis
twice, double
life
germ or bud
Of or pertaining to the eyelid
Of or relating to the arm
brachybradybronch(i)-
Indicating something as 'short'
or less commonly 'little'
Indicating something as 'slow'
bronchus
bucc(o)burs(o)capillcapit-
Of or pertaining to the cheek
bursa
Of or pertaining to hair
Pertaining to the head (as a
articul(o)-ary
-ase
-asthenia
-ation
aur(i)aut(o)axill-
Ancient Greek, unequal
Angiogram
Anisotropic
Ancient Greek, crooked, Ankylosis
curved
Latin, before, in front of antepartum
Ancient Greek, against
Ancient Greek, a windpipe, artery (used
distinctly versus a vein)
Ancient Greek, a joint,
limb
Antibody,
antipsychotic
Apoptosis
Artery, Arteriology
Arthritis
Articulation
Lactase
Myasthenia gravis
Latin, the ear
Latin, armpit
Aural
Autoimmune
Axilla
Bactericide ,
Bacteriophage
Greek, acorn
Ancient Greek, eyelid
Latin, Ancient Greek,
arm
Ancient Greek, short;
little, shallow
Ancient Greek, slow
Latin, cheek
Latin, hair
Latin, the head
Biology
Blastomere
Blepharoplast
Brachium
brachycephalic
Bradycardia
Bronchiolitis
obliterans
Buccolabial
Bursitis
Capillus
Capitation
25
carcin(o)cardi(o)carp(o)cata-cele
-centesis
cephal(o)cerat(o)cerebell(o)cerebr(o)cervicchem(o)chir(o)-,
cheir(o)chlor(o)chol(e)cholecyst(o)chondr(i)ochrom(ato)-cidal, -cide
cilicircumcisclast
cocol-, colo-,
colonocolp(o)comcontra
corcor-, core-,
whole)
cancer
Of or pertaining to the heart
Of or pertaining to the wrist.
down
pouching, hernia
surgical puncture for aspiration
Of or pertaining to the head (as
a whole)
Of or pertaining to the cornu; a
horn
Of or pertaining to the
cerebellum
Of or pertaining to the brain
Of or pertaining to the neck, the
cervix
chemistry, drug
Of or pertaining to the hand
Denoting a green color
Of or pertaining to bile
Of or pertaining to the
gallbladder
cartilage, gristle, granule,
granular
color
killing, destroying
Of or pertaining to the cilia, the
eyelashes; eyelids
Denoting something as 'around'
another
on this side
break
with, together, in association
colon
Of or pertaining to the vagina
with, together
against
with, together
Of or pertaining to eye's pupil
Ancient Greek, heart
Latin, Ancient Greek,
wrist
Carcinoma
Cardiology
Carpopedal
Cataract
Hydrocele
Amniocentesis
Ancient Greek, the head Cephalalgy
Ancient Greek, a horn
Ceratoid
Latin (cerebellum), little Cerebellum
brain
Latin (cerebrum), brain Cerebrology
Latin, neck, cervix
Cervicodorsal
Ancient Greek, hand
Chemotherapy
Chiropractor
Ancient Greek, green,
Chlorophyll
yellow-green
Ancient Greek, bile
Cholaemia
Ancient Greek, bile, gall Cholecystectomy
+ bladder
Chondrocalcinosis
Hemachromatosis
Latin (cilium), eyelash; Ciliary
eyelid
Latin (circum), around
Circumcision
Latin (cis)
Colonoscopy
Ancient Greek, bosom,
womb; hollow, depth
Colposcopy
Contraindicate
Ancient Greek, girl, doll; Corectomy
26
corocordicornu-
cost(o)coxcrani(o)-
-crine
cry(o)cutanecyan(o)cyclcyph(o)cyst(o)-,
cyst(i)cyt(o)-cyte
dacriodactyl(o)-
Of or pertaining to the heart
[Uncommon as a prefix]
Applied to processes and parts
of the body describing them
likened or similar to horns
Of or pertaining to the ribs
Of or relating to the hip,
haunch, or hip-joint
Belonging or relating to the
cranium
to secrete
cold
skin
Denotes a blue color
