Download CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM

CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
THE TIME OF THE APOSTLES AND EARLY CHRISTIAN WRITINGS
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Sources of Early Christian History
Jewish Writers: Dead Sea Scrolls, Josephus, Philo of Alexandria
Roman Historians: Suetonius, Tacitus, Pliny the Younger
Christian Writings: Acts of the Apostles, Pauline Letters, Apostolic Fathers
Oral Tradition
The Mission of the Apostles and the Spread of Christianity
Peter – First Bishop of Rome (martyred upside-down on a cross in Rome in 64)
James the Lesser – First Bishop of Jerusalem (martyred by being beaten to death in Jerusalem
in 62)
John – Ephesus and Patmos (died of natural causes in Ephesus c. 101)
Paul – Four Missionary Journeys (martyred by beheading outside Rome in 64)
Philip – Greece, Phrygia? (martyred by crucifixion)
Thomas – Persia and India? (martyred by a spear in India?)
Andrew – Asia Minor, Greece, and Scythia? (martyred on an x-shaped cross)
James the Greater – Spain? (first apostle to be martyred, by sword, ordered by Herod Agrippa
in 44)
Jude – Syria, Mesopotamia, Edessa? (martyred by being beaten to death, then beheaded)
Matthew – Judea and Ethiopia? (martyred by a spear, depicted with a winged man or angel)
Bartholomew – Asia Minor, Armenia? (martyred by being flayed alive)
Simon – Mesopotamia, Egypt? (martyred by crucifixion or being sawn in half)
Matthias – Cappadocia, Egypt, Ethiopia? (martyred by stoning)
Developing a Christian Identity
Jewish Christians – starting in Jerusalem and Judea, then spreading to the Jewish Diaspora in
the major cities of the Empire; location of Jewish settlements initially guided the travels of
the apostles (Alexandria, Rome, Ephesus, Corinth, Thessalonica, etc.); followers of “the
Way” seen as one movement within Judaism like Pharisees or Sadducees
Gentile Christians – Cornelius becomes first Gentile to be baptized (Acts 10.44-49); formal
preaching to Gentiles began in Antioch (Acts 11.19-26), then spread throughout the
Roman Empire; most often the apostles preached to the Gentiles only after being rejected
by the Jews (see Acts 13.44-47, 19.8-10)
The Council of Jerusalem – Acts 15.1-21 – is it necessary for Gentile Christians to observe
Jewish law? Gradually led to a separation of Christianity from Judaism
Ebionites – “the poor” – Jewish Christians who retained Jewish practices; separated from
orthodox Jews because of their belief in Jesus, separated from Gentile Christians because
of their insistence on following Jewish law; considered heretics or a non-Christian sect by
Christians from Irenaeus (d. 202) onward
Temple of Jerusalem destroyed by Romans in 70 (end of Sadducees); City of Jerusalem
destroyed by Hadrian in 135 – Jews expelled from Judea, Jerusalem rebuilt as a pagan city,
Aelia Capitolina; Rome secured as center of Christianity
Condemnation by the Jews (85): “May the Nazarenes and the heretics be suddenly destroyed
and removed from the Book of Life.” (The Eighteen Benedictions); Jews needed unity of belief
after destruction of the Temple – Pharisees emerged as dominant movement
Identity within the Roman Empire – first as a sect of Judaism (tolerated), then as a separate
movement (suspected)
Persecutions of Christians under Nero (54-68) and Domitian (81-96)
Nero – blamed Christians for fire of Rome (64), incest, and cannibalism
Domitian – required oath to emperor
Early persecutions often limited in scope and sporadic; few widespread persecutions
Early centers of Christianity: Jerusalem, Antioch, and Rome; followed by Corinth, Alexandria,
and Ephesus
The Apostolic Fathers and other Early Christian Writings
The First Letter of Clement to the Corinthians
Date – c. 81-96 (reign of Domitian)
Setting – Rome
Author – Roman Christians (by tradition, Pope St. Clement)
Purpose – re-establish order and peace in the divided church at Corinth; early example of
looking to the church in Rome as an authority to settle disputes and bring unity
The Didache
Date – c. 90-120 (known by many early Christian writers, full text rediscovered in 1873)
Setting – Syria
