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Unit I
Abbasids: Rise and Socio-economic Structure
Umayyad State on The Eve of Abbasid Revolution:The Rule started in 661 A.D .when Hazrat Hassan (r.a)
abdicated in favour of Muawiyah bin Abu Sufyan, then through their 14
caliphs, Umayyad ruled for 90 years (661-750) A.D, very shortly violent
revolts broke out against him at Palestine and Hims. Continual struggle
between the Mudarites and Himayarites had weakened the strength of
the empire instead of putting down the quarrel, the khalifahs plotted
against the other and in this way they kept the struggle between the
two classes constantly active, the result was the division of the Muslims
into two hostile camps. The unequal treatment of the Arabs was
prevalent. The Islamic empire was broad- based by the prophet on
equality and fraternity but the very idea of equality was abandoned in
later days of the Umayyad rule. Non- Arabian Moslems in general and
Persian Moslems in particular had good reason for dissatisfaction. Far
from being granted the expected economic and social equality with
Arabian Moslems, they were instead generally reduced to the position
of clients and where not always exempted from the capitation tax paid
by the non Moslems. What made the more discontented was the
consciousness that they represented a higher and more ancient
culture, a fact acknowledged even by the Arabians themselves. Adding
to the worst, the common man had not forgotten the tragedy of
Karbala. The dissentient shi’ite who never agreed with the rule of the
Umayyad usurpers and never forgave them the wrong they
perpetrated against Ali and Al-Husayn had become more active than
ever. After the Abbasid revolution the shi’ites considered themselves
avenged. The clients became emancipated. Al-Kufah on the border of
Persia was made the new capital. Khurasanians formed caliphal
bodyguard and Persian occupied the chief posts in the govt. The
original Arabian aristocracy was replaced by a hierarcy of officers
drawn from the whole gamut of nationalities under the caliphate. The
old Arabian moslems and the new foreign converts where beginning to
coalesce and shade of each other.
THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ABBASID DYNASTY:Abu Mansur Al- Saffah became the founder of the most celebrated and
longest- lived Arab dynasty in Islam, the third, after the orthodox
(rashidun) and the Umayyad. From 750-1258 the successors of Abu AlAbbas reigned, though they did not always rule.
As-Saffah’s:- brother and successor, Abu jaffar (754-75) who
now assumed the honorific title Al-Mansur (rendered victorious by God)
proved one of the greatest, though most unscrupulous, of the
Abbasids. He, rather than Al Saffah was the one who firmly established
the new dynasty. All the thirty five caliphs who succeeded where his
lineal descendants. His uncle Abdullah the hero of zab and under AlSafah the governor of Syria, now disputed the Caliphate with his
nephew, but was defeated (November 754) by Abu Muslim at Nasabin
(Nisibis). Immediately after the Victoria nasabin the term of Abu
Muslim the man who raised the Abbas house and ruined Umayyad
dynasty himself came on his way back to his province, Khurasan, which
he ruled almost independently, Abu Muslim was induced to turn aside
from his march and visit the Caliphal court. The Khurasani leader, to
whose sword after that of Abdullah the Abbasids owed their throne
was attacked while having audience with the caliph and treacherously
put to death.
A curious new sect of Persian extremists, the Rawandiyah, who
tried to identify the Caliph with God, where mercilessly put down (758)
by Mansur. The revolt of the disgruntled Shi’ah, headed by Ibrahim
and by his brother Muhammad, sir named Al- Nafs Al-Zakiyah (the
pure soul), the great grandson of Al- Hassan was ruthlessly crushed.
Muhammad was killed and gibbeted (December 6,762) in Al- Madina.
Ibrahim was decapitated (February 14,763) near the unruly Kufa and
his head dispatched to the Caliph. In Khurasan the insurrection of
Sunbad (Sinbad) the magain (755), who came out as the avenger of
Abu Muslim, and that of ustadhsis (767-8), where quenched. Persia
where strong national sentiments were interwoven with ancient
Zoroastrian and mazdakin religious ideas, was at least temporarily
pacified. Thus was the greater part of the Islamic empire once more
consolidated with the exception of north Africa, where the caliph’s
authority did not extend much beyond Al- qayrawan, and of spain
where the Abbasid caliph found in the Umayyad Abd- Al- Rahman
(whose mother, like Al-Mansur’s, was a berber slave) more than his
match in 762 Al- Mansur, who had his residence at Al- Hashimiyah
between Al- Kufah and Al- Hirah, laid the foundation stone of his
capital, Bagdad, in the construction of his city, completed in four years,
Al- Mansur spent some 4883000 dirhams and employed about a
hundred thousand architects, crafts man and labourers drawn from
Syria Mesopotamia and other parts of empire Madinat Al- Salam (city
of peace) which was the official name given by Al- Mansur to his city,
lay on the west bank of Tigris in the same valley which had furnished
sited for some of the mightiest capitals of the ancient world. In a few
years the town grew into an emporium of trade and commerce and a
political centre of the greatest international importance. Al- Mansur
was the first to adopt the characteristics Persian head gear in which he
was naturally followed by his subjects. Persian influence softened the
rough edges of the primitive Arabian life and paved the way for a new
era distinguished by the cultivation of science and scholarly pursuits.
THE GOLDEN AGE OF THE ABBASIDS: (AL-HARUN AND ALMAMUN).
Harun al- Rashid (786-809 C.E.)
Under Harun al-Rashid , the Abbasid state reached the pinnacle of glory. The
country became prosperous, and the court came to be marked by a lavish style
of living where everything was plastered with gold. Baghdad at the time of
Harun al-Rashid was the greatest commercial centre, the greatest seat of
learning and culture in the world. Harun al-Rashid lived in history as a brilliant
and enlightened ruler. On 23rd March 809 C.E. Harun al-Rashid breathed his
last. The golden achievements under the rule of Harun al-Rashid include:
1) Annexation of Kabul: In the early years of the rule of Harun, Kabul was
annexed , and the frontiers of the Muslim empire were pushed to the
Hindu Kush.
2) Campaign against the Khazars: In 799 C.E. , the Khazars from across
the Caucasus overran Azarbaijan and Armenia. They ravaged the country
and enslaved many Muslims. Harun sent an army against the Khazars and
they were successfully dealt with.
3) North Africa: When Harun came to power the situation in North Africa
was very tense. It had a low and deficit budget. Harun appointed Ibrahim
bin Aghlab in North Africa to restore law and order, and to pay a fixed
amount to the Imperial treasury every year.
4) Campaigns against the Byzantines: In the reign of Mahdi , the
Byzantine empress had made peace with the Abbasids on payment of
annual tribute. In 804 C.E , Nicephorus, next Byzantine emperor
demanded the refund of entire amount from the Abbasid Dynasty. This
breach of treaty resulted in battle between the two and eventually the
Byzantines were defeated.
5) Naval Expeditions: In the naval expeditions undertaken as a part of
Byzantine campaign, Harun-al-Rashid recaptured the islands of Cyprus
and Rhodes.
6) Peace and Prosperity: Much of the empire was peaceful most of the
time. This led to a great development of industry (textiles, metal goods ,
paper , etc.) and to an expansion of trade. The resulting prosperity led to
the accumulation of wealth in the hands of the Caliphs.
AL-MAMUN (813-833 C.E.)
Al-Mamun is rated as an exemplary ruler among the rulers of the Abbasids. His
reign is generally called the Augustan age of Islam.
Following achievements are credited to Mamun al-Rashid’s period of
governance:
1) He promoted the study of various arts, philosophy and sciences. For the
promotion of knowledge he established libraries, observatories and other
institutions. The most applauded work of Mamun-al-Rashid is the
establishment of Bait-ul-Hikmah (the house of wisdom) in Baghdad
which was the most important institution of learning in the medieval
period wherein great works of that age were translated and all the sources
of knowledge of that time were explored. Darul Hikmah became an
important centre of translation for Greek and other ancient texts into
Arabic.
2) Ali bin Ubaida al Raihani patronised ( appointed and supported) by
Mamun invented a new style of Calligraphy which came to be known as
the Raihani script.
3) Under Caliph Mamun the study of Astronomy was stipulated. An
astronomical laboratory was attached to Darul Hikmah. Astronomical
observatories were erected at Damascus and Nishapur as well. At these
observatories astronomers made systematic observation of celestial
movements. And with the help of these observations , astronomical tables
known as “Tables of Mamun” were compiled.
4) During his time alchemy (Chemistry) greatly developed and the pioneers
of the science were Jabir bin Hayyan and his student Yusuf Lakwa.
5) Revolt of Mesopotamia: In an attempt to overthrow Abbasid dynasty
and restore Umayyads many rebel camps were organized by the Arabs
which was finally put to halt by Mamun. They also fought with the Alids
uprising and Abbasids finally restored their rule.
6) Byzantine Campaign: Mamun built a strong military cantonment and
from there undertook campaigns against the Byzantines every summer
between 829 to 833 C.E. In one such Campaign Mamun suffered from
malignant (very serious) fever as a result of which he died.
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Unit II
Abbasids: Rise and Socio-economic Structure
Abbasid Administration
The Abbasids are among the longest lived dynasties of history. Their rule lasted for
over five hundred years from 750 to 1258 C.E. The early Islamic empire fell to Abbasid control
with the over throw and decimation of the Umayyad house in 750 C.E. The “Abbasid
revolution” followed an extended period of clandestine organization centred in the eastern
province of Khurasan.
Factors contributing to the collapse of the Umayyads included the deleterious effects of
several rounds of civil war; divisions within the Syrian-based armed forces; persistent
problems of legitimacy fuelled by charges of fiscal corruption and impious conduct on the part
of the Khalifahs and their kin; serious military setbacks along the frontiers of North Africa,
Armenia, and Central Asia; and a fierce ideological challenge posed by leading Alids and their
Shiite partisans that gave rise to repeated uprisings, particularly late in the Umayyad period.
Abbasid success against the Umayyads was due in part to support emanating from
Shiite quarters as well as, it appears, the broader populace of mawali (non-Arab Muslim
“clients”). The leadership of Abbasid partisans, key among them Abu Muslim (d. 775), and the
strength of the Khurasan-based forces under his command, tipped the balance in favour of the
Abbasid movement.
Like the Umayyads the Abbasids also presides over a state which was hereditary
monarchy. The Abbasids too followed a lavish way of living. They lived in splendid palaces. In
the time of Harun and Mamun everything in Baghdad came to be plastered with gold.
Central
The reigns of the first two Abbasid Khalifahs, Abu ’l-Abbas al-Saffah (r. 750–754) and
al-Mansur (r. 754–775), began with a period of consolidation that led to the elimination of
Abu Muslim among other leaders of the revolutionary movement. A period of sustained
prosperity, if continued political unrest, ensued. Al-Mansur established Baghdad in the 760s
and is properly viewed as the real founder of the dynasty. The revolution ushering in the
Abbasid dynasty (750–945) was based in part on religious resistance to the adoption of
“foreign” political practices, but such practices nevertheless continued. The Abbasids were
famed for their pomp and splendour, based on the wealth of Iraq, which they made their
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capital region. They presided over the development of Islamic law and court systems, co-
opting the ulema into the bureaucracy and imposing upon them responsibilities for urban
administration and taxation, despite the ulema’s own misgivings about serving secular rulers.
Imperial organization, court protocol, and standardized taxation were justified in
Islamic terms with quotations from the Quran and from the Muslim tradition as embodied in
the Kitab al-kharaj (Book of taxation) of Abu Yusuf (d. 798). Conversion and settlement
altered the early system, in which conquered non-Muslims paid taxes to the ruling Arab
Muslims.
A second governmental element, the scribes, were organized in bureaus (also called
diwans) headed by the wazir (prime minister). The scribes were often non-Arab and were
influenced by non-Muslim culture. Pre-Islamic political thought provided models for imperial
governance, and provincial scribes employed pre- Islamic forms of taxation and reporting.
As more people converted to Islam, political distinctions between Arab and non-Arab
Muslims were eliminated. All Muslims, regardless of origin, paid tithe (ushr) unless they
acquired ‘non-Muslims’ lands. In that case, they paid the non-Muslims’ higher land tax
(kharaj). Jizya, initially a communal tribute, became a poll tax paid by military-age nonMuslim males in lieu of service.