circle, cycle
Denotes something as bent
[uncommon as a prefix]
Of or pertaining to the urinary
bladder
cell
cell
tear
Of or pertaining to a finger, toe
deaway from, cessation
dentOf or pertaining to teeth
dermat-, derm- Of or pertaining to the skin
-desis
dextr(o)didia-
binding
right, on the right side
separation, two
[same as Greek meaning]
difdigit-
separation
Of or pertaining to the finger
[rare as a root]
separation, taking apart
Of or pertaining to the back
disdors(o)-,
dors(i)duodeno-
duodenum - upper part of the
small intestine, connects to the
stomach
pupil of the eye
Latin (cor, cordi-), heart Cardiology
Latin, horn
Cardiology
Latin, rib
Latin, hip
Costochondral
Coxopodite
Latin, Ancient Greek, the Craniology
cranium, skull, bones
enclosing the brain
Endocrine
Cryoablation
Subcutaneous
Ancient Greek, blue
Cyanopsia
Ancient Greek, bent,
Cyphosis
hunchback
Ancient Greek, bladder; Cystotomy
cyst
Cytokine
Leukocyte
Ancient Greek, finger,
toe
Dactylology
Latin (dens), tooth
Ancient Greek, skin,
human skin
Dentist
Dermatology
Dextrocardia
Ancient Greek, through, Diacetyl
during, across
Latin (digitus), finger,
toe
Latin (dorsum), back
Digit
Dissection
Dorsal,
Dorsocephalad
Duodenal atresia
27
dynamo-dynia
dys-eal
ecect(o)-ectasis
-ectomy
-emesis
-emia
encephal(o)endoenter(o)epi-
episi(o)erythr(o)-esophageal,
-esophago
esthesioeuexexoextrafaci(o)fibr(o)
filli-form, -iform
frontgalact(o)gastr(o)-gen
-genic
genu-
force, energy
pain
bad, difficult
pertaining to
out, away
outer, outside
expansion, dilation
Denotes a surgical operation or
removal of a body part
vomiting condition
blood condition (Am)
Of or pertaining to the brain
Denotes something as 'inside' or
'within'
Of or pertaining to the intestine
[Same as Greek meaning]
Of or pertaining to the pubic
region, the loins
Denotes a red color
gullet (Am)
sensation (Am)
good, well
out of, away from
Denotes something as 'outside'
another
outside
Of or pertaining to the face
fiber
fine, hair like
Used to form adjectives
indicating 'having the form of'
Of or pertaining to the forehead
milk
Of or pertaining to the stomach
Dysphagia/ dysphasia
Greek
Greek
Ectopic pregnancy
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek, excision Mastectomy
Greek, without blood
Ancient Greek, the brain
Ancient Greek, inside,
internal
Ancient Greek, intestine
Ancient Greek, before,
upon, on, outside, outside
of
Ancient Greek, the pubic
area, loins; vulva
Ancient Greek, red
Greek
Greek
Latin
Ancient Greek, outside
of, external
Latin
Latin, the face,
countenance
Anemia
Encephalogram
Endocrinology,
Endospore
Gastroenterology
Epistaxis
Episiotomy
Erythrocyte
Eubacteria
Exoskeleton
Facioplegic
Fibroblast
Latin (forma), form,
shape
Latin, the forehead
Cuneiform
Frontonasal
Galactorrhea
Ancient Greek, stomach, Gastric bypass
belly
(1) Denotes the sense 'born in, Ancient Greek, to be
(1) Endogen; (2)
from' (2) Denotes the sense 'of a born
Heterogenous
certain kind'
Formation
Cardiogenic shock
Of or pertaining to the knee
Latin, knee
Genu valgum
28
gingivglauc(o)gloss(o)-,
glott(o)glucoglycognath(o)gon/o
-gram
-graph
Of or pertaining to the gums
Denoting a grey, bluish-grey
color
Of or pertaining to the tongue
glucose
sugar
Of or pertaining to the jaw
seed; semen.