Author – Unknown Jewish Christian (many parallels with Matthew)
Purpose – to provide specific Christian instruction, most likely prior to baptism
The Apology of St. Justin Martyr
Date – c. 150
Setting – Rome
Author – Justin Martyr (d. 165), Palestinian philosopher and convert to Christianity
Purpose – provide a defense of Christianity for non-Christians
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
THE CHURCH PERSECUTED AND DEFENDED
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Challenge of Christianity in the second and third centuries – unity – a common faith and a
common way of ordering life and worship
THE CHURCH PERSECUTED
Persecutions
Sporadic during the 2nd and 3rd Centuries – persecutions were common under Trajan (98-117),
Decius (249-251), and Valerian (253-260)
Hostility toward the Church increased following the celebrations of Rome’s millennium in
247, in which many Christians refused to take part; Decius required all people living in the
empire to produce a libellus certifying that he/she had sacrificed to the pagan gods in the
presence of imperial witnesses
Valerian forbade public meetings for worship and ordered bishops to be killed (after the death
of Pope St. Sixtus II in 258, the Church in Rome decided not to elect a new bishop until
after Valerian’s death
The Great Persecution – 303-313 – begun by Diocletian (emperor from 284-305) when the
Oracle of Apollo declared that Christians were causing false oracles and disloyalty in the
army; an edict issued by Diocletian declared that all churches be destroyed, Bibles and
other Christian books surrendered, and all public meetings of Christians forbidden; later
edicts ordered the arrest of all clergy and sacrifice to the pagan gods on pain of death;
enforcement of edicts was more widespread in the East than in the West
Martyrs
With the exception of the Blessed Virgin Mary and St. John the Apostle, all recognized Saints
from the first 250 years of Christianity were martyrs; St. Martin of Tours (d. 397) was first
non-martyr to be venerated as a Saint.
St. Ignatius of Antioch (d. 115) – first to use the phrase Catholic Church and earliest writing
referring to the Bishop of Rome as the supreme head of the Church; martyred in Rome
under Trajan
Ss. Perpetua and Felicity (d. 203) – martyred laywomen in northern Africa; most extensive
surviving account of martyrdom
Pope St. Sixtus II (d. 258) – martyred Bishop of Rome under Valerian; one of the most
revered early Christian martyrs
THE CHURCH DEFENDED
Heresy - believing a doctrine contradictory to faith as defined by the Church, while
maintaining faith in Christ - e.g., denying the divinity of Jesus Christ
Apostasy - completely abandoning the Christian faith - e.g., a professed, baptized Christian
sacrificing to pagan gods
Schism - separating oneself from the unity of the Church - e.g., denying the leadership of the
Pope
Defenders of the Faith in the Second and Third Centuries
St. Irenaeus (130-202) – born in Smyrna (student of St. Polycarp), studied philosophy in
Rome, bishop of Lyon; two extant works, including Against Heresies, defending the Church
against gnosticism
“For this is why the Word became man, and the Son of God became the Son of man: so that
man, by entering into communion with the Word and thus receiving divine sonship, might
become a son of God.”
Tertullian (160-220) – born in Carthage, “father of Latin theology,” studied rhetoric and law,
concerned with the purity of the Church’s teaching, wrote on moral and doctrinal
problems, including: baptism, penance, Trinity, and Incarnation; first to use the phrase
three persons in one God and the term Trinity; first theologian to write in Latin; ended his life
as a Montanist
Origen (185-253) – head of catechetical school in Alexandria, wrote over 6,000 brochures,
letters, or books; student of Scripture and philosophy, seeking to reconcile the two; ended
his life outside the communion of the Church because of differences with his bishop and
the bishop of Rome
Christian Heresies in the Second and Third Centuries
Gnosticism
Definition: general term for a variety of beliefs, both Christian and non-Christian.