Ulema served the empire in their capacity as judges, market inspectors, and the like;
their role in imperial administration was crucial. However, they were loath to provide yet
further backing to the Khalifahate. The trajectory to socio-religious prominence of the
scholars occurred as the fortunes of the Abbasid state sharply declined.
Judiciary
A scribal culture of encyclopaedic knowledge and cosmopolitan politesse developed at
court, conveyed in the literature of adab, which blended Islamic and non-Islamic influences.
Non-Muslim groups retained their communal structure and personal law
(administered by the clergy) but used Islamic courts for state-related purposes, although their
testimony was supposedly invalid. Islamic law (sharia) in its various schools (madhhab)
systematized the interpretation of Quran and sunna and was administered in Islamic courts
under Muslim judges (qadis). Royal courts (mazalim), administered by the ruler, adjudicated
problems outside Islamic law, such as treason and governmental corruption, carrying on an
ancient tradition of justice based on custom and rulers’ edicts (urf).
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In the early Abbasid era Arabic poetry consolidated its courtly functions. Most poets
were in one way or another attached to the court, the highest-ranking poets being
companions of the Khalifahs themselves.
The dispensing of justice, always considered in Muslim communities a religious duty,
was entrusted by the Abbasid Khalifah or his vizir to a member of the fiqih (theologian) class,
who thus became a Qadi, or if in Baghdad a qadi al-qudah (chief judge). The judge according to
the theory of Muslim law, had to be male, adult, in full possession of his mental faculties, a free
citizen, Muslim in faith, irreproachable in character, sound of sight and hearing and well
versed in the prescriptions of law, all of which was of course canon law.
The court establishment consumed a greater part of the revenues. There was Majlis i
Shura but it was not representative. It generally consisted of the members of the royal family
and such other notables who were loyal to the Abbasids. The Abbasids maintained
magnificent court. The court staff consisted of the royal princes, the palace staff, the guards,
private secretaries, Quran readers, story tellers, artisans, personal attendants, physicians,
cooks, and others. The court establishment cost large sums.
Military
The third administrative element was the military. Military commanders held
provincial governorships and ministerial posts, while their subordinates governed local areas.
In the Abbasid period the Arab military force united by religious and tribal ties was
replaced by a standing army of Khurasanian troops and a Khalifahal bodyguard of slave
(mamluk, ghulam) soldiers, mainly of Turkish origin. At the same time, taxation became
politicized, that is, the right to collect certain taxes became a political reward. This system,
called iqta_ (“division,” apportionment of revenues), was soon used to reward the military
forces, allowing the new military groups access to money and land and creating a new
aristocracy (not quite feudal, as the new “aristocrats” had no responsibility for the lands or
people from which their revenues came). Iqta holders lived in the cities, patronizing culture
and religion. They collected revenue in the countryside but left peasant producers to their
own devices, widening the gap between urban and rural cultures
To defend its borders and assure political calm, the Abbasids, like the Umayyads, relied
upon a semi-professional army largely supplied and paid by the state. The mainstay of the
earliest Abbasid armies was the Khurasani troops that had fought to bring the dynasty to
power. A number of these regiments were settled in Baghdad by al-Mansur and his
successors, and naturally viewed themselves as integral to the fortunes of the new state.
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Under the early Abbasids the strength of the army rose further. When the Khalifah
Harun ur Rashid marched against the Byzantine emperor Nicephorus the number of paid
soldiers under his command was 1,35,900 besides a large number of volunteers. In 917 C.E. at
a parade held in Baghdad in the time of the Khalifah Al Muqtadir 1,60,000 cavalry and
footmen participated. Under the Abbasids, the complexion of the army underwent a change.
The Arabs gradually lost their predominance and the Turks came to dominate the army.
Under Al Mansur the army was divided into three divisions, the North Arabian division
(Mudar), the South Arabian division (Al Yaman) and the Khurasanian division. Al Mutasim
added two more Divisions, one consisting of the Turks and the other that of Africans. Under
the Abbasids the average pay of a foot soldier rose to 1,000 dirham per annum besides the
usual rations, allowances and share in the booty.
Al Mansur built Baghdad as a strong fortified military station. He built a strong citadel
near ar Raqqahin in Jezira. He also strengthened the defences of Kufa and Basra. The Abbasids
fortified all the frontier towns and set up Muslim colonies there. Harun ur Rashid created a
special province of the border towns of Asia Minor and called it Awasim. The garrisons of
these outputs received higher salaries and allowances. The Abbasids set up an effective
espionage system which kept them informed of the movements of the enemy. The army under
the Abbasids consisted of the infantry, the cavalry, the archers, the naphtha firemen, the hole
makers and the labour corps. The infantry was equipped with lances, bows and arrows,
javelins, swords and battle axes. The cavalry used lances, bows arrows and swords. Under the
Abbasids new kinds of bows were developed which could through several arrows at the same
time. Cross bows and hand-bows were used to shoot large and heavier arrows. The naphtha
firemen could shoot with fireballs. They wore fireproof armour. They were armed with picks
and drills. Each army had a labour cops. They carried spades, axes and other tools in addition
to swords and shields. Under the Abbasids in addition to the camels, horses, mules, and oxen,
river boats and gondolas were employed for the purposes of transport. Campaigns were
carefully planned, and arrangements were made for the quickest transport of men and
material. With every army there were a large number of merchants and contractors who were
responsible for supplies.
Society
The primitive tribal system, the basic pattern of Arabian social organization, entirely
broke down under the Abbasids, who owed their throne to foreign elements. Even the
Khalifahs in such matters as the choice of wives and mothers for their children set no value on
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Arabian blood. Among the Abbasids only three Khalifahs were sons of free mothers, others
were sons of foreign female slaves. Al Amin enjoyed unique distinction of having both parents
from the Prophet’s (SAW) family.
The Khalifah commanded the highest respect of the people. Women enjoyed the same
position in the society as their Umayyad sisters. But towards the end of the tenth century, the
system of strict seclusion and absolute separation from the male sexes had become general.
The slave system was in vogue under the Abbasids. Every rich man had a slave or a number of
slaves attached to his household. The slaves were recruited from non-Muslim people captured
by force, or taken prisoner in times of war or purchased in times of peace.
Marriage has been regarded almost universally in Islam as a positive duty, the neglect
of which is subject to severe reproach, and the gift of children, especially if sons, a boon from
God. A wife’s first duty consisted in the service of her husband, the care of the children and the
management of household affairs; any spare time would be occupied with spinning and
weaving. The fashionable head-dress for women, introduced by Ulayyah, half-sister of alRashid, was evidently a dome-shaped cap, round the bottom of which was a circlet that could
be adorned with jewels. Among other objects of feminine adornment were anklets and
bracelets. Men’s clothing has varied but little since those days. The dress of the aristocratic
class was modelled after that of the rulers.
Education
During the Abbasid period education or learning reached the climax of its
development. The Khalifahs were the distinguished patrons of learning and learned. Urban
patronage and the demands created by steady conversion to Islam throughout the empire
explain the formation of a community of sophisticated and increasingly self-confident
religious scholars (ulema). Their efforts yielded seminal contributions to Quranic exegesis,
hadith scholarship, and Islamic law. In the Sunni regions, four major schools of legal
interpretation emerged: the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali. The work of the great exegete
and historian Abu Jafar al-Tabari (d. 923) exemplifies both the remarkable scholarly
achievements of the ulema and their ambivalent stance vis-à-vis the Khalifahal state.
Under the Abbasids the education system was further enlarged and elaborated. The
educational institutions were graded and comprised elementary schools, schools for senior
students, and institutions for advanced students. The formal education of children usually
began at the age of six when they were admitted to elementary schools. The elementary
schools were generally attached to mosques. At the elementary stage bays and girls read
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together. The curricula for elementary schools included reading, writing, grammar, traditions
and arithmetic. After completing education in the mosque school, a student could seek
admission to an educational institution meant for senior students. The syllabus of studies at
such institutions included theology, jurisprudence, lexicography, rhetoric and literature. In
the institutions for advanced studies the curricula included astronomy, geometry, philosophy,
music, medicine, and other studies. The Abbasid Khalifah, Mammun, set up an academy
known as Bait ul Hikma which served as an institution of higher learning.
Under the Seljuks, Minister Nizam-ul-Mulk set up a University at Baghdad known as
Nizamiyah. It was a residential institution. Scholars like Imam Ghazali taught at this
University. Later the Abbasid Khalifah Mustansir set up another University at Baghdad known
as the Mustansiriyah. Numerous Colleges were set up in various parts of the country. Some of
the colleges in Khurasan and Persia were: Sadiyya, Bahaqiyya, Astrabadiyya and Isfaranayya.
Some of the colleges in Syria were: Rishyya, Amaniyya, Tarkhaniyya and Sharifiyya. Some
colleges in Egypt were: Rambiyya, Nasariyya and Salahiyya.
Art & Architecture
The AbbasidKhalifahs were the great patrons of art and architecture. They paid their
attention towards its development. Taking their lead from the Umayyads, the early Abbasids
worked quickly to fashion a highly centralized state. Like their predecessors, the Abbasids
drew inspiration from Sassanian, Byzantine, and more deeply rooted patterns of Near Eastern
imperial statecraft. The first Abbasids thus devoted themselves to massive building programs.
In Baghdad, Samarra, and elsewhere, extensive palace complexes emerged alongside
congregational mosques, extensive markets, and an impressive infrastructure of roads, canals,
way-stations, and the like.
The Abbasid founded the city of Baghdad. It was a circular city enclosed by parallel
walls. In the centre of the city stood the palace of the Khalifah. The great mosque of Baghdad
was attached to the palace. To build the city of Baghdad over one lakh craftsmen and
labourers were employed for a period of four years. Baghdad of the Abbasids was destroyed
by the Mongols, and the present city of Baghdad is built on the ruins of the old city.
In the ninth century the Abbasids built the town of Samarra further upstream the
Tigris. Many palaces and mosques were built there. The “Jaswaq ul Khaqani” palace built by Al
Mustasim was the most famous palace. The great mosque of Samarra built by the Khalifah Al
Mustawakkil was a spacious mosque where one lakh devotees could pray at a time.
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At Raqqa on the Euphates some pleasure houses and palaces were constructed by the
Abbasids. Raqqa was the favourite residence of the Khalifah Harun-ur-Rashid.Khalifah Al
Mutawakkil built another town, Jafaria, further north of Samarra. Here two mosques were
constructed, the royal mosque and the mosque of Abu Dulaf.In the tenth century Adud-udDaula the Buwayhid Sultan constructed a hospital complex on the banks of Tigris.
Ibn Tulun, who was the Governor of Egypt during the Abbasid period, built a new city
of Egypt north of Fustat. Here he built a congregational mosque known as Ibn-i-Tulun
mosque.The Abbasids Khalifah Mansur set upon the dome of his palace the figure of a
horseman. The Khalifah Al Amin had his pleasure boat fashioned like lions, eagles, and
dolphins. The Khalifah Mutawakkil employed Byzantine painters for the mural decoration of
his palace. These frescoes represented court scenes.
During the ninth century Ali b Ubaida al Rihani patronised by the Khalifah Al Mamun
was the principal calligraphist. He invented a new style of Calligraphy which came to be
known as the Raihani script. During the tenth century Ibn Muqlah was the most famous
calligraphist. His right hand was cut off under the orders of the Khalifah Al Razi, but yet he
could write elegantly with the left hand. Ibn al Bawwab called Ibn al Sitri was the most well-
known calligraphist of the eleventh century. He invented the “Muhaqqiq” script which was an
improvement on the Raihani script. He established a school of Calligraphy at Baghdad. Yaqut
al Mustasimi was the court calligrapher under Mustasim the last Abbasid Khalifah. He
invented a new style which came to be known as the Yaquti. During the Abbasid period
mosques came to be embellished with verses from the Holy Quran. Rules were framed for the
length, breadth and curves of letters.
During the Abbasid period, Chinese white porcelain was produced. In ceramics the
artists of the period invented lustre painting, a method of applying a metallic sheen to glazed
faience to splendid effect. Besides lustre painting, the potters of the period produced ceramics
with the cobalt blue painting on a creamy white ground.