record or picture
record or picture
-graphy
process of recording
gyn(o)-,
woman
gynae(co)(Br), gyne(co)(Am)
hallucto wander in mind
hemat-,
Of or pertaining to blood
haemato(haem-, hem-)
hema or hemo- blood (Am)
hemihepat(hepatic-)
hetero-
one-half
Of or pertaining to the liver
Denotes something as 'the other'
(of two), as an addition, or
different
hidr(o)sweat
hist(o)-, histio- tissue
homoDenotes something as 'the same'
as another, alike, or common
humer(o)Of or pertaining to the shoulder
(or [rarely] the upper arm)
hydr(o)water
hyperDenotes something as 'extreme'
or 'beyond normal'
hyp(o)hyster(o)-
Denotes something as 'below
normal'
Of or pertaining to the womb,
Latin, gum
Ancient Greek, grey,
bluish-grey
Ancient Greek, tongue
Ancient Greek, jaw
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek, written,
drawn, graphic
interpretation
Gingivitis
Glaucoma
Glossology
Glucocorticoid
Glycolysis
Gnathodynamometer
Gonorrhea
Angiogram
Electrocardiograph
Angiography
Gynecoid
Classical Latin to wander Hallucinosis
in mind
Latin, Ancient Greek,
Hematology, older
blood
form Haematology
Hematological
malignancy
Ancient Greek, "half"
Cerebral hemisphere
Ancient Greek, the liver Hepatology
Ancient Greek, the other Heterogeneous
(of two), another;
different
Hyperhidrosis
Histology
Ancient Greek, the same; Homosexuality
alike; common
Latin, shoulder
Humerus
Ancient Greek, over,
above; beyond, to the
extreme
Ancient Greek, below,
under
Ancient Greek, womb
Hydrophobe
Hypertension
Hypovolemia,
Hysterectomy
29
-ia(sis)
iatr(o)-
-iatry
-ic
-icle
-ics
idioileoinfrainterintra-
the uterus
condition
Of or pertaining to medicine, or
a physican [uncommon as a
prefix; common as as suffix, see
-iatry]
Denotes a field in medicine of a
certain body component
pertaining to
small
organized knowledge, treatment
self, one's own
ileum
below
between, among
within
Ancient Greek, healer,
physician
Ancient Greek, healer,
physician
Mydriasis
Iatrochemistry
Podiatry, Psychiatry
Hepatic artery
Ovarian follicle
Greek, idios, "one's own" Idiopathic
Ileocecal valve
Infrahyoid muscles
Interarticular ligament
Intracranial
hemorrhage
irid(o)iris
Iridectomy
ischioOf or pertaining to the ischium, Ancient Greek, hip-joint, Ischiorrhogic
the hip-joint
ischium
-ism
condition, disease
Dwarfism
-ismus
spasm, contraction
isoDenoting something as being
Ancient Greek, equal
Isotonic
'equal'
-ist
one who specializes in
Pathologist
-ite
the nature of, resembling
Hermaphrodite
-itis
inflammation
Tonsillitis
-ium
structure, tissue
karyonucleus
Greek, "nut"
Eukaryote
kerat(o)cornea (eye or skin)
Keratoscope
kin(e)-, kin(o), movement
Kinesthesia
kinesi(o)kyph(o)humped
Kyphoscoliosis
labi(o)Of or pertaining to the lip
Latin (labium), lip
Labiodental
lacrim(o)tear
Lacrimal canaliculi
lact(i)-, lact(o) milk
Lactation
lapar(o)Of or pertaining to the
Ancient Greek, flank
Laparotomy
abdomen-wall, flank
laryng(o)Of or pertaining to the larynx, Ancient Greek, throat,
Larynx
the lower throat cavity where
gullet
the voice box is
laterolateral
Lateral pectoral nerve
lei(o)smooth
Leiomyoma
-lepsis, -lepsy attack, seizure
Epilepsy, nacrolepsy
30
leptolight, slender
leuc-, leuk(o)- Denoting a white color
lingu(a)-,
lingu(o)lip(o)lith(o)log(o)-logist
Of or pertaining to the tongue
Ancient Greek, white,
bright
Latin (lingua), tongue
Leukocyte
Linguistics
lymph(o)lys(o)-, -lytic
-lysis
macr(o)-malacia
mamm(o)-
fat
stone, calculus
speech
Denotes someone who studies a
certain field: -ology
Denotes the academic study or
practice of a certain field
lymph
dissolution
Destruction
large, long
softening
Of or pertaining to the breast
manumast(o)-
Of or pertaining to the hand
Of or pertaining to the breast
meg(a)-,
megal(o)-,
megaly