Encountered by St. Paul in Corinth and Colossae. Responsible for most of the noncanonical gospels and other writings during the first 300 years of Christianity. Gnostics
generally believed that: 1) they had a secret knowledge (gnosis) that was not available to
people outside their chosen, limited group; this knowledge often included ideas on the
origin of the world and human destiny; 2) salvation was available only to those who had
been given this gnosis; 3) all material things, including the human body, are evil (dualism);
led to either strict asceticism or moral license; 4) God would not take on bodily form,
which is evil; therefore, Jesus is divine but not human, rather he is an apparition
Response: St. Irenaeus – it is necessary to have an authoritative, public list of accepted
Christian writings (canon of Scripture); appealed to apostolic authority and succession;
Christian doctrine does not change over time and among different teachers; within this
apostolic teaching is the consistent belief in Incarnation and the Trinity; Origen – Christ is
the key to understanding all Scripture, which can have both a literal and a spiritual sense;
Christ alone gives us knowledge
Docetism
Definition: Gnostic sect centered on Jesus as divine but not human; he was a pure spirit
whose appearance was an optical illusion; God would not take on human flesh because it
is evil
Response: Tertullian – flesh is an object of God’s love, as well as spirit, so it is possible for
God to take on flesh; because God created the world and all that is in it, the world can be
redeemed; because God created human beings in their entirety, they are able to be brought
to salvation, in their entirety
Montanism
Definition: Montanus, a Phrygian, and two women in the 170s delivered a “New Prophecy”
that they claimed was the Holy Spirit speaking through them and called all Christians to
recognize them as the chosen prophets of the Spirit; caused great divisions among
Christians based on who believed the prophecy; later, became strict in its morality (predating Novatianism and Donatism)
Response: St. Hippolytus (d. 235) recognized that the divisiveness of Montanism was proof of
it being heretical and schismatic; prophecy meant for the whole Church is not given to
individuals, and such prophecy does not cause division; rather, all believers have the gifts
of the Holy Spirit.
Novatianism
Definition: What to do with lapsed Christians, especially in times of persecution? View of
Novatian (anti-pope elected in 251) that the Church did not have power to declare
forgiveness of the sins of murder, adultery, and apostasy; St. Cyprian (d. 258) supported
this view initially, but eventually sided with Rome.
Response: Pope St. Cornelius (d. 253) and Pope St. Stephen (d. 256): reconciliation is possible
Donatism
Definition: Are the sacraments celebrated by apostates valid? Begun when Caecilian was
consecrated a bishop in 311 by a “traditor”, another bishops who had surrendered church
documents and vessels during the persecutions of Diocletian. Donatus (Bishop of
Carthage) and his followers held the view that such sacraments are not valid – they worked
to keep the Church pure of apostates, separating themselves from communion with the
universal Church and leading to deep and long-lasting schism.
Response: Condemned by the Council of Arles (314) and St. Augustine – the validity of
sacraments does not depend on the moral state of the minister but on the proper
administration of the sacrament with the proper intention. Donatism survived in some
form in northern Africa until the 7th Century.
Primary Concerns for the Church by the time of Constantine
Scripture: authority and canon
Doctrine: the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ
Morality: reconciliation of lapsed Christians
Unity: role of the Bishop of Rome and the Rule of Faith
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
CONSTANTINE, THE COUNCIL OF NICAEA, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CREED
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Life as a Christian – AD 300
The Great Persecution – 303-313
Scripture: authority and canon
Doctrine: the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ
Morality: reconciliation of lapsed Christians
Unity: role of the Bishop of Rome and the Rule of Faith
Constantine – 275-337
Personal Background – father: Flavius Constantius (Roman officer who became governor of
Dalmatia and Caesar of Western Empire); mother: St. Helena (peasant Christian; later
made pilgrimage to Holy Land and discovered Holy sites, including Calvary and the true
cross); declared Caesar by the army after his father’s death, eventually becoming Augustus
in the West, but without control of Rome (which was held by Maxentius)
Battle of Milvian Bridge – October 28, 312– Constantine attacked Maxentius at Rome;
Constantine had a dream in which he saw a cross in the sky and heard a voice saying, “In
hoc signo vinces;” Constantine had the Chi-Rho put on the shields of his army before the
battle; rather than staying within the Roman walls, Maxentius sent his army outside the
walls to the other side of the Tiber at the Milvian Bridge, where they were easily defeated
by Constantine; Constantine becomes the undisputed Augustus of the West
Edict of Milan – AD 313 – Constantine (Western Augustus) and Licinius (Eastern Augustus)
meet in Milan and declare religious freedom, allowing free Christian worship for the first
time in the Roman Empire
Influence on Christianity and establishing a Christian Society
Legalization of Christianity and personal favor of the religion
Imperial attention on matters of church doctrine, morality, and unity
Gave the Lateran Palace to the pope as a residence (used as such until 1308)
Church Building in Rome and elsewhere: St. Peter, St. John Lateran, St. Paul
Sunday declared as an official day of rest and worship in the Empire
Ordered Christian property that had been confiscated under persecutions to be returned
Declared clergy exempt from military service and forced labor
Christian influence on laws, e.g., forbade branding criminals on the face