Industry & Agriculture
Industry was greatly developed under the Abbasids. Cottage industry flourished in
different parts of the empire. The considerable wealth of the early Abbasid Empire drew
predictably on agricultural production and commerce. Al- Mansur’s decision to build a new
capital beside the two major Iraqi rivers and in the midst of the extensively farmed areas of
central and southern Iraq, had much to do with assuring control over both sources of income.
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To assure a reliable flow of money and goods, the early Abbasids continued late Umayyad
efforts to systematize tax collection.
Carpet-weaving, as old as Pharaonic Egypt, was especially developed. Hunting and
garden scenes were favoured in rug designs, and alum was used in the dye to render the many
colours fast. Decorated silk fabrics, the product of Muslim hand-looms in Egypt and Syria,
were so highly prized in Europe that they were chosen by Crusaders and other Westerners,
above all textiles, as wrappings for relics of saints.
Agriculture received great impetus under the early Abbasids because their capital itself
lay in a most favoured spot, the alluvial plain commonly known under the name of al-Sawad;
because they realised that farming was the chief source of the state income.They increased
the fertility of the soil by proper irrigation and improved the status of the native inhabitants
on whom the tilling of the land wholly depended.Deserted farms and ruined villages in
different parts of the empire were gradually rehabilitated and restored. The staple crop of alIraq consisted of barley and wheat, rice, dates, sesame, cotton and flax. Nuts, oranges, eggplants, sugar-cane, lupines and such flowers as roses and violets were produced in abundance.
Intellectual and Cultural Contribution
Abbasid period witnessed the most momentous intellectual awakening in the history
of Islam and one of the most significant in the whole history of thought and culture. The
awakening was due in a large measure to foreign influences, partly Indo-Persian and Syrian
but mainly Hellenic, and was marked by translations into Arabic from Persian, Sanskrit, Syriac
and Greek. Al-Mamun opened a translation department for the preservation of foreign science
and culture. Harun- ar-Rashid completed the work of his predecessor. He appointed learned
translators of all nationalities and creeds. Books and extant materials were collected by
Mamun from all countries.
India acted as an early source of inspiration, especially in wisdom, literature and
mathematics. About (771) an Indian traveller introduced into Baghdad a treatise on
astronomy, a Siddhanta, which by order of al-Mansur was translated by Muhammad ibn-
Ibrahim al-Fazari (between 797 and 806), who subsequently became the first astronomer in
Islam. This same Indian traveller had also brought a treatise on mathematics by means of
which the numerals called in Europe Arabic and by the Arabs Indian (Hindi) entered the
Muslim world. Later, in the ninth century, the Indians made another important contribution to
Arabic mathematical science, the decimal system.
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In medicine,philosophy, alchemy, astronomy, mathematics, chemistry, geography, law
and theology the contribution of the Muslims were no doubt great and impressive. The
translated works together with many contributions were sent to Europe through Syria, Spain
and Sicily. The researches of Aristotle, Galen and Ptolemy would have been lost to the world, if
the Muslims had not kept them preserved by translation. The AbbasidKhalifahs nurtured a
galaxy of brilliant scientists and scholars. The most notable of them were Ali al-Tabari, Al Razi,
ibn Sina, Ibn Rushd, Al- Khawarizmi, Jabir bin Hayan and many more others.
With the intellectual awakening the culture got tremendously changed.A revival of
Near Eastern urban culture, rooted in Umayyad history, was a hallmark of the Abbasid period.
The early Arab garrison centres, among them Basra, Kufa, Fustat, and Qayrawan, were now
functioning towns while, under Umayyad and then Abbasid rule, Damascus and other preIslamic centres witnessed rapid population growth and cultural development. Constructed
expressly as an imperial centre, and occupied probably by the late 760s, Baghdad quickly
emerged, however, as the nexus of early Islamic culture and scholarship. (Samarra, the
imperial administrative seat for much of the ninth century, never replaced Baghdad in this
sense). Much of this activity was directly tied to the patronage of the imperial state and
networks of elite urban families.
Under the Abbasids, musical activities were promoted and patronised. The Abbasid
Khalifah Mahdi patronised Abdullah b Wahb commonly known as “Siyat”. During the ninth
century some of the Abbasid Khalifah were themselves good musicians. The tenth century
produced some important books on music. Ibn Sina dealt with the healing properties of music.
He made a great contribution to the therapeutic value of music. During twelfth century, the
Sufis develop music as an aid to spiritual illumination. Sai-ud-Din Abdul Mumin wrote “Book
of Musical Modes”, in which he expounded the theories of music.
Under the Khalifahate indoor games became popular. Al-Rashid is credited with being
the first to have played and encouraged chess. Hunting was the favourite outdoor pastime of
Khalifahs and princes. Al-Amin was particularly fond of hunting lions and a brother of his met
his death pursuing wild boars. Both Abu-Muslim al-Khurasani and al-Mutasim were fond of
hunting with the cheetah.
************
Unit III
ISLAM IN SPAIN
Political and Cultural Developments
 Socio-Political Conditions of Spain on the eve of Muslim Rule
 Establishment of Muslim Rule in Spain
 Main Contribution of Umayyad Amirs: ‘Abd al-Rahman-I, Al-Hakam-I, ‘Abd alRahman-III, and Al-Hakam-II
 Decline and Downfall of Muslim Rule in Spain
ISLAM IN SPAIN
Introduction: During the reign of the Ummayad Caliph Al-Walid (r. 705-715), compaigns were
carried out in far-flung areas like India, North Africa, and Spain. It was during 711-12 CE that Tariq
bin Ziyad, a lietenant of Musa bin Nusayr (Governor of North Africa), landed in Spain. Spain, at that
time, was ruled by the Gothic king Roderick, who was defeated by Tariq. It was thus under the
collective military leadership of Tariq and Musa that the Muslims established their rule in Spain,
during the caliphate of Walid. Many cities of Spain, like Toledo, Barcelona, Saragossa, Taragonna,
Sidonia, Granada, Cordova, etc. came under the control of Muslims, and they divided Spain into four
large Provinces: Andalusia, Central Spain, Galicia and Lusitania, and fourth extended from Douro to
Pyreenes (sea). Spain remained under the control of Ummayad governors until their fall in 750 CE,
and later it came under the control of Ummayad Amir Abdur Rahman-I in 756, as an independent
kingdom,rumning parallel to the Abbasids (r. 750-1258) who succeeded Ummayads and shifted their
capital from Damascus to Baghdad.
From 711-12 to 750 CE, Spain (known as Andalusia) was a part of Ummayads, who had their
capital at Damascus. After the fall of Umayyads in 749-50, Abbasdis came to power in 750, with Abu
Abbass As-Saffah as their fisrt caliph and al-Masnur as the ‘real founder’ of Abbasid dynasty. They
shifted their capital to a new city known as Baghdad. Their rule lasted from 750 untill ‘fall of
Baghdad’ in 1258 CE. Spain was a part of their caliphate up to 756, when Abd al-Rahman, a grandson
of Hisham, of Ummayad dynasty, took control of Spain, and established his rule there, which is
known as the ‘ Spanish Ummayyad Dynasty' (or Ummayad rule in Spain). Abd al-Rahman and his
successors ruled Spain up to 1031, and was followed by a period of disintegration and fragmentation,
known in the history as Muluk al-Tawa’if (petty/party kings): the period of numerous principalities,
ruling small parts of Spain, like Almoravids and Almohads. It was this period of fragmentation, which
later paved the way for the disintegration and downfall of the Muslim rule in Spain. Formal Muslim
rule over the Iberian Peninsula ended in 1492 with the conquest of Granada by the Christian rulers
Isabelle and Ferdinand. Some of the prominent Umayyad Rulers/ Amirs, who have a made great
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contribution in politics, administration, construction, and in arts and literature are ‘Abd al-Rahman-I,
II, and III, and Al-Hakam-I and II.
In this context, studying “Islam in Spain” covers the period from 711-12 to 1492 CE under
these headigs: ‘Socio-Political Conditions of Spain on the eve of Muslim Rule’, and ‘Establishment of
Muslim Rule in Spain’ (which includes the period from 711 to 756 CE). ‘Main Contribution of
Umayyad Amirs’, like ‘Abd al-Rahman-I and III and Al-Hakam-I and II including the political,
administrative, cultural, and intellectual developments taking place during the respective reigns of
these rulers/ amirs of Spain. This section also includes/ covers the following headings/ topics: ‘Main
Features of Hispano-Arab Society’; ‘Intellectual and Cultural Development in Muslim Spain’;
Contribution in Science (like Astronomy, Maths, and Botany) and Medicine, History, Geography, and
Philosophy, and Art and Architecture. The topic, ‘Decline and Downfall of Muslim Rule in Spain’
includes the period from the death of last great ruler of ummayad Amir al-Hakam-II (r. 961-976) in
specific and the period from 1031 to 1492: the period of petty states till the end of Muslim Rule in
Spain.
Syed Ameer Ali, in his A Short History of the Saracens, is of the opinion that “The conquest
of Spain by the Saracens (Muslims) opened a new era for the Peninsula”. It produced "an important
social revolution"; swept away the "cruel rights and powers of the priviledged classes, like clergy and
nobility"; "removed the heavy burdens that had crushed industry"; and it "introduced a just, equable,
and balanced system of taxation".. P. K. Hitti, in his History of the Arabs, states: “Muslim Spain
wrote one of the brightest chapters in the intellectual history of medieval Europe. Between the middle
of eighth and beginning of thirteenth centuries [750-1200s] the Arabic speaking peoples were the
main bearers of the torch of culture and civilization throughout the world”.
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, in his Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization, provides the
description of the accomplishments of Muslim rule inSpain in these lines: In 756 CE, Abd al-Rahman
established in Spain (al-Andalus) “the Spanish Umayyad dynasty” with its capital in Cordova, “which
soon became the largest and most cosmopolitan city in Europe". During their rule "Spain witnessed
incredible cultural achievements in nearly every field and the creation of a social climate in which
Muslims, Jews, and Christians lived in peace and harmony to a degree rarely seen in human history.
Muslim Spain was the locus of not only a flowering of Islamic culture, but also of one of the major
flowerings of Jewish culture; the close relationship between the two cultures at the time can be seen in
the num-ber of works written by Jewish thinkers, one of the most famous of whom was Maimonides,
in Arabic. Spain also became the most important center from which Islamic learning in the sciences,
philosophy, and the arts were transmitted to the Christian West and had such a profound effect on
later European history. The city of Toledo played a particularly prominent role in this transmission”.
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Socio Political Condition of Spain on the eve of Muslim Rule
Spain or Iberian Peninsula (which presently includes Spain and Portugal) has a very old
history. The people who first settled in Spain were Iberians, who had come from North Africa. In the
beginning of the fifth century era, three German tribes—Suevi, Alans, and Vandals—attacked Spain
and captured many areas. The tribe Vandals settled on the fertile valley of the river Bacticer, which
later came to be known as Vandalusia, the land of Vandals. When Muslims conquered Spain, it was
named as Al-Andalus.
The Visigothic state was divided on race and ethnicity basis; was politically disordered and
disorganized, and was economically unbalanced and unstable. These Goths (People of the Woods)
entered into the Peninsula in the early sixth century. About 200, 000 Goths ruled a population of about
eight million Hispano—Romans. The ethnicity between German speaking rulers and the Latinspeaking subjects increased due to religions differences as well. The Goths were Arian Christians,
who rejected the divinity of the Christ; while the majority of Hispano—Romans were catholic. The
institution further separated these two groups by means of dual administrative and legal system.
Intermarriage between Goths and Romans was prohibited until when Recceswinth reformed the
kingdom’s administrative and legal system by abolishing Roman law. However, this move also
favoured ethnicity.
The Hispano—Romans followed general pattern of agriculture; cereal grains, grapes and
vegetables were grown in irrigated fields. The entire economy of Spain was in a state of profound
disarray and the agrarian economy was ruined due to natural disasters like dry and hot weather,
famine etc. When the Muslim rule was established in Spain, similar environment existed, but the
Muslims were very much capable of adjusting themselves by directing the flow of economic
resources into the technological adjustments required for irrigating the land. The agrarian and the
urban economy were in decay.