melan(o)-
enlargement
Denoting a black color
Ancient Greek, black;
dark
mening(o)mes(o)meta-meter
-metry
metr(o)-
Meningitis
Ancient Greek, "middle" Mesoderm
Metacarpus
Sphygmomanometer
Optometry
Ancient Greek, womb,
Metrorrhagia
uterus
Ancient Greek, small
Microscope
mon(o)-
meninges
middle
after, behind
measurement
process of measuring
Pertaining to conditions or
instruments of the uterus
denoting something as small, or
relating to smallness
single
morph(o)muscul(o)-
form, shape
muscle
my(o)-
Of or relating to muscle
-logy
micro-
Liposuction
Lithotripsy
Ancient Greek, studier,
practitioner
Ancient Greek, study
Latin (mamma), breast;
udder
Latin, hand
Ancient Greek, breast,
women's breast; man's
pectoral muscle
Ancient Greek, muscle;
mouse; mussel
Oncologist,
pathologist
hematology, urology
Lymphedema
Lysosome
Paralysis
Macrophage
Osteomalacia
Mammogram
Manufacture
Mastectomy
Melanin
Infectious
mononucleosis
Morphology
Musculoskeletal
system
Myoblast
31
myc(o)myel(o)-
fungus
Of or relating to bone marrow
myring(o)myx(o)nas(o)necr(o)neonephr(o)nerv-
eardrum
mucus
Of or pertaining to the nose
death
new
Of or pertaining to the kidney
Of or pertaining to nerves and
the nervous system
neur(i)-,
neur(o)normoocul(o)odont(o)odyn(o)-oesophageal,
oesophago(Br)
-oid
ole
olig(o)-
Of or pertaining to nerves and
the nervous system
normal
Of or pertaining to the eye
Of or pertaining to teeth
pain
gullet
resemblance to
small or little
Denoting something as 'having Ancient Greek, few
little, having few'
Of or pertaining to the shoulder Ancient Greek, shoulder
tumor
om(o)-oma
(singular),
-omata (plural)
omphal(o)Of or pertaining to the navel,
the umbilicus
oncotumor, bulk, volume
onych(o)Of or pertaining to the nail (of a
finger or toe)
ooOf or pertaining to the an egg, a
woman's egg, the ovum
oophor(o)Of or pertaining to the woman's
ovary
ophthalm(o)- Of or pertaining to the eye
optic(o)Of or relating to chemical
properties of the eye
or(o)orchi(o)-,
Onychomycosis
Ancient Greek, marrow; Myeloblast
bone-marrow
Myringotomy
Myxoma
Latin, nose
nasal
Necrotizing fasciitis
Neoplasm
Ancient Greek, kidney
Nephrology
Latin, tendon; nerve;
Nerve
Cognate with the Greek
(neuron)
Ancient Greek, tendon, Neurofibromatosis
sinew; nerve
Normocapnia
Latin (oculus), the eye
Oculist
Ancient Greek, tooth
orthodontist
Of or pertaining to the mouth
testis
Ancient Greek, navel,
belly-button
Ancient Greek, nail;
claw; talon
Ancient Greek, egg,
ovum
Ancient Greek, ovary,
egg-bearing
Ancient Greek, the eye
Middle French, Greek;
Cognate with Latin
oculus, relating to the eye
Latin, mouth
Greek
Sarcoidosis
Oligotrophy
Omoplate
Sarcoma, Teratoma
Omphalotomy
Oncology
Onychophagy
Oogenesis
Oophorectomy
Ophthalmology
Opticochemical
Oral
Orchiectomy,
32
orchidoorth(o)-
Orchidectomy
Denoting something as straight Ancient Greek, straight, Orthodontist
or correct
correct, normal
-osis
a condition, disease or increase
Harlequin type
ichthyosis
osseobony
ossibone
Peripheral ossifying
fibroma
ost(e)-, oste(o)- bone
Osteoporosis
ot(o)Of or pertaining to the ear
Ancient Greek, the ear
Otopathy
-otomy
Tracheotomy, radial
keratotomy
-ous
pertaining to
ovari(o)Of or pertaining to the ovaries Latin, ovary
Ovariectomy
ovo-, ovi-, ov- Of or pertaining to the eggs, the Latin, egg, ovum
Ovogenesis
ovum
oxoaddition of oxygen
oxysharp, acid, acute, oxygen
pachythick
pachyderma
palpebrOf or pertaining to the eyelid
Latin, eyelid
Palpebra
[uncommon as a root]
pan-, pant(o)- Denoting something as
Ancient Greek, all, every panophobia,
'complete' or containing
panopticon
'everything'
papillOf or pertaining to the nipple
Latin (papilla), nipple;
Papillitis
(of the chest/breast)
dimunitive of papula
papul(o)Indicates papulosity, a small