Recognized as a Saint in the East
Saw Christianity as a means to achieving unity and peace in the Empire
The Greatest of All Heresies
Arius the Presbyter of Alexandria (256-336): born in Lybia, priest in Alexandria
Arianism – Jesus is not divine – controversy begins c. 318 – God is a unity and cannot be
shared or divided in any way, otherwise God would be changeable; Jesus is therefore the
first creature, perfect and beyond all other creatures, born outside of time but with a
beginning; Jesus might be called God but only by grace, not truly God but in name only
Arius drew many followers throughout the Church, including Eusebius of Nicomedia – the
division among bishops over Arianism threatened to divide the Church
The First Ecumenical Council: The Council of Nicaea – AD 325
Location: Nicaea in northwest Asia Minor (originally called for Ancyra)
Origin: Called by Emperor Constantine – called and convened the Council, but did not vote
Attendance: 318 Bishops (mostly Eastern) and two priests representing the Pope
West: Carthage, Pannonia (Austria), Gaul, Calabria, Cordoba (Spain)
Beyond the Empire: Persia, Scythia
Nicholas of Myra
Purpose: Address the divisions caused by Arianism
The Creed of the Council of Nicaea
The Apostles’ Creed – baptismal creed first found in Hippolytus’ Apostolic Tradition c. 215
Prior to Nicaea, creeds were local and baptismal – used for questioning catechumens
The Creed of Nicaea was written to be universal and was the first to use philosophical, nonScriptural language
Homoousios (Latin equivalent: consubstantia)– one in essence, one in substance – philosophical
term – non-Scriptural – championed by Athanasius, deacon and scribe to the bishop of
Alexandria
We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of all things visible and
invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father,
only-begotten, that is, from the substance of the Father, God from God, Light
from Light, True God from True God, Begotten, not made, of one substance
with the Father, through Whom all things were made.
Who for us men and for our salvation came down and became incarnate, and
was made man, suffered and rose on the third day, and ascended into heaven,
and is coming with glory to judge living and dead, and in the Holy Spirit.
But those who say, There was when the Son of God was not, and before he
was begotten he was not, and that he came into being from things that are not,
or that he is of a different hypostasis or substance, or that he is mutable or
alterable – the Catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes.
The Creed of Nicaea did not end the Arian disputes; St. Athanasius (297-373) led the
theological argument against the Arians; much depended on the theological state of the
Emperor: Constantius II (337-361) and Valens (364-378) were Arian; Julian (361-363) tried
to revive paganism; Arianism was only outlawed more or less definitively under
Theodosius (see below)
The Canons of the Council of Nicaea
Bishops must be ordained by at least three bishops, preferably all bishops of a province,
bishops have jurisdiction only over their own diocese
Clergy – eunuchs barred from the clergy; clergy could not have women living in the same
house except a mother, sister, or aunt; waiting period after baptism before ordination
Reconciliation of apostates, heretics, and schismatics
Date of Easter set following the Roman practice
Baptism and Death of Constantine
Constantine was baptized on his deathbed in 337 by Bishop Eusebius of Nicomedia, an Arian
The Second Ecumenical Council: The Council of Constantinople – AD 381
Location: Constantinople (Eastern Capital of the Empire)
Origin: Called by Emperor Theodosius
Attendance: 150 Bishops (all Eastern)
Purpose: Address the identity and role of the Holy Spirit
The Creed of the Council of Constantinople
We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven and earth and of
all things visible and invisible; and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten
Son of God, begotten from the Father before all ages, Light from Light, true
God from true God, begotten, not made, of one substance with the Father,
through Whom all things were made. Who for us men and for our salvation
came down from heaven, and became incarnate from the Holy Spirit and the
Virgin Mary, and was made man, And was crucified for us under Pontius Pilate,
and suffered, and was buried, And rose the third day according to the
Scriptures, And ascended into heaven and sits on the right hand of the Father,
And is coming again with glory to judge both living and dead, Whose kingdom
shall have no end; And in the Holy Spirit, the Lord and Giver of life, Who
proceeds from the Father, Who with the Father and the Son is jointly
worshipped and jointly glorified, Who spoke through the prophets; In one holy
catholic and apostolic Church; We acknowledge one baptism for the remission
of sins, We look
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
CHRISTIANITY IN THE ROMAN EMPIRE; COUNCILS AT EPHESUS AND CHALCEDON
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Third Ecumenical Council: The Council of Ephesus, AD 431
Location: Ephesus in Asia Minor (modern Turkey)
Origin: Called by Emperor Theodosius
Attendance: About 200 bishops, mostly Eastern, including 2 papal legates
Purpose: Address the nature of Christ and the title Theotokos for Mary
St. Cyril of Alexandria vs. Nestorius – Nestorius denied calling Mary, “Mother of
God,” but rather the “Mother of Jesus;” Cyril took this to deny the divinity of Christ;
Cyril put forth a theology of Jesus being one person with two natures, fully human
and fully divine, and thus that Mary could be called the “Mother of God,” or Theotokos
The Fourth Ecumenical Council: The Council of Chalcedon, AD 451
Location: Chalcedon (near Constantinople)
Origin: Called by Emperor Marcian
Attendance: About 500 bishops, mostly Eastern, but governed by the papal legates
Purpose: To confirm the faith of the previous Councils against dissidents
Pope St. Leo the Great’s Tome: “This is the faith of the Fathers and of the Apostles.