The whole population was divided into various social groups. The Crown, the Church, the
Princes and the lords formed the one group (known as Clergy and Nobility, or the Ruling class). The
burghers, serfs and slaves formed the other (Middle and Lower Class, the ruled class/ or the subjects).
The Goths ruled for about two hundred years and never endeavoured to eradicate and wipe out these
social evils. The condition in Spain further worsened, when the last Visigothic king, Roderick
molested the daughter of Count Julian, Byzantine governor of Ceuta. Count Julian was compelled and
obligated to invite Muslims to Spain in order to help him.
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Establishment of Muslim Rule in Spain (711-756)
The campaign and drive of Muslims in the Iberian Peninsula was the last major military
operations undertaken by the Arabs. It marked the highest point of the African European expansion of
the Muslims. It was the time when Muslims were the masters of North Africa and stood at the
threshold of Spain. Only a small arm of a sea separated North Africa from Spain. This expedition into
Spain holds a unique place when there is talk about the swiftness of execution and completeness of
success.
The first military appraisal was made in July 710 CE when, Tarif, a chief of Musa Ibn Nusayr
(the governor of North-Africa under Umayyad Caliph Al-WAlid, r. 705-715) with four hundred foot
and one hundred horses landed on the tiny peninsula which is almost the southernmost tip of
European continent. This peninsula has borne his name, Jazirat al-Tarif. Musa encouraged by the
success of Tarif and at the same time by the dynastic mess in the Visigothic kingdom of Spain,
deputed Tariq bin Ziyad in 711 CE into Spain with 7000 men. Tariq with the Berber force sailed
across the straits and landed at the base of a mighty rock, named as Jabal al-Tariq (Gibraltar).
Tariq was supplied with more forces and their number reached to 12000. On July 19, 711 CE,
the army of Tariq met the army of King Roderick at the mouth of the Barbate River. This Visigothic
army numbering 25,000 was utterly rooted and defeated and what happened to Roderick is somewhat
unknown. In his History of the Arabs, P. K. Hitti writes: “What became of Roderick himself remains a
mystery. The usual version in both Spanish and Arabic Chronicles is that he simply disappeared”.
After this decisive victory, the march of the Muslims through Spain was very easy. Only few
towns dominated by Visigothic knighthood offered some sort of resistance. Tariq, with the major
portion of his army, moved through Ecija towards Toledo and he somewhat avoided Seville as it was
strongly fortified. A portion of army seized Archidona without any resistance. Another captured
Elvire that was close to the spot where Granada stands. A third portion under the leadership of
Mughith al-Rumi attacked Cordova. After seize of two months this future capital of Muslims at last
came into their hands. Tariq advanced a step further and cities after cities fell before the Muslims.
Thus the expedition started by Tariq bin Ziyad in the spring of 711 CE, resulted in conquering and
liberating half of Spain by the end of the summer.
In June 712 CE, Musa Ibn Nusayr landed on the soil of Spain with his army. Musa proceeded
through northwestern coastal way, conquered cities after cities, and then marched towards Toledo. It
was in or near Toledo, that Musa Ibn Nusayr met Tariq bin Ziyad. The combined forces thereafter
moved forward and Muslims reached Saragossa in the north where they made further advancements
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into the lands of Aragon, Leon, the Austria and Galicia. Within a span of two years, the Muslims
liberated almost whole of the Spain. Musa and Tariq through Pyranees carried further campaigns in
South France with a plan in mind to annex whole of the southern Europe. The Caliph al-Walid
rejected the approval and recalled Musa to Damascus.
Musa left his second son, ‘Abd al-‘Aziz in command of the newly acquired territory and
himself made his way towards Syria, with massive followers. Caliph Walid died (d. 715) while Musa
was on his way to Syria and was succeeded by his brother Sulayman (r. 715-17). Sulaiman ‘reversed
the policies’ of Walid, writes Masudul Hasan in his History of Islam, on his accession. “Those who
had found favour with al-Walid came under cloud, while those who were out of favour with al-Walid
cam einot power”. It was in these circumstances that Musa and Tariq were not received with dignity,
and honour, rby Sulaiman, but rather he subjected them to severe humiliation and dishonour.
Spain was now the territory of the Ummayyad Caliphate, and it remained udner them until
their fall in 749-50 CE. The Arabic name that it assumed was al-Andalus. The successors of Musa had
only few territories in the north and east of the peninsula to conquer. At last, it can be rightly put that
the conquerors were there to stay for centuries together.
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Establishment of Umayyad Rule in Spain (756 CE onwards)
On the fall of Ummayad caliphate in 750 CE, who ruled the Arab world for about 90 years
(661-750 CE), the Abbasids succeeded them .The first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-‘Abbas al-Saffah (r.
750-54), was very cruel towards the Ummayads. He killed all their family members, and it was Abd
al-Rahman Ibn Mu‘awiyah, a grandson of Hisham, who baffled the vengeance of As-Saffah.
The story of narrow escape of ‘Abd al-Rahman and next five years in wandering through
Palestine, North Africa and Egypt forms one of the romantic and striking episode. After having
escaped from the vengeance and retribution of Abbasids, ‘Abd al-Rahman was wandering and moving
from one place to another place, for seeking shelter. At the end, the fugitive ‘Abd al-Rahman was
provided the shelter by the Berbers of Morrocco—who were his maternal uncles. Ameer Ali in his A
Short History of the Saracens puts this wandering of Abd al Rahman as: “His flights from Syria to
Mauritania, his hairbreadth escapes, his sojourn among the hospitable Berbers, make a romantic story
full at times of a thrilling pathos”. It was very much difficult for him to resist his eyes on the beautiful
country that once belonged to his ancestors. He was very much determined to establish himself in
Spain. In order to fulfil his dream, he sent an emissary to his clansmen to gain their support in his
struggle for power. His message was received with much zeal and enthusiasm, many of the leaders,
who were former patrons of the Umayyad house, welcomed the opportunity.
The Muslim Arabs in Spain were divided into two warring camps: the Mudarites and
Yaminites—who were followers of the Sunni orthodoxy and Shi‘ite ideas respectively. When the
‘Abbasid dynasty was established, Yamanites naturally supported the new empire and the Mudarites
remained loyal and faithful to the fallen house of the Umayyads. A bloody contention could be
observed between these two factions over the governorship of Spain. The two factions finally agreed
upon what they regarded the best idea: appointing governor from each group in turn for a period of
one year.
The first choice was of the Mudarites and they selected Yusuf Ibn-‘Abd al- Rahman al-Fihri
as the governor of the land for one year. At the expiry of the year, Yusuf discarded to step down,
refused to give turn to the Yamanite candidate, and continued to rule for about ten years. At the end of
755 C.E. ‘Abd al-Rahman landed on the shore of Spain and was on his way to set up once again the
Umayyad rule.
‘Abd al-Rahman got the support of Yamanites mainly due to the wrongs inflicted on them by
Mudarites in general and the governor Yusuf al-Fihri in particular. All the formalities, which were
imperative, were completed and a ship was arranged to transport the new leader. Yusuf tried his level
best to please ‘Abd al-Rahman with beautiful gifts and promises, but all in vain. One southern city
after another came into the hands of ‘Abd al- Rahman without any confrontation. Archidona, Seville
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and Sidona welcomed the new leader warmly. ‘Abd al-Rahman pushed on towards Cordova and
Yusuf moved forward in the direction of Seville.
In May 756, the two contrasting armies engaged in a battle at Masara. After a bloody battle,
Yusuf was defeated and sought shelter in flight (at Toledo). Cordova was captured and general
amnesty was declared even to the harem of the defeated governor. The fugitive governor persistently
gave trouble until he was killed near Toledo. Thus again the authority of the Umayyads was
established, but this time at a different place that is in the West (Spain). Therefore, if Umayyads lost
power in the East (i.e. in Arab world), but they recuperated it though in the West.
Main Contribution of Umayyad Amirs
Abd al-Rahman al- Dakhil / Abd al- Rahman-I (r. 756-788): In 756 CE, Abd al-Rahman
became the new sovereign of a kingdom in Spain—which was running parallel to the caliphate of the
Abbasids, with their capital in the city of Baghdad. The Arab nobles who were already present there
could not tolerate the authority of one man and the Berbers who were once the staunch supporters of
‘Abd al- Rahman further strengthened their power. These rebels and uprisings were also aided and
encouraged by the Frankish king Pepin and, after him, his son Charlemagne and they received the
support of Abbasids. The overall scenario presents that they tried to vanquish ‘Abd al- Rahman, but
the important skill that how to act together was missing in them.
Enemies were present inside the land and their confederates and supporters outside. Very far
in Baghdad, Caliph, al-Mansur (r. 754-775)—who is known as the real founder of the Abbasids—had
been planning to unseat ‘Abd al- Rahman. In 761, the governor of Toledo revolted against the
authority of Abd al-Rahman, but he was suppressed. Again, in 763, Ibn-Mughith (the Abbasid
governor over Spain) was sent by Caliph al-Masur against Abd al-Rahman. The Abbasid forces were
deafted, and Mughith was beheaded. The head of al-Mughith was wrapped in a black Abbasid flag
and was forwarded to al-Mansur, who was at that time in Makkah for performing Hajj. Therefafter the
Abbasids choose Abd al Rahman aolone who came to be known as “Falcon of Spain”.
‘Abd al-Rahma adopted a policy, though not humane, best suited to the state of affairs under
which he was placed. Within few years, Abd al- Rahman cleared his path from all enemies;
insurgences and upheavals were totally crushed. As Abd al- Rahman was busy in crushing these
rebels, repeatedly Christians in the north harassed the Muslims. Christians burnt their cities,
devastated their fields and the Muslims were either killed or captured. During this period of
lawlessness, Muslims of Spain lost a large portion of their area.
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In the year 777 C.E. one of the rebels rose against ‘Abd al- Rahman and fled across the
Pyranees to Charlemagne, to get his aid. It was a favourable occurrence for Charlemagne to render
himself as the master of Spain and to extend his ascendancy. Charlemagne responded to his call and
collected a massive army; he crossed the mountains, eradicating everything what came in his way
until he reached the walls of Saragossa. This place was safeguarded by Husayn bin Yahya al-Ansari.
Here he sustained a disastrous repulse at the hands of Husayn bin Yahya al- Ansari and it hastened his
retreat to his country. While crossing the Pyranees, he was attacked by the sons of Sulayman- Matrum
and Aishum, his rearguard was cut to pieces, and many others were killed. Finally, a treaty was
concluded between ‘Abd al- Rahman and Charlemagne.
In the process of curbing different revolts, ‘Abd al-Rahman developed a well-organized and
highly trained army. ‘Abd al-Rahman strongly established the authority of the Umayyads in Spain and
now the influence of homeless and wanderer began to rise in Spain.
Although in resisting the happenings against his ascendancy, he often adopted unkind and
inconsiderate steps, but in the field of arts and letters of peace, he proved himself as great as in the art
of battle. In developing industrial sector and in running the affairs of the state, he was compared to
Caliph al-Mansur. He beautified the cities and mainly Cordova with buildings and parks and
constructed a channel for the supply of pure water to the capital, and introduced exotic plants such as
peaches and pomegranates.
In 757 CE, ‘Abd al-Rahman discontinued the Khutbah in the name of ‘Abbasid Caliph, but
never assumed the title of Commander of the Faithful (Amir al-Mu’minun). He and his successors
upto ‘Abd al- Rahman—III contended themselves with the title of Amir (ruler or sovereign). In the
year 786, ‘Abd al-Rahman constructed the great Mosque of Cordova, which was later on completed
and enlarged by his successors. ‘Abd al-Rahman died in 788 CE, after an eventful reign of 33 years.
He was a wise and enlightened ruler; a man of great determination and strong will; possessed an
impressive personality; and was skill general, a just ruler, and a wise political leader. In industry and
administrative abilities, he was compared to bbasid caliph Al-Mansur. He embellished Corodova with
magnificent buildings and parks, and established educational institutuons throughout the country. He
was succeeded by his son Hisham (r 788-796). Hisham died at the age of 40 in 796 after a rule of 8
years. He was known for his impartial justice and sound administration.