Latin, pimple, pustle; a Papulation
elevation or swelling in the
small elevation or
skin, a pimple, swelling
swelling in the skin
paraalongside of, abnormal
-paresis
slight paralysis
hemiparesis
path(o)disease
Pathology
-pathy
Denotes (with a negative sense) Ancient Greek, suffering, sociopathy,
a disease, or disorder
accident
neuropathy
ped-, -ped-,
Of or pertaining to the foot;
Latin, foot
Pedoscope
-pes
-footed
pelv(i)-,
hip bone
Pelvis
pelv(o)-penia
deficiency
osteopenia
peoOf or pertaining to the penis
Greek
Peotomy
-pepsia
Denotes something relating to Ancient Greek, cooked, Dyspepsia
digestion, or the digestive tract. digested, boil, cook;
digest
perthrough
33
peri-
Denoting something with a
position 'surrounding' or
'around' another
-pexy
fixation
phacolens-shaped
-phage, -phagia Forms terms denoting
conditions relating to eating or
ingestion
phagoeating, devouring
-phagist:
Forms nouns that denote a
person who 'feeds on' the first
element or part of the word
-phagy
Forms nouns that denotes
'feeding on' the first element or
part of the word
phallophallus
pharmacodrug, medication
pharyng(o)Of or pertaining to the pharynx,
the upper throat cavity
-phil(ia)
attraction for
phleb(o)Of or pertaining to the (blood)
veins, a vein
phob(o)exaggerated fear, sensitivity
phon(o)sound
phosOf or pertaining to light or its
chemical properties, now
historic and used rarely. See the
common root phot(o)- below.
phot(o)Of or pertaining to light
phren(i)-,
diaphragm
phren(o)-,
phrenico
physi
-plasia
formation, development
-plasty
surgical repair, reconstruction
-plegia
paralysis
pleur(o)-,
Of or pertaining to the ribs
pleur(a)
pneum(o)-
Of or pertaining to the lungs
pneumat(o)pod-, -pod-,
-pus
air, lung
Of or pertaining to the foot,
-footed
Ancient Greek, around
Periodontal
Cataplexy
Ancient Greek, to eat
Sarcophagia
phagocyte
Ancient Greek, eater; see Lotophagis
-phagia
Ancient Greek, eating;
see -phagia
Anthropophagy
Greek (phallos)
Aphallia
Ancient Greek, throat,
windpipe; chasm
Pharyngitis,
Pharyngoscopy
Hemophilia
Phlebography,
Phlebotomy
arachnophobia
Ancient Greek,
blood-vessel, vein
Ancient Greek, light
Phosphene
Ancient Greek, light
Photopathy
Phrenic nerve
Greek, nature or origin
physiology
Achondroplasia
rhinoplasty
paraplegia
Latin (pleura) Ancient Pleurogenous
Greek, rib, side of the
body
Ancient Greek, lung
Pneumonocyte,
pneuma, wind, spirit
Pneumonia
Ancient Greek, foot
Podiatry
34
-poiesis
poliopolypor(o)porphyr(o)postpre-
presby(o)primpro-
proct(o)prot(o)psych(e)-,
psych(o)
-ptosis
-ptysis
pulmon-,
pulmopyel(o)pyopyroquadr(i)rachi(o)radiorerect(o)ren(o)reticul(o)retrorhabd(o)rhin(o)rhod(o)-
production
Denoting a grey color
Denotes a 'plurality' of
something
pore, porous
Denotes a purple color
Denotes something as 'after' or
'behind' another
Denotes something as 'before'
another (in [physical] position
or time)
old age
Denotes something as 'first' or
'most-important'
Denotes something as 'before'
another (in [physical] position
or time)
anus, rectum
Denotes something as 'first' or
'most-important'
Of or pertaining to the mind
Ancient Greek, grey
Ancient Greek, much,
many
Ancient Greek, purple
Porphyroblast
Latin (post), after, behind Postoperation,
Postmortem
Medieval Latin (pre-)
Prematurity
(Classical) Latin (præ),
before, in front of
Presbyopia
Latin, first, most
Primary
important
Ancient Greek, before, in Procephalic
front of
proctology
Protoneuron
Ancient Greek, first;
principle, most important
Ancient Greek, breath, Psychology,
life, soul
Psychiatry
Apoptosis
falling, downward placement,
prolapse
(a spitting), spitting,
hemoptysis, the spitting of
blood derivied from the lungs or
bronchial tubes
Of or relating to the lungs.