This we all believe. Peter has spoken through Leo.”
The Fall of The Western Roman Empire
Continuous barbarian invasions throughout Europe, from the time of Constantine on
December 31, 406 – Rhine River froze, allowing Germanic tribes to cross easily
410 – Rome sacked by Visigoths, the first time Rome fell in 800 years
476 – Emperor Romulus Augustulus (14 years old) overthrown by Odoacer
Result of barbarian invasions and fall of Rome: both centralized and local government
collapsed, public works destroyed, communication crumbles
The Church is the only stable and strong institution and the only source of unity in
Europe
The Early Middle Ages (476-800)
“The Dark Ages?” – illiteracy, no centralized rule, violence
Feudalism – Germanic ideal of liberty (equality of warriors, respect and loyalty)
combined with simple Christian faith; the ideal that all people should be
characterized by virtue and a deep sense of personal loyalty
Strong Papacy – temporal as well as spiritual rule; only universal connection
New Missionaries – barbarians were either pagan or Arian Christian
Monasticism – centers of faith and learning, home-base for missionaries
Rise of Islam – begin conquests in Europe (Spain) in 711
Significant People in the Church: AD 400-800
The New Missionaries
St. Patrick (387-461) – “The Apostle of Ireland” – born in Britain, kidnapped at age
16 and sent to Ireland as a slave, spent time as a shepherd in the Irish hills; had a
dream in which he was told to return to England, so he escaped slavery and went
to England and then mainland Europe where he studied in monasteries; priest;
named a bishop and sent by the Pope to evangelize Ireland; spent 33 years
preaching in Ireland; champion of orthodox Christianity, especially teaching on the
Trinity (shamrock, Breastplate)
St. Columban (543-615) – born in Ireland, Benedictine monk; became missionary first
in Scotland, then in Gaul; established monasteries as centers of missionary activity
and faith; lived for extended periods in a cave in solitude seven miles from the
monastery; known as a healer and miracle-worker; preached against corruption
among the royal Frankish courts; came into conflict with the Franks and travelled
throughout Europe, eventually settling in northern Italy; known to have the ability
to communicate with animals – when he wanted to use a cave for solitude, he
asked a bear living in that cave to leave, and it did; he later tamed a bear and put a
plow on it to help the monks plant their fields.
St. Augustine of Canterbury (d. 605) – born in Rome, Benedictine monk; sent by
Pope Gregory the Great as a missionary to England (Gregory saw English slaves
in a market in Rome, asked who they were: angles, he said, no they are angels); the
people of England had a reputation for violence and terror, causing Augustine to
turn back on his trip, but Gregory insisted that he go; evangelized throughout
England, at one point bringing a tribal king and 10,000 of his people into the
Church; first Archbishop of Canterbury.
St. Boniface (680-754)- “The Apostle to Germany;” born in England; Benedictine
monk; ministered among the Franks in modern-day Germany, founding
monasteries and dioceses; once encountered a tribe worshiping a Norse deity in
the form of a large oak tree, he took an axe and cut down the tree, stood on the
trunk, and asked “How stands your mighty god? My God is stronger than he.” As
the Pope’s representative, crowned Pepin the Short as King of the Franks.
Martyred with other missionaries by a group of pagan barbarians.