Al- Hakam—I (796-822 CE)
After the death of Hisham in 796 CE, his son al-Hakam succeeded him, whose surname was
al-Muntassir (the conqueror). He was only 22 at the time of accession. Hakam was a wise,
courageous, and accomplished Soveirgns of Spain who surrounded himself with pomp and show, but
his accession was followed by revolts in various parts of the country, including the revolts by his
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uncles Sulayman and ‘Abd Allah. ‘Abd Allah sought the help of Charlemagne. With the support of
Franks, ‘Abd Allah captured Toledo and his brother Sulayman captured Valencia. In the meantime,
Louis and Charles, sons of Charlemagne invaded northern regions of the Spain; and Galician chief,
Alfanso bursted into Aragon.
In the midst of these gloomy circumstances Hakam-I never bowed his head, but faced the
situation with dedication, determination and courage. Left a small army to have an eye on Toledo, he
himself proceeded towards the Galicians, defeated them in a battle, then turned his attention towards
Franks, and drove them out of his country beyond the Pyranees. After these victories, Hakam turned
his attention towards Toledo. Sulayman was defeated in a battle and at last killed. The revolt of ‘Abd
Allah was totally suppressed and after his requested for amnesty he was pardoned.
While Hakam-I was very much busy and engaged in crushing the revolts, it provided Franks
an opportunity to seize Barcelona. The capture of this important town was a great loss to the Muslims.
Therefore, in a way, some parts of the Spain came into the hands of Charlemagne and he divided them
into two Marches- the March of Septimania and the March of Gascony. In 809 C.E. March of
Gascony came again into the hands of Hakam-I.
Toledo was politically the most important town and once the capital of Spain. Under the rule
of the Muslims, Toledo had been restless and its inhabitants were always in a state of rebellion. The
memory of their past always rankled in their minds and hearts which increased their resentment
against the Saracens. Arrogant about their wealth, numbers, and riches, they discarded to obey the
orders of the ruler or to receive governor who was not acceptable to them. First few revolts were
easily suppressed. Amrus bin Yusuf deputed in-order to restore peace in the region, exercised some
sort of influence on the people and made them to accept the authority of the ruler. After a gap of ten
years, they again revolted and this time Amrus was ordered by al- Hakam – I to bring them to book,
accordingly Amrus arranged a banquet, in which hundreds of principal and distinguished Toledans
were invited and later on killed and their bodies were thrown in a ditch. Deprived of their principal
notables, the turbulent Toledo adopted obedient approach and remained tranquil for several years.
At times al- Hakam– I got involved in conflicts with the Faqihs, which made him unpopular
among them. There were strong reasons for their discontent, as they had become a power in the land,
thanks to the policy adopted by the Hisham. Hakam on the other hand never legalized them to
interfere in the state affairs, rather left them out from all the interference. With the result, they
endeavoured to depose him. They used to call him from the pulpits as impiety and irreligious and it
was the chain of the same policy mentioned above. However, Hakam never allowed them to create
any disturbance or disorder in the state.
Hakam died in 822 CE, after a reign of twenty-six (26) years. He was sensible, audacious, and
accomplished ruler. He was fond of hunting and a patron of poets, musicians and scholars and at the
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same time not having good relations with lawyers and theologians. He never accepted their power,
rather made attempts to keep their power in check. His endeavours not only resulted in the
consolidation of the Spain but extended its dominions further as well. Hakam was succeded by his son
Abd al-rahman—II (r. 822-852 CE). He ruled for 30 years. He is rated as one of the great rulers of
Spain. During his reign, the fame of the Muslim arts and sciences spread everywhere. He constructed
many fine and beautiful buildings and gardens. He also constructed various mosques and educational
buildings in various cities of Spain. Abd al Rahman-II was succeeded by his elder son Muhammad-I,
who ruled for 34 years, from 852-886 CE. Muhammad was succeded by his son Munzir, at the age of
44, ruled only for two years, 886-88 CE. In 888 CE, his brother Abdullah CE, who ruled for 24 years,
succeeded him. This whole period was marked by riots, disturbances, and revolts. Abdullah died in
912 CE, and was succeeded by his grandson Abd al-Rahman.
‘Abd al- Rahman—III (912-961 CE)
Abd al- Rahman succeeded his grandfather, ‘Abd Allah in 912 and was barely twenty-two
years of age at the time of accession. It was the time when there were disturbances within and without
and the Muslim state had reduced in size to Cordova and its environs. In this state of affairs, all hailed
his accession and they took him as the saviour of the empire. ‘Abd al-Rahman proved himself the man
of competence and aptitude. Within a very short span, his esteem increased. Abandoning the cruel
policy adopted by his grandfather, ‘Abd al-Rahman developed the policy of reconciliation. At the
very commence of his rule, his policy was to consolidate the state. For consolidation, he announced to
all insurgents Spanish, Berber or Arab that no disobedience or disloyalty would be permitted
throughout the empire. He summoned all the leaders and nobles of the independent principalities to
submit and surrender to his authority, and those who will repudiate and discard would be brought to
order. Most nobles of the independent principalities submitted voluntarily to the central rule.
Slowly but surely, ‘Abd al-Rahman recaptured the lost provinces, one after the other. In one
of the incidents in 913 C.E, ‘Abd al-Rahman appeared before the army, with an aspiration to share
with them their glossy and victory and at the same time their miseries and fatigues, this gave them an
extraordinary inspiration and enthusiasm. Within a short campaign of less than three months, different
provinces were subjected like Elvira and Jaen. One city after another submitted before his authority.
Seville was reinterpreted in the dominions of the empire. Muhammad, son of Ibrahim Ibn Hajjaj
ruling the principality of Seville, came to ‘Abd al-Rahman and offered his services. Berbers were
reduced and at the same time, Christians submitted to him as well. ‘Abd al-Rahman marched against
the insurgents of the Serrania of Regio and reduced it step by step and one after the other, their leaders
submitted.
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When there is a mention of Toledo, what come in the mind are revolts and rebellions. Whole
of the Spain accepted the supremacy of ‘Abd al-Rahman, with the exception of Toledo. People of
Toledo at the instigation of the Christian chief of Leon again revolted. ‘Abd al-Rahman accordingly
sent a deputation of learned men to tell them to abandon the ways of discord. However, being
supported and helped by the Leonese, they gave an arrogant reply. No other option was left with ‘Abd
al-Rahman but of force only. A siege was laid around the Toledo, that lasted for two years and
ultimately the people of Toledo submitted unconditionally. Thus, whole empire was consolidated
while putting an end to all types of discords.
Within the empire, all dangers faded away, but the presence of external enemies still posed a
threat to the already consolidated authority. Among them, the most dangerous were the Fatimids of
Africa whose influence as time elapsed increased and Christian kings of Leon in the northern region
of Spain. After subduing internal revolts, ‘Abd al-Rahman turned his attention towards the Christians
of the north who menaced the empire. King of Leon, Ordono-II in early 914 CE invaded the Muslim
territory, committed atrocities by devastating the land. It was the time when ‘Abd al-Rahman was
engaged with the Fatimid’s. He sent an expedition under his Wazir; Ahmad Ibn Abu Abda. Ahmad
inflicted severe blows on the enemy. At San Esteban, the Arabs repulsed with heavy loss, Ordono and
his ally Sancho, chief of Navarre ravaged the Muslim environs. Compelled by the actions of the
Christians, ‘Abd al- Rahman took all the measures to teach them a lesson which they would never
forget. Under Hajib Badr in 918 C.E an army was deputed against the invaders entrenched in their
mountains; they were attacked by the army and defeated. Considering that Leonese was not
completely humiliated, ‘Abd al-Rahman in 920 C.E took the field in person. San Esteban and several
other strong holds of Christians were demolished and captured. Sancho with the assistance of chief of
Leon again attacked the Muslim territory. The combined forces reached a place called Janqueras,
where ‘Abd al- Rahman inflicted on them a severe defeat. In 921 C.E. Ordono and Sancho again
raised their head by invading Najera and Viguera, killing the Muslims living there. It was not that type
of occasion where ‘Abd al-Rahman could have exonerated them, rather he was very much provoked
by the unending massacre of the Muslims through the hands of the Christians. Without wasting a
single moment, ‘Abd al- Rahman took to the field, entered Navarre and also penetrated Pampeluna;
Sancho’s capital. The palace of Sancho and other buildings were demolished. In the mean time king
of Leon, Ordono – II died and civil war broke out between his sons. The Leonese was left to cut each
other’s throats. The civil war that broke out after the death of Ordono in Leon had given place to
Ramire – II as the ruler. After becoming ruler, he invaded Muslim territory and devastated it with the
aid and support of the governor of Saragossa. In reply, Muslims laid a siege around Saragossa,
compelling the rebel governor to submit. Afterwards attention was shifted towards Ramire. Ramire
was defeated in several battles. This way ‘Abd al- Rahman succeeded in bringing the whole kingdom
into order.
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‘Abd al-Rahman was also fully aware of the fact that his position in Spain remained unstable,
as long as Fatimids flourished in Africa. For guarding himself from the menace of Fatimids, ‘Abd alRahman very often helped the minor principalities of Western Africa, with a dream in mind to capture
the region. To make this dream a reality, he in 931C.E. got hold of Ceuta and then Tangier. With
these two regions as the base, he extended his influence to other areas of the Western Africa. While
al-Mu‘izz became the ruler of the Fatimids, ‘Abd al-Rahman was busy in subduing Christians of the
north, which granted an opportunity to al-Mu‘izz to consolidate his state. The outcome was that ‘Abd
al- Rahman’s authority already established in some parts of Africa almost came to an end with the
exception of Ceuta and rest of the territories occupied by ‘Abd al- Rahman were recaptured by the
Fatimids.
Remaining years of Abd al-Rahman’s reign were filled with examples of wise administration.
Up to ‘Abd al-Rahman, the rulers of Spain contended themselves with the title of Amir. They
recognised the title of Amir al- Mu’minun, the exclusive right of Abbasids who were the custodians of
Holy Cities. In the tenth century Christian era, things changed considerably. It was the period when
the ‘Abbasid Empire had reached its lowest stage and were quickly losing their hold on the power. In
the context of this situation, ‘Abd al-Rahman in 929 C.E. proclaimed that he should be designated in
all prayers and official documents as Amir al-Mu’minun, accordingly he was given the title of alKhalifah al-Nasir li-Din-Allah, the Caliph, Helper of the religion of Allah.
‘Abd al-Rahman died in 961 CE, after having ruled for half a century; his period is called as
the golden period of Umayyads in the history of Spain. He succeeded ‘Abd Allah at a time when there
was outcry, chaos and confusion, disturbance and disorder throughout the whole Spain. In spite of
these conditions, he managed himself properly, restored peace and harmony in the whole Spain, and
made it more powerful and stronger than it was ever before. He was champion in bringing order,
peace, serenity and prosperity in the whole empire. He saved Andalusia from within and without. He
was the ablest, and the most gifted among the Umayyad rulers of the Spain.
Besides consolidating the empire, due attention was paid towards other activities and works.
The impetus and attention given to agriculture can be observed from the smiling fields, well-stocked
gardens and the enormous wealth of fruit. Consequently, it helped in multiplying the sources of state
income. Some portion of this income was spent on the army and public works and the remaining was
reserved. Not only agriculture flourished; commerce and industry, arts and literary activities were
encouraged and developed. The seat of Spain, Cordova had half a million population, seven hundred
mosques and three hundred public baths. ‘Abd al-Rahman founded a new town namely al- Zahra and
also a palace, al- Zahra Palace. This royal palace had 400 rooms and apartments housing thousands of
slaves and guards. Cordova, the capital of Muslim Spian, came to be known as the “Jewel of the
World”. His reputation, name and fame reached so far that the kings of Germany, France and Italy
sent embassies to his court. The military resources were developed and perfected largely. A well built
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and well organised navy legalized ‘Abd al- Rahman to invade North Africa and to check the power of
Fatimids. ‘Abd al-Rahman proved to be the man with qualities of resoluteness, and daring,
characterizing leaders of men in all ages. Prof. Masudul Hasan, in his History of Islam writes: “It is a
matter of coincidence that all the Umayyad rulers bearing the name Abd al- Rahman proved the
greatest rulers”. ‘Abd al-Rahman died at the age of 73, in 961 CE. He was succeded by his son AlHakam-II.