Latin, a lung
pelvis
pus
fever
four
spine
radiation,
again, backward
rectum
Of or pertaining to the kidney
net
backward, behind
rod shaped, striated
Of or pertaining to the nose
Denoting a rose-red color
hematopoiesis
Poliomyelitis
Polymyositis
Ancient Greek (pyelos)
pulmonary
Pyelonephritis
Antipyretic
quadriceps
Latin, kidney
Renal
retroverted
Ancient Greek, nose
Ancient Greek, rose
Rhinoceros
Rhodophyte
35
-rrhage
-rrhagia
-rrhaphy
-rrhea (Am)
-rrhexis
-rrhoea (Br)
rubr(o)salping(o)sangui-,
sanguinesarcoschistoschiz(o)-
burst forth
rapid flow of blood
surgical suturing
flowing, discharge
rupture
flowing, discharge
Of or pertaining to the red
nucleus of the brain
Of or pertaining to the fallopian
tubes
Of or pertaining to blood
muscular, fleshlike
split, cleft
Denoting something 'split' or
'double-sided'
scler(o)scoli(o)-scope
-scopy
semisial(o)sigmoid(o)sinistr(o)sinus-
hardness
twisted
instrument for viewing
use of instrument for viewing
one-half, partly
saliva, salivary gland
sigmoid, sigmoid colon
left, left side
Of or pertaining to the sinus
-sis
sitosomat(o)-,
somaticospasmosperma-,
spermo-,
spermatosplanchn(i)-,
splanchn(o)splen(o)spondyl(o)-
condition of
food, grain
body, bodily
squamos(o)-stasis
-staxis
Hemorrhage
Galactorrhea
Latin (ruber), red
Diarrhoea
Rubrospinal
Ancient Greek,trumpet Salpingectomy
[literally]
Latin (sanguis, sanguin-), Sanguine
blood
sarcoma
Ancient Greek; Irregular Schizophrenia
formation of the verb, to
cut, split
artherosclerosis
scoliosis
stethoscope
endoscopy
sialadenoma
Latin (sinus), a curve,
bend, bay
Sinusitis
osteoperosis
spasm
semen, spermatozoa
viscera
spleen
Of or pertaining to the spine,
the vertebra
Denoting something as 'full of
scales' or 'scaly'
stop, stand
dripping, trickling
Greek, the spine
Spondylitis
Latin, full of scales; scaly Squama
36
sten(o)-
steth(o)-
sthenostom(a)
stomat(o)-stomy
subsupersuprasy(l)-, sym-,
syn-, sys-
tachy-tension,
-tensive
thel(e)-,
thel(o)thely-
Denoting something as 'narrow
in shape' or pertaining to
narrow-ness
Of or pertaining to the upper
chest, chest, the area above the
breast and under the neck
strength, force, power
mouth
Ancient Greek, narrow;
short
Stenography
Ancient Greek, chest,
cuirass
Stethoscope
Of or pertaining to the mouth
creation of an opening
beneath
in excess, above, superior
above, excessive
Indicates similarity, likeness, or
being together; Assimilates
before some consonants: before
l to syl-, s to sys-, before a
labial to sym-.