Dionysius Exiguus (500-560) – no common method for determining dates and years;
in the Roman Empire, used the consuls in office, the year in the reign of the
emperor, or the years since the founding of Rome; some used a fixed point, like
the beginning of the reign of Diocletian; Pope John I asked Dionysius to put
together a table of the dates for Easter for the coming years; in 532, he compiled
the table and also thought it would be beneficial to calculate the year from the
birth of Christ; using information about the reign of Augustus, calculated that
Christ was born on December 25, in the year 753 from the founding of Rome;
began the calendar with the date of Jesus’ circumcision, January 1, AD 1; this
system was used by St. Bede the Venerable in his history of the English Church
and became widespread after being used in documents by Charlemagne;
unfortunately, Dionysius’ calculations were off; Herod the Great died in 4 BC, so
Jesus must have been born before then.
St. Isidore of Seville (560-636) – Archbishop of Seville, Spain; helped to convert the
Arian Visigoths; reformed church in Spain, requiring seminaries in every diocese;
compiled first encyclopedia, and thus is considered the patron saint of the internet
and computer users; Doctor of the Church
St. Bede the Venerable (673-735) – born in England around the time the entire
country had been Christianized; Benedictine monk; known as the most learned
man of his day; wrote An Ecclesiastical History of the English People, the primary source
for any information about England prior to the 8th century; began widespread use
of Dionysius Exiguus’ method of dating; Doctor of the Church
In the weeks to come …
St. Jerome (342-420)
St. Augustine (354-430)
Pope St. Leo the Great (400-461)
St. Benedict (480-543)
Pope St. Gregory the Great (540-604)
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
ST. JEROME, SCRIPTURE, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE CANON
SPEAKER’S NOTES
St. Jerome and the Vulgate – AD 331-420
Biography – born c. 331 to Christian parents in Dalmatia (modern-day Croatia); received
superb education in Rome (studied Roman classics, languages, rhetoric), accumulated the
largest private library of the time; baptized as a young adult; became a monk to be able to
study and pray, eventually becoming an ascetic in Syria; became biblical scholar; wrote
commentaries on Scripture and translated volumes of works by Eusebius, Origen, and
others; secretary to Pope Damasus in Rome (382-384); lived in a cave in Bethlehem;
corresponded with the leading theologians of the day, including St. Augustine
The Pope Commissions a Latin Bible – Latin was the language spoken by the majority of
Christians in the West, but the only Bible available in Latin was a very poor translation,
with the OT based on the Septuagint, not the Hebrew; Pope Damasus commissioned
Jerome to make a standard translation into Latin because of his knowledge of Hebrew and
Greek; the translation took more than 20 years to complete
The Vulgate – vulgar – “common” – the language of the people – became the standard
translation of the Bible until the Protestant Reformation and is still the official Latin
translation for the Catholic Church
The Development of the Old Testament
Tanakh – 46 Books in Roman Catholic Canon
Torah (Law) – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy
Nevi’im (Prophets) – Former, Latter (Four Great Prophets, The Twelve)
Ketuvim (Writings) – Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, etc.
Ezra – Torah recognized as authoritative Scripture; by 200 BC, the Prophets are collected and
recognized as authoritative
Septuagint – Greek translation of Tanakh, made by tradition by 70 scholars in Alexandria in
the 4th Century BC; included more books than traditional Hebrew collections; this is the
version of the Tanakh cited by early Christians
Jamnia – the destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple in AD 70 forced the Jewish community
to develop a sense of identity based solely on Scripture; a rabbinical school in Jamnia (on
the coast of Palestine) attracted Jewish scholars who worked to develop an authoritative
list of scriptural books; the Law and Prophets were well accepted, but the Jamnia school
addressed the Writings specifically
Criteria for Canonicity (at Jamnia)
1. Harmony with the Torah
2. Prophetic inspiration
3. Hebrew language origin (the language of prophecy)
Protocanonical Books – 39 – considered authoritative with little dispute
Deuterocanonical Books – Judith, Wisdom, Tobit, Sirach, Baruch, 1-2 Maccabees – great
dispute on whether they are considered authoritative – even after Jamnia, never completely
settled in Judaism; rejected by Jerome but accepted by Augustine; officially declared
canonical at the Council of Trent