Al-Hakam–II (961 – 976 CE)
Hakam ascended the throne after the death of his father ‘Abd al-Rahman-III in 961 CE. He
had taken active part in the administration of the state and his fame had already spread into distant
lands that too during the lifetime of his father. When Hakam became the ruler, the chiefs of Navarre
and Leon, who had already accepted the supremacy of ‘Abd al- Rahman, again raised their head. They
had the notion that the new ruler lacked military skill and it would be a good chance to get rid of the
Muslims. Therefore, both Sancho and Galicia adopted an elusive attitude, full of deceit. The
perfidious were soon dealt with the stick by Hakam, showing that he is as good in military skills as he
is in the study department. Ordono – IV visited Hakam and sought his help and support. To him due
honour was given and at the same time promise to support him as well. It was ordered to drive Sancho
out of Leon and Galicia and Install Ordono as the ruler. Sancho very much anxious at the
preparations, hastened to Cordova to seek the pardon of Caliph and to honour the terms of the treaty.
This event came as a shock to Ordono and he died. After his death, Sancho again repudiated the terms
of the treaty. Thus, it forced Hakam to announce war against the Christians. The Navarrese chief was
beaten and Kalharra was captured and garrisoned. Other places like Galicia, Alava, Castile, &
Navarre were similarly garrisoned. Hakam never cherished war, but was compelled to be engaged in
war against his own desires. Peace and tranquillity spread throughout the whole Andalusia after
defeating Christians.
In 972 CE, Hakam under the leadership of Ghalib sent an expedition to control the Fatimid
conquest, meaning that the danger of the Fatimids was not fully averted. The general Ghalib was
somewhat successful in restoring the authority of the Umayyads in Western Africa. Berbers of Zenata,
Maghrahwa, and Miknasa stopped their support and allegiance to the Caliph of Cairo by supporting
and recognizing the authority and supremacy of Hakam.
All rulers of Spain were great patrons of literature, poetry and other sciences, but Hakam
excelled them all in his love for literature and other literary activities. Ibn Khaldun says: “Hakam
loved literature and the sciences, and showered his munifence on men of learning”. Hakam was
basically a scholar and a man of peace. Stanley Lane Poole says about Hakam that he was a
bookworm, and although bookworms are very useful in their proper place, they seldom make great
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rulers. Hakam was a great collector of books, his predecessors were also very much active in the
activity of enriching their libraries with rare books, but the zeal and enthusiasm of Hakam for this
work is quite extraordinary. For collecting books, Hakam used to send agents to different regions to
buy rare and precious manuscripts. If any rare book could not be bought, he would have copied it.
Library established at Cordova is said to have accumulated 400,000 volumes and the catalogue of it
alone consisted of forty-four volumes. Several departments were set for the work of copying, binding
and illuminating the books, for these tasks most skilful men were employed. All the branches of
learning prospered under Hakam. The schools established by his predecessors were extended and
endowed; with the result, everyone in Spain possessed the skill of reading and writing. Due attention
was given towards the education of the poor, for this purpose Hakam established in Cordova about
twenty-seven schools, where the children from the poor received education. The university in
Cordova was one of the famous and most renowned in the world. The grandeur of Umayyads in Spain
ended with the death of this virtuous ruler and scholar in 976 CE, as his succesors were unable and
weak and later Spain became didvided into various fractions or principalities.
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Decline and and Downfall of Muslim Rule in Spain
Every rise has a fall, and Rise and Fall are an important phenomenon of every civilization,
society, community, and it is equally true for every kinddom and regime. Anything that has a
beginning has an end also. This is the law of nature and history has always proved this fact. One day
their civilization and culture will be at their zenith and at the same time, it is true that their decline and
fall is also inevitable. Umayyads ruled and governed Spain for a long period. Their empire had a
beginning; reached its zenith and at the end disintegrated and declined. Their disintegration and
downfall paved the way for other powers specially Christians of the North (West) to rise and perform
the actions on the platform. The reasons and causes responsible for the downfall of the Umayyads in
Spain were at the same time responsible for the emergence or the rise of Christian power in Spain. In
other words, we can say the causes that helped in the disintegration of the Umayyads in Spain were in
favour of the Christians of the North. The downfall of the Umayyads in Spain, their disintegration and
their end, helped the Christians and other powers to come to the stage and have their say in the
history. Muslims in Spain have ruled for about eight hundred years and it is very much understood
that after such a long period one has to fell.
After the death of Hakam- II in 976 CE, his son Hisham –II had to become the ruler of the
Spain. However, he was a minor and a boy of only eleven years old. Hakam had held convocation few
months before his death in which a document was subscribed devising the Caliphate to his son
Hisham- II. Hakam entrusted the charge of upbringing his son to three persons, his queen Subh, Hajib
Mashafi and to the secretary Muhammad bin Abi Amir. Accordingly, Hisham- II was proclaimed as
the Caliph. Muhammad bin Abi Amir was an ambitious man. He overthrew Hajib Mashafi and other
chiefs who opposed him. He killed many famous personalities wreath magnates; in this way cleared
the whole empire from its leading men. Abi Amir then seized all the power and authority, confining
and limiting the young Caliph in his palace. After capture of the power, Ibn Amir assumed the title of
Hajib al- Mansur and constructed a beautiful palace for himself named Zahira. He became so
powerful that he was overall in the whole empire and Hisham – II, the Caliph was merely a puppet in
the hands of Hajib al-Mansur. All orders were issued under his seal, prayers were offered for him
along with the Caliph from the pulpits and his name was borne on the coins.
After the death of Hajib al- Mansur, completely political scenario of Spain changed within no
time. His son ‘Abd al- Malik under the title of al- Muzaffar succeeded him. Al- Muzaffar ruled for
about six years and remained very much successful in maintaining unity in the whole empire. His
death brought disorder, disturbance and violence in the whole Spain. In these years, the change that
had taken place in the Spain favoured a revolution and the unification in Spain was disappearing very
quickly.
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Hisham–II, who was the Caliph renounced formally in favour of the Muhammad. Muhammad
was not able to rule for a considerable period. He was soon replaced by another Umayyad named
Sulayman. Very short period had elapsed that Hisham –II was again declared as the Caliph. One
sovereign replaced the other within no time; thus, rise and fall of the Caliphs went on simultaneously.
At the end, we find that with these unfortunate sovereigns, Umayyad rule ended in Spain, which had
to be an internal reason for the decline of Umayyads in Spain. External causes were the Christians of
the North, who were always in search of an opportunity, one of the greatest opportunities was
provided to them, and this time they made it count. It was the period when Alfanso – VI was ruling
Castile and was successful in uniting three kingdoms Leon, Castile and Navarree. With the support of
these areas, he was able to capture Toledo.
The political changes that took place in the capital provided an opportunity to the governors
and magnates to declare their independence. When the Umayyad rule in Spain disappeared,
independent principalities or we can say that petty states, like Almoravids and Almohads, emerged.
These petty states got involved in fratricidal quarrels, falling prey to the Berbers of North-Africa first
and then succumbed one after the other to the Christian power of the north. In the first half of the 11th
Century, about twenty such states emerged in many towns and provinces under chieftains. This period
came to be known in the history as Muluk al-Tawa’if (petty kings): the period of numerous
principalities, ruling small parts of Spain, like Almoravids and Almohads. It was a period of
fragmentation, which later paved the way for the disintegration of the Muslim rule in Spain. Banu
Hamid captured Malaga, Algecieras and other neighbouring regions. Granada came into the hands of
Zawi, a Berber chief. Banu Abbad ruled Seville and other areas. Valencia, Murcia, and Almeria were
in the same way ruled by independent chiefs. Such division, fragmentation, and disintegration of the
Muslims resulted in ending their rule in Spain.
As the time elapsed, one finds that Christians of the north took into their possession different
areas like Valencia, Cordova, and Seville, Murcia etc. Limiting and confining the Muslim rule to the
province of Granada only, and these Christians were ready to place their swords at the disposal of the
only remaining Muslim region. Ibn al- Ahmar the founder of the kingdom of Granada was not in a
position to with stand the growing power of the Christians who now were ruling whole of the Spain.
From time to time Christians attacked Granada. At last, on January 3, 1492 C.E. the Christians and
this way the glory and grandeur of the Muslims in Spain ended captured the last region of the
Muslims in Spain. Thus, an enlightened and brave nation disappeared from Spain who’s scientific,
literary and industrial activities brought back the life in the peninsula, which was dead and barren
under Goths. The Muslims turned Spain into a garden, and possessed the torch of knowledge at the
time when all were in darkness. Everything might have changed in Spain – people, their religion but
the nature has not changed; she is bright and breezy as ever.
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Unit IV
Political and Cultural Developments
 Intellectual and Cultural Development in Muslim Spain
 Main Features of Hispano-Arab Society
 Contribution in Science and Medicine
 History, Geography, and Philosophy
 Art and Architecture
Intellectual and Cultural Development in Muslim Spain
Main Features of Hispano-Arab Society:
With the rise of Islam, concurrently there took place the intellectual and cultural development
as well. It is an established fact that as long as Islam retained its pure and pristine character, it proved
itself the real protector and promoter of knowledge, culture and civilization. Spain at a time when
Muslims were ruling it was the most favoured and beautiful place of learning, culture and art. In
Spain, Muslim wrote one of the splendid chapters in the medieval history of Islam. Muslims were the
torchbearers of culture and civilization and it is also correct that they played the role of an agency by
which ancient science and philosophy were regained. Muslims in Spain represented the premier
culture and civilization. Within a very short span, it became a learning centre and the people from
different parts of the world flocked to Spain. Cordova, Seville, Toledo and Granada were the main
centres of learning and birthplace of reputed scholars, eminent poets, and distinguished philosophers.
Muslims in Spain started covering the places with networks of canals, where they settled. In
Spain, Muslims developed the system of irrigation by floodgates, wheels and pumps. A large tract of
land that was barren, wasted and uncultivated was brought under cultivation, covered with olive
groves and after that, the environs of the Seville alone contained several thousand oil factories. They
opened up the mines of copper, sulphur, mercury, iron, etc. Staple products were introduced like rice,
cotton, sugar and other garden and orchard fruits. They started the manufacture of silk, paper and
other textiles as well. The designed fabrics of Cordova, the woollen stuffs of Murcia, the silks of
Granada, Seville and Almeria, and the steel, iron and gold work of Toledo were sought all over the
world. Muslims maintained a merchant navy of more than thousand ships. They had great trade
relations with Constantinople, which spread from the Black Sea and the eastern shores of
Mediterranean into the interior of Asia and reached the ports of India and China. Inorder to provide
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further boost to commerce, trade and travel; geographical registers were published under the authority
of the Caliph and these registers contained all the descriptions of the places with whom they were
having relationships and dealings.
Education and learning was greatly developed and refined. Most of the places and principal
towns possessed universities and important among them were those of Cordova, Seville, Malaga, and
Granada. These universities had different departments like the department of astronomy, mathematics,
medicine, theology etc. Libraries also flourished side by side with these universities. In art, whether
minor or practical, and architecture, Muslims in Spain were masters as is evident from the different
monuments constructed by the Muslims like the Mosque of Cordova, al-Zahra Palace, the Alcazar of
Seville etc. Every college had the following lines inscribed over it: “The world is supported by four
things: the learning of the wise, the justice of the great, the prayers of the good [pious and righteous],
and the valour of the brave”. And it is a fact that Muslim Spain possessed and developed all the four
things.
The Muslim world during the Middle Ages (from 750s) opened a new era in the domain of
science and literature. It is a fact, which no one can deny, that by the beginning of this period, the
many sided cultural influence produced the early phase of the real scientific age of Islamic culture.
During this period, the contribution to various fields/ branches of knowledge—Medicine, Philosophy,
Chemistry, Astronomy, Mathematics, History, Geography, Law, Theology, philology, etc.—by the
Muslim scholars were great and impressive. A galaxy of brilliant scientists, philosophers and scholars
emerged during this age, making valuable contribution to the culture not only of Islam, but of the
whole world. They directed their minds to every branch of human study and revolutionized thinking,
feeling and action of man by the might of their pen. The Arab kings of Spain not only encouraged
“History, geography, philosophy, astronomy, the natural and exact sciences”, but also “medicine and
music were cultivated with equal earnestness”.