Denoting something as fast,
irregularly fast
blood pressure
Ancient Greek, mouth
Of or pertaining to a woman's
teat, nipple
Denoting something as 'relating
to a woman, feminine'
therm(o)heat
thorac(i)-,
Of or pertaining to the upper
thorac(o)-,
chest, chest; the area above the
thoracicobreast and under the neck
thromb(o)Of or relating to a blood clot,
clotting of blood
thyr(o)thyroid
-tic
pertaining to
tocochildbirth
-tome
cutting instrument
-tomy
cutting operation
tonotone, tension, pressure
-tony
tension
top(o)place, topical
tox(i)-, tox(o)-, toxin, poison
toxicotrache(o)trachea
Ancient Greek, with,
together
Ancient Greek, fast,
quickly
stomatognathic
system
Stomatogastric
colostomy
subcutaneous tissue
superior vena cava
supraorbital vein
Synalgia, Synesthesia,
Syssarcosis
Tachycardia
Hypertension
Ancient Greek, a teat,
nipple
Ancient Greek, female,
feminine
Thelephoroid
Latin Ancient Greek,
chest, cuirass
Thorax
Ancient Greek, lump,
piece, clot of blood
Thrombus,
Thrombocytopenia
Thelygenous
Toxoplasmosis
37
trachel(o)transtrich(i)-,
trichia,
trich(o)-tripsy
-trophy
-trophy
tympan(o)-ula, -ule
ultraumbilicunguiun(i)ur(o)-
uri(c)-, uricourinuter(o)vaginvaric(o)vas(o)vasculovenventr(o)vesic(o)viscer(o)xanth(o)-y
zo(o)zym(o)-
Of or pertaining to the neck
Ancient Greek, neck
Denoting something as moving Latin, across, through
or situated 'across' or 'through'
Of or pertaining to hair,
Ancient Greek, hair
hair-like structure
crushing
tissue,
nourishment, development
eardrum
small
beyond, excessive
Of or pertaining to the navel,
the umbilicus
Of or pertaining to the nail, a
claw
one
Of or pertaining to urine, the
urinary system; (specifically)
pertaining to the physiological
chemistry of urine
uric acid
Of or pertaining to urine, the
urinary system
Of or pertaining to the uterus or
womb
Of or pertaining to the vagina
swollen or twisted vein
duct, blood vessel
blood vessel
Of or pertaining to the (blood)
veins, a vein
Of or pertaining to the belly; the
stomach cavities
Of or pertaining to the bladder
Of or pertaining to the internal
organs, the viscera
Denoting a yellow color, an
abnormally yellow color
condition or process of
animal, animal life
fermentation, enzyme
Tracheotomy
Transfusion
Trichotomy
Muscular Dystrophy
Latin
Nodule
Latin
Latin, navel, belly-button Umbilical
Latin (unguis), nail, claw Unguiform, Ungual
Latin (unus)
Ancient Greek, urine
Urology
Latin, urine Ancient
Greek, see above.
Latin, womb, uterus
Uriniferous
Latin, sheath, scabbard
Vagina
Uterus
Latin, blood-vessel, vein Vein, Venospasm
Latin (venter), the belly,
the stomach; the womb
Latin, bladder; blister
Latin, internal organs;
plural of, internal organ
Ancient Greek, yellow
Ventrodorsal
Vesica
Viscera
Xanthopathy
Surgery
zoogenous
Zymogen
38
English Meanings
This section contains lists of different root classification (e.g. body components, quantity,
description, etc.). Each list is alphabetized by English meanings, with the corresponding Greek
and Latin roots given.
Roots of the Body
Roots of Bodily Concepts
Bodily Concept
Digestion
Disease
Eating
Greek Root
-pepsia
-pathy
-phagia
Latin Root
-
Other Root
-
Roots of body parts and components
(Internal Anatomy, External Anatomy, Body Fluids, Body Substances)
Body Part/Component
Abdomen
Aorta
Arm
Armpit
Artery
Back
big toe
Bladder
Blood
blood clot
blood vessel
Body
Bone
bone marrow, marrow
Brain
Breast
Chest
Cheek
Ear
eggs, ova
Eye
Eyelid
Face
fallopian tubes
fat, fatty tissue
Finger
Forehead
Greek Root