Muslim Contribution in Science and Medicine in Spain
A cultural contact was established with Greeks and others, with the start of the mission of
spreading Islam to other regions. After the cultural establishment, Muslims took keen interest in
developing science and that too with fervour at different centres like Baghdad in the East and the
Cordova in the West. While developing astronomy, Muslims claim this branch of science to be their
own special field. Even at the emergence of Islam, they possessed enough astronomical knowledge,
by which they were able to use the position of the stars in their wanderings. In Spain great curiosity
was showed towards astronomical studies in the tenth century. The rulers of Spain gave great support
to the astronomy and other subjects. Astral influence, i.e., astrology played an important part in
determining the location of places throughout the whole world along with their latitudes and
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longitudes. In the field of astronomy, Spain produced many outstanding astronomers. Among them alMajriti of Cordova, al- Zarqali of Toledo and Ibn-Aflah of Seville are worth to be mentioned.
One of the earliest and famous Muslim astronomers of Spain was Abu al-Qasim Maslamah
al- Majriti. He made great contribution in astronomy and was the one who edited and corrected the
planetary tables of al- Khwarizmi; the first Muslim who composed the tables. Al- Majriti was
showered with many titles and one of the dignified titles was al- Hasib, the mathematician, as he was
considered leader in mathematics.
Another noted and great astronomer of the Spain was Abu Ishaq Ibrahim Ibn Yahya alZarqali. The Toledan tables were based upon the studies and observations made by al- Zarqali. He
also constructed Zarqalah, generally known as al- Naqqash al- Andalusi. This instrument was very
useful in observing the movement of heavenly bodies. He was regarded as the best observer of his
time. He invented an improved type of astrolabe which is known as Safihah. Moreover he was the
first astronomer to prove the motion of the solar apogee with reference to the stars. According to his
observation, it amounted to 12.04ʺ per year, where as its real value being 11.8ʺ
Jabir Ibn Aflah proved to be another outstanding astronomer of Spain. He has produced an
important work in this field namely Kitab al- Hay’ah (Book of Astronomy), in which he has strongly
criticized Ptolemy and rightly stated that the mercury and venus had no visible parallaxes. His book
Kitab al- Hay’ah is famous for a chapter on spherical and plane trigonometry.
The last noted Spanish astronomer was Nur al- Din abu- Ishaq al- Bitruji, a student of IbnTufayl. He also wrote a book on astronomy under the title of Kitab al- Hay’ah. The book deals with
the configuration of the heavenly bodies. He also made an attempt to reform the theory of
homocentric spheres. In real sense, al-Bitriji followed Aristotelian system and at the same sharply
opposed the Ptolemic movement.
The Arabic names and words have become an integral part of the astronomy, even today as is
evident from the names of the stars. A long list of such words can be complied, like Acrab (‘aqrab,
scorpion), Denab (dhanab, tail), Algedi (al- Jadi, the kid) etc. Technical terms largely were also of
Arabic etymology like Zenith (samt al- ras), nadir (nazir), and azimuth (al- sumut).
Botany and Medicine:
A remarkable contribution was made by the Muslim physicians in the field of medicine in
Spain. Even to this day their works are still present in different libraries of Western universities.
Muslims fertilized the whole world by their researches. In botany, by observations, Muslims divided
plants into different groups like the plants which grow from the cuttings, which grow from seeds, and
which grow spontaneously. Abu- Ja’far Ahmad Ibn Muhammad al- Ghafiqi, One of the important
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physicians of Cordova, collected different plants from Spain and other regions. After collection, he
gave each plant a particular name in Arabic, Latin and Berber.
Another name worth to be mentioned while talking about the development of Botany and
Medicine in the Muslim West was Abd Allah Ibn- Ahmad Ibn al- Baytar. He was born in Malaga and
travelled throughout the whole Spain, North Africa, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor as a herbalist. He
performed the most of his work in Egypt, where he held the position of the chief inspector of
pharmacies. His two famous works are al-Mughni fi al- Adwiyah al- Mufradah and al- Jami ‘li
Mufradatal- Adwiyah wal- Aghdhiyah. The former is on material medico and the later on simple
remedies from different sources like animals, vegetables and minerals. In these works Greek and
Arabic literature were embodied as well as the experiments, observations and researches of the author.
Ibn al- Baytar has given description of more than one thousand and four hundred drugs from the
animals, vegetables and the mineral worlds.
One more notable figure who made a valuable contribution in the field of medicine was IbnZuhr. He was born in Seville. His authority as a physician was recognized by Muslims as well as
Christians. He was a court physician to ‘Abd al- Mu’min; founder of the Muwahhid dynasty. He has
written six medical works, out of which only three are extant; most important being Kitab al- Taysir fi
al- Mudawah wal- Tadbir (Book of the Facilitation of Therapeutics and Diet). The book was written
by Ibn- Zuhr at the request of Ibn- Rushd. The book deals with pathology and therapeutics and at the
end provides comprehensive information about different recipes and diets. In this book, Ibn Zuhr has
also made observations about mediastinal tumours, scabies, pharyngeal paralysis and inflammation of
the middle ear. His other two books are Kitab al- Aghdhiyah (Book on Eatables) and Kitab al- Iqtisad.
This book deals with therapeutics, psychotherapy and hygiene. Ibn Zuhr is regarded as the first
physician to have described itchmite (su’abat al-jarab). His family produced about six generation of
physicians.
Ibn- Rushd was another famous physician and the contemporary of Ibn- Zuhr. His greatness
as physician was somewhat overshadowed by his greatness as philosopher. His original and chief
contribution to the medicine was his famous work Kitab al- Kulliyat fi al-Tibb (Book of Generalities
on Medicine). It is an encyclopaedic work on medicine and deals with anatomy, physiology, hygiene,
pathology and therapeutics. He was the first who discovered that no one can get small pox twice. He
is also the one who was able to understand the function and working of the retina.
Developemnt of History, Geography, and Philosophy in Muslim Spain
History:
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The Muslim period produced hisotirans who gave new orientation to historical thinking and
writing. The histories produced by Muslim writers were of greater depth and dimensions than the
previous histories. The historie written by Muslim authors were characterised by accuracy, scientific
assembling of facts, and their objective approach.
Every famous and known collection of Islamic manuscripts contains a good proportion of
historical works, which itself indicates that the Muslim scholarship gave much importance to history.
Orientalists also recognize the fact that historiography was mainly developed because of the
accomplishments of the Muslims. Perhaps there will no exaggeration at all, if we say that in the
middle age, history was purely a Muslim science. The Muslims developed it because of the mission of
Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). There was one more aspect of Islam that led to the development and
cultivation of history. Muhammad (pbuh) is a historical figure, and his biography is always
considered the cornerstone of Muslim theology, so with much enthusiasm and zeal the events of his
life were sought and collected. So it can be said that historiography in the Muslim world had religious
beginnings. It proved to be Islam that gave the Muslims the historical sense and further in developing
science of theology, it was obligatory on part of the Muslim theologians to undertake historical
research.
In Spain, a steady development took place in the field of history. During the Muslim rule,
Spain produced a number of famous historians like Ibn al- Khalib, al-Bakri, Ibn Khaldun, Ibn Hayyan,
Ibn al- Faradi and others. The famous and the earliest historian of the Spain was Abu Bakr Ibn Umar,
who was born and flourished at Cordova. He has written Tarikh Iftitah al-Andalus, which extends
from the Muslim conquest to the early part of Abd al-Rahman III’s reign. Ibn Umar was not only a
historian but also a grammarian and the first to compose a treatise on the conjugation of verbs.
Another famous historian and biographer of the Spain was Abu al-Walid ‘Abd Allah Ibn- Muhammad
Ibn al- Faradi. One of his works still extant is Tarikh ‘ulama’ al- Andalus. Another early, famous and
prolific historian was Abu Marwan Hayyan Ibn- Khalaf of Cordova, usually known as Ibn Hayyan
(987-1076 CE). He has composed so many books of which al- Matin is comprised of sixty volumes.
Unfortunately, only one work has survived under the title of al- Muqtabis fi Tarikh Rijal al- Andalus.
Abu al- Qasim Sa’id Ibn -Ahmad al- Andalusia was one more important personality who
distinguished himself as historian, mathematician and astronomer. He is famous for his Tabaqat alUmam (Classification of Nations), which is an important source for the later historians.
The two persons whose names stand for the highest historical comprehension are Ibn alKhatib and Ibn Khaldun. Lisan al- Din Ibn al- Khatib’s fore fathers were Arabs and had migrated to
Spain from Syria. Under Yusuf Abu al- Hajjaj, seventh Nasrid Sultan, Ibn al- Khatib held the title of
Dhu al- Wizaratayn. He has penned down about sixty odd works which are primarily historical,
geographical, medicinal, poetical and philosophic and only third part of it have survived.
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‘Abd al- Rahman Ibn Khaldun (1332-1404C.E.) was born in Tunis and his ancestors had
migrated in the eighth century with Yamanites to Spain. Ibn - Khaldun was historian, politician,
economist, and sociologist and was inquisitive to analyze the past of human beings in order to
understand its present and future. As a theorist on history, Ibn- Khaldun had no equal in any age. He
has written a comprehensive history under the title of Kitab al-‘Ibar wa Diwan al- Mubtada’ w-alKhabar fi Ayyam al-‘Arab w-al-‘Ajam w-al-Barbar (Book of Instructive Examples and Register of
Subject and Predicate Dealing with the History of the Arabs, Persians and Berbers). The work is
comprised of three parts: a Muqaddamah (Prolegomena), forming volume one. In this part, Ibn
Khaldun has formulated a philosophy of history that is without any doubt the greatest work of its kind
ever been produced. The main body deals with the treating of the ‘Arabs and the neighbouring
peoples; and the last part traces the history of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of North Africa.
The name and fame of Ibn Khaldun rests on his Muqaddamah, wherein he has presented, for the first
time, a theory of historical development. Ibn Khaldun was the greatest historical philosopher and the
greatest of all time produced by Islam.
Geography:
The Arabs had a traditional interest in matters concerning geographical knowledge. The
Arabic language of that very period abounds in words for ships, boats, storms, heavenly bodies etc.
These activities were greatly influenced by the geography of the Arabian Peninsula. Geography
appealed to the Muslims because of its importance to serve the needs of trade and commerce,
knowledge of plants and animals, to find position of Makkah, and the phases of the moon etc.
Muslims in Spain produced many famous geographers. Among them one of the best-known
and celebrated geographer was ‘Abd Allah Ibn - Abd al-‘Aziz al-Bakri, who flourished in Cordova.
He had compiled a geographical dictionary entitled Mu‘jamma Ista‘jam. His eminence rests on his
voluminous geography al-Masalik w-al-Mamalik (the Book of Roads and Kingdoms). This book has
survived only in part. Al- Bakiri was also belletrist, poet and philologist. Another most important and
most brilliant geographical author and cartographer of the twelfth century was al- Idrisi who was born
at Ceuta in 1100 C.E. Al- Idrisi worked at the court of Christian king, Roger- II; Norman king of
Sicily. The charge of entrusting the composition of a description of the known world by Roger- II to a
Muslim proves that how far the superiority of learning was acknowledged at that time. Al- Idrisi
wrote a treatise known as Kitab al- Rujari (Book of Roger). He also made a celestial sphere and a
representation of the known world in the form of a disc, which places him among the outstanding
Muslim cartographers. Al- Idrisi was the author of another geographical work known as Raud al- Uns
wa Nuzhat al- Nafs (Pleasure of Men and Delight of Soul). It is a kind of route book which the author
had compiled for William-I, king of Sicily. It is said that this geographical work was larger than Kitab
al- Rujari, but lost completely.
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The geography and geographical literature after al-Idrisi cannot claim any originality but
afterwards was represented by the narration of travellers. Among them, the best known was Ibn
Jubayr of Valencia, who wrote a valuable account of his journey to the east. His Rihlah (Travel
Account) is one of the best and popular work and acted as a source book for many later geographers.
Another famous traveller was Ibn Sa‘id al- Maghribi. His work under the title of Kitab al- Jaghrafiya
includes the experience of his extensive travels in the in the Muslim World.
The most important, famous and excellent traveller of all times was Ibn-Battutah (13031377C.E.). He travelled in Africa, Asia and Europe for almost thirty years. His journeys include four
pilgrimages to Makkah and also visit to Middle East, India, Ceylon, Bengal, China, North Africa, and
Maldives. Ibn-Batlutah provides fine description of every place he visited. One more celebrated
geographer was Muhammad al- Mazini of Granada. He visited North Africa, Egypt, Iraq, Khurasan
and Russia. He was the writer of at least four important geographical works.
Philosophy:
The brilliant achievement of the intellectual class of Muslims in Spain was in the field of
philosophy. In Spain, the Muslims formed the last and the strongest link in the chain that carried
Greek philosophy to the west after adding their own contribution to it. The whole credit of
harmonizing the two currents of thought goes to the medieval Muslim thinkers of Baghdad and Spain.
The twelfth century was the greatest century in the history of philosophic thought in Spain.
The twelfth century opens with one of the eminent physician, mathematician, astronomer and
philosopher, namely Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn- Yayha Ibn- Bajjah (d. 1131), known in the West as
Avenpace or Aven-Pace. He flourished in Saragossa and Granada. His most important work is a
philosophical treatise named Tadbir al-Mutawahhid (Regime of the Solitary). He propounded the
theory of separate substance, which postulates that the human being can attain the knowledge of
abtract substance deduced from concerete bodies.
Another noteworthy philosopher of the Muslims in Spain was Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn
‘Abd al- Malik Ibn- Tufayl (d. 1185) who carried a step further the philosophic ideas of Ibn- Bajjah.
Ibn Tufayl was a famous physician, philosopher, mathematician and a poet. He practised medicine at
Granada and became chief royal physician to Abu Ya‘qub Yusuf of Al- Muwahhid Dynasty. IbnTufayl’s recognition rests on his masterpiece entitled Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan (the Living One, Son of the
Vigilant). In this masterpiece, he put forward the idea that human beings have the capacity to attain
and gain the knowledge of the higher world and Supreme Being without the support or the assistance
of the external agency. Ibn- Tufay borrowed the names of the characters from Ibn- Sina’s tale of the
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same title, but at the same time got inspiration from al- Farabi and others. Probably , Hayy IbnYaqzan is regarded as one of the first works on natural religion.
Abu al- Walid Muhammad Ibn-Rushd or Averrces (d. 1198) was the greatest, famous and the
most eminent philosopher who made a deep impact on the west. His family was famous for its deep
knowledge in Fiqh and had produced several reputed theologians and jurists. He was also a physician,
astronomer and commentator of Aristotle. He replaced Ibn- Tufayl as the court physician. Ibn- Rushd
made a great contribution to medicine by writing an encyclopaedic work named al- Kulliyat fial- Tibb
(Generalities on Medicine). But the activities of Ibn- Rushd as physician were totally and completely
eclipsed by his activities as philosopher and commentator. His important and chief philosophical work
in addition to his commentaries is Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence). It was a
response and refutation to Imam Ghazzali’s work Tahafut al- Falasifah (The Incoherence of the
Philosophers). He was a commentator on Aristotle. A short Jami‘(summary) an intermediate Takhlis
(resume) and a long Tafsir (commentary) are his chief commentaries on Aristotle. His philosophical
opinions are found in these important books, the Fasl, the Kashf and the Tahafut and also in al-Ittisal.
After Ibn- Rushd, one more important philosopher was Abu- ‘Imran Musa Ibn- Maymun. He
was born in Cordova in 1135C.E. and his family left the country and settled in Cairo. In Cairo, he
became the court physician of Salah al- Din and his son al- Malik al- ‘Aziz. Ibn- Maymun was a
famous theologian, physician, astronomer and above all a famous philosopher. His important medical
work is al-Fusul fial- Tibb (Aphorisms of Medicine). His important and famous philosophical work is
Dalalut al- Ha’irin (the Guide of the Perplexed). In this work he attemted to make harmony between
faith and reason. His ideas about philosophy had resemblances with Ibn- Rushd, although he
developed it independently. He thoroughly depended on Arabic translations, as he knew no Greek.
Art and Architecture
The architecture developed by the Muslims in Spain is considered a great marvel of aesthetic
skill. The beautiful mosques and palaces, fountains and aqueducts, gardens and citadels, public baths
and private homes constructed at Cordova, Granada, Seville and other cities are unparalleled in the
entire cultured world. This process got actually started with the coming of ‘Abd al- Rahman- I and
continued up to Ibn Ahmar (1272C.E.), the builder of famous palace of Alhambra.
During the period of the Umayyads, the capital of the Empire; the Cordova became the most
splendid city. It was given the title of “the Jewel of the World”, and it contained seven hundred
mosques, three hundred public baths, hundred splendid palaces and thirteen thousand houses. Abd alRahman- I erected a wall round the city and also constructed a palace named Munyat al-Rusafah. It
was reproduction of the very same palace built by his grandfather Hisham in Syria.
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One of the impressive, earliest and grandest mounments of religious art in Spain is the great
mosque of Cordova; the foundation of which was laid by Abd al-Rahman- I in 786C.E. /170A.H. It
was completed in a year and about eighty thousand gold pieces were spent on its construction by its
founder. Later on it was enlarged and completed by his successors. Hisham- I completed the main
portion of the mosque in 793C.E. and added the square minarets to it. ‘Abd al- Rahman- III built a
minaret 73 cubits high. In a similar fashion, al- Hakam built a dome in front of the Mihrab and was
decorated in golden mosaic. The roof of the mosque was supported by twelve hundred and ninety
three columns of various types. Some smooth, others fluted. For illumination; brass lanterns were
used. It is the third largest mosque with an area of 26, 500 sq. Yards. Today it is a cathedral.
Abd al- Rahman- III constructed a beautiful and splendid palace called al-Zahra, after the
name of his wife. This palace was completed in twenty years. There were about four hundred
roomsand apartments in the palace. Its eastern hall wall beautified with fountains, in which were
placed golden statues of animals. From the mouth of these pictures water flowed.
One more monumental legacy of the Muslims in Spain was the thirteenth century citadel
castle of Alhambra (The Red Palace) built by Ibn- Ahmar. It was extended and adorned by his three
successors. Another great architectural legacy of the Muslims is the Alcazar of Seville. Among many
Alcazars like in Cordova, and Toledo, the Alcazar of Seville is the most renowned. It was first built
by Toledan architect for the Muwahhid Governor in 1199-1200C.E.
The Hispano –Muslim system of decoration reached its zenith in the palace of Alhambra. This
acropolis or citadel being decorated in extensive mosaics, stalactites and inscription was conceived
and constructed on a grand scale and is without any dispute the last word in such workmanship.
Ameer ‘Ali provides a detailed description of its characteristics in his A Short History of Saracens in
these lines: “The towers, citadels, and palaces, with their light and elegant architecture, the graceful
porticos and colonnades, the domes and ceilings still glowing with tints which have lost none of their
original brilliancy; the airy halls, constructed to admit the perfume of the surrounding gardens; the
numberless fountains over which the owners had such perfect control, that the water could be made
high or low, visible or invisible at pleasure, sometimes allowed to spout in the air, at other times to
spread out in large, oblong sheets, in which were reflected buildings, fountains and serene azure sky
the lovely arabesques, paintings and mosaics finished with such care and accuracy as to make even
the smallest apartment fascinating, and illuminated in various shades of gold, pink, light blue, and
dusky purple; the lovely dados of porcelain mosaic of various figures and colours; the beautiful Hall
of Lions with its cloister of a hundred and twenty eight slender and graceful columns, its blue and
white pavement, its harmony of scarlet, azure and gold; the arabesques glowing with colour like the
pattern on a cashmere shawl; its lovely marble filagree filling in the arches, its beautiful cupolas, its
famous alabaster cup in the centre; the enchanting Hall of Music, where the Court sat and listened to
the music of the performers in the tribunes above, the beautiful seraglio with its delicate and brass
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lattice work and exquisite ceilings; the lovely colouring of the stalactites in the larger halls and of the
conical linings in the smaller chambers”—made this monument one of the wonders of the world.
Minor Arts: Muslims in Spain developed all the arts- minor or practical. They made a close
observation of all the arts introduced or developed in other lands and after that added them their own
features.
In metal works, Hispano-Masjid school flourished and it involved decoration, raising patterns
in relief or engraving and inlaid with gold and silver. One of the specimens is the relic of Hisham- II,
preserved in Cathedral of Gerona in the form of a wooden casket. This specimen has Arabic
inscription which states that it is the work of two craftsmen Badr and Tarif and was made for a
courtier of al- Hakam-II, as a gift for the successor. The most famous centres of metal works were
Toledo and Seville. These centres were especially famous in the metal works such as knives, sword
blades and astrolabes. The astronomical invention of ancient Greek i.e. astrolabe was perfected by the
Muslims. It was used to know the hour of the prayer and also the geographical position of the
Makkah.
Muslims of Spain had also a share in the development of textile arts. The centre of the
weaving industry was Cordova. Silk weaving was the most enchanting art of Spain. There were about
thirty thousand weavers in Cordova alone. Almeria is said to have had four thousand eight hundred
weaving machines or looms. Western enterprise imitated Muslims and began to set up looms in
various centres of France and Italy.
Talking about the art of applying coloured glazes to the earthenware, Muslims were
considered masters and Valencia represented the centre of this very industry. During the fifteenth
century, this industry was introduced into Italy from Spain which points out that many regions srarted
emulating the very art of the Muslims. In Toledo and Cordova pottery was manufactured. But Spain
somehow was not able to compete with Syria in manufacturing and colouring of glass.
We also find hat Mudejar art flourished and excelled in Spain. It was the combination of
Christian and Islamic elements in the form of art and architecture. These workmen excelled in pottery,
textiles and wood work. We have numerous examples to illustrate that the Europeans imitated the
Muslims in metal, glass work, pottery, textiles and other forms of decorative art. Like the case of
textiles, the different works produced in Europe are bearing the stamp of the Islamic style.
In the tenth century, one more industry flourished in Cordova, which is the industry of ivory
carvers. The industry manufactured fine caskets and boxes which were made wholly or partly of
ivory. These boxes and caskets were decorated by means of inlaid or painted ornaments and some of
these painted ornaments presented musical performances and hunting scenes as well. These boxes
were very often used as jewel cases. The beautiful example of this art is a cylindrical casket made in
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964 C.E. the inscription which it had round the lid states that it is for the Caliph al- Hakam- II as a
present or gift to his wife.
William Motgomery Watt, in his Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe, writes about the
impact of Muslim Spain’s contribution to various sciences and arts in these words: “When one
becomes aware of the full extent of Arab experimenting, Arab thinking and Arab writing, one sees
that without the Arabs European science and philosophy would not have developed when they did.
The Arabs were… genuine bearers, who both kept alive the disciplines they had been taught and
extended their range. When about 1100 Europeans became seriously interested in the science and
philosophy of their Saracen enemies, these disciplines were at their zenith; and the Europeans had to
learn all they could from the Arabs before they themselves could further advance”.
P. K. Hitti in his History of the Arabs has presented the contribution of Muslim Spain to
various fields of knowledge and learning in these words: “Muslim Spain wrote one of the brightest
chapters in the intellectual history of medieval Europe. Between the middle of eighth and beginning
of thirteenth centuries [750-1200s] the Arabic speaking peoples were the main bearers of the torch of
culture and civilization throughout the world. They were the medium through which ancient science
and philosophy were recovered, supplemented, and transmitted in such a way as to nake possible the
renaissance of Western Europe”.
Thus, during the Middle Ages, the Islamic world, from Spain to India, produced an
unprecedented cultural efflorescence.
Books Consulted:
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Syed Ameer Ali, A Short History of the Saracens
Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization
Prof. Masudul Hasan, History of Islam (vol.1)
P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs
Mohammad Dawood Sofi, History of Islamic Civilization
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