lapar(o)aort(o)brachi(o)arteri(o)cyst(o)haemat-, hemat- (haem-,
hem-)
thromb(o)angi(o)somat-, somoste(o)myel(o)encephal(o)mast(o)steth(o)ot(o)ooophthalm(o)blephar(o)sarping(o)lip(o)dactyl(o)-
Latin Root
abdominaort(o)axilldorsallicvesic(o)sangui-, sanguine-
Other Root
-
vascul-, vascorporossimedullcerebr(o)mamm(o)buccaurovocul(o)cili-; palpebrfaci(o)sarping(o)adipdigitfront(o)-
optic(o) [French]
39
Gallbladder
Gland
glans penis or clitoridis
genitals, sexually
undifferentiated
Gums
Hair
Hand
Head
Heart
hip, hip-joint
Horn
Intestine
Jaw
Kidney
Knee
Lip
Liver
loins, pubic region
Lungs
marrow, bone marrow
Mind
Mouth
Muscle
Nail
Navel
Neck
nerve; the nervous system
nipple, teat
Nose
Ovary
Pelvis
Penis
pupil (of the eye)
Rib
rib cage
Shoulder
Sinus
Skin
Skull
Stomach
Testis
throat (upper throat cavity)
throat (lower throat
cholecyst(o)aden(o)balan(o)phall(o)-
fell-
-
trich(o)cheir(o)-, chir(o)cephal(o)cardi(o)cerat(o)enter(o)gnath(o)nephr(o)goncheil(o)-, chil(o)hepat(o)- (hepatic-)
episi(o)pneumonmyel(o)psychstomat(o)my(o)onych(o)omphal(o)trachel(o)neur(o)thelerhin(o)oophor(o)pyel(o)pe(o)cor-, core-, coropleur(o)thorac(i)-, thorac(o)om(o)dermat(o)- (derm-)
crani(o)gastr(o)orchi(o)-, orchid(o)pharyng(o)laryng(o)-
gingivcapillmanucapit(o)cordicoxcornurengenulabi(o)jecorpudendpulmon(i)- (pulmo-)
medullmentorunguiumbiliccervicnervpapillnasovari(o)pelv(i)cost(o)humer(o)sinuscut-, cuticulventr(o)-
40
cavity/voice box)
Thumb
Tooth
Tongue
Toe
Tumour
Ureter
Urethra
urine, urinary System
uterine tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Vein
Vulva
Womb
Wrist
odont(o)gloss-, glottdactyl(o)cel-, onc(o)ureter(o)urethr(o)-, urethr(a)ur(o)sarping(o)hyster(o)-, metr(o)colp(o)phleb(o)episi(o)hyster(o)-, metr(o)carp(o)-
pollicdent(i)lingu(a)digittumureter(o)urethr(o)-, urethr(a)urin(o)sarping(o)uter(o)vaginvenvulvuter(o)carp(o)-
-
Roots of Color
Color
black
blue
gray, grey
green
purple
red
red-yellow
white
yellow
Greek Root in English
melanoCyanoPolioChlor(o)porphyr(o)Erythr(o)-, rhod(o)cirrh(o)leuc-, leukXanth(o)-
Latin Root in English
nigrvirpurpur-, purpureorub-, rubralbflav-
Other Root
jaun - [French]
Roots of Description [Size, Shape, Strength, etc.]
Description
bad, incorrect
bent, crooked
Big
Biggest
broad, wide
Cold
Dead
Equal
False
female, feminine
Flat
good, well
Great
Greek Root in English
cac(o)-, dysankyl(o)mega-, megal(o)megisteurycry(o)necr(o)is(o)pseud(o)thelyplatyeumega-, megal(o)-
Latin Root in English
mal(e)prav(i)magn(i)maximlat(i)frigmortequ(i)fals(i)plan(i)ben(e)-, bon(i)magn(i)-
Other Root
41
Hard
Heavy
Hollow
Huge
incorrect, bad
large; extremely large
Largest
Long
male, masculine
Narrow
New
normal, correct; straight
Old
Sharp
Short
Small
Smallest
Slow
Fast
Soft
straight, normal, correct
Thick
varied, various
well, good
wide, broad
scler(o)bar(o)coel(o)megal(o)cac(o)-, dysmegamegistmacr(o)arsenosten(o)neoorth(o)paleooxybrachymicr(o)bradytachymalac(o)orth(o)pachypoikiloeueury-
dur(i)grav(i)cavmagn(i)mal(e)magn(i)maximlong(i)virangust(i)nov(i)rectveteracbrev(i)parv(i)- (rare)
minimtard(i)celermoll(i)rect(i)crass(i)variben(e)lat(i)-
-
Greek Root in English
perimes(o)dexi(o)peri-
Latin Root in English
circumsinistrmedidextr(o)circum-
Other Root
Roots of Position
Description
Around
Left
Middle
Right
Surrounding
-
Roots of quantity (Amount, Quantity)
Description
Double
Equal
Few
Half
many, much
Twice
Greek Root in English
diploisooligohemipolydis-
Latin Root in English
dupliequipaucisemimultibis-
Other Root
demi- (French)
-
42