Christian canon of OT saw many versions, none definitive until Trent; Council of Carthage
(397) included most Deuterocanonical books
The Development of the New Testament
27 Books in the universal Christian NT
Oral Tradition – stories told and retold by apostles and their followers
Letters – first NT writings (1 Thessalonians, c. AD 51)
Gospels – c. AD 60-100
Other writings – Acts of the Apostles, Revelation, Hebrews
Marcion (c. AD 100-160)
Rejected OT – considered the god of the OT a demiurge, the creator of this world, but
inferior to the God of Jesus and the NT
Gnostic – believed Jesus was God but not human; rejected birth and childhood of Jesus;
apostles and followers of Jesus had misunderstood him and corrupted his words
Accepted limited NT – 10 Pauline Epistles and the Gospel according to Luke (minus the first
two chapters), all heavily edited to suit his understanding of God
Excommunicated by the Church in Rome in AD 144
Led the Church to serious consideration of the Canon of Scripture
The Canon of the New Testament
Criteria for Canonicity:
1. Apostolic Origin
2. Use by the Church
3. Conformity with the rule of faith
Lists developed by Irenaeus, Origen, Eusebius, Tertullian
Muratorian Canon – late 2nd Century Rome – 22 books, plus Wisdom
Athanasius – late 4th Century – 27 books; first list that corresponds to final canon
Council of Carthage – 397 – accepts canon of 27 books; regional council, not ecumenical
Council of Trent – 1545-1563 – officially recognizes as inspired and authentic the canon of 46
OT and 27 NT books; first official Church recognition of OT canon
What wasn’t included?
Apostolic Fathers – Letters of Clement, Shepherd of Hermas, Epistle of Barnabas,
(did not have apostolic origin)
Apocryphal Gospels and Acts – Gospels of Thomas, Peter; Acts of Paul and Thecla;
Apocalypse of Peter (did not conform to the Rule of Faith)
Intertestamental Literature – Enoch, Jubilees, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs
(all written between 200 BC and AD 100); not accepted by either Jews or
Christians
Lost Letters – St. Paul’s Letter to Laodicea, another Letter to the Corinthians
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
ST. AUGUSTINE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THEOLOGY
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Influence of St. Augustine
Personal background – student of Dr. Frederick Van Fleteren, teacher of Confessions
First great Church theologian, one of the two greatest theologians, with St. Thomas Aquinas
Catechism of the Catholic Church: Augustine quoted 85 times to Aquinas’ 58 times
Liturgy of the Hours: Augustine: 82 readings (St. Ambrose and St. Leo the Great: 26 each)
Total output surviving: 113 books, 218 letters, 500+ sermons
Topics of writings: Scripture commentary, music, care of the dead, Church unity, the creed,
fasting, lying, marriage, morality, patience, the immortality of the soul, the Trinity, just war
Theological influence: grace, original sin, theology of history, interpretation of Scripture
Monastic Rule of St. Augustine used by: Augustinians, Dominicans, Ursulines
The Church and World of St. Augustine
Manichaeism – Founded by Mani (c. 216-276), Persian teacher and mystic; combination of
Gnosticism, Zoroastrianism, and Pauline Christianity; based on a primeval conflict
between light and darkness – an equality between good and evil; the object of religion is to
release the particles of light Satan had stolen from the world and had imprisoned in men’s
minds; Jesus, Buddha, the prophets, and Mani were sent by God to release these particles
of light
Donatism – half of the Church in northern Africa belonged to this schismatic sect that
refused to recognize the ordination of Caecilian as bishop of Carthage in 311 because he
had been consecrated by a traditor who had betrayed the Christian faith during Roman
persecution; any sacraments conferred by traditors were invalid; rebaptized Catholics who
joined with the Donatists
Pelagianism – named for Pelagius, British monk; taught that man can take the initial and
fundamental steps toward salvation by his own efforts, apart from divine grace
The Church in northern Africa – c. 400, Christian and Roman; Christians in northern Africa
were widespread, but divided; at least 400 bishops; rooted in the Roman empire, Roman
literature, and Greek philosophy
Important Dates in St. Augustine’s Life
354 – Nov. 13, born at Thagaste
372 – death of Patrick, birth of Adeodatus
383 – travel to Rome
386 – (July) conversion in Milan
387 – April 23, baptized at Milan
388 – Monica’s death; return to Africa
389 – Adeodatus’ death
391 – ordained priest at Hippo
395 – bishop of Hippo
397-400 – writes Confessions
413-426 – writes The City of God
430 – August 28, dies at Hippo
Confessions : St. Augustine’s Biography and Conversion
**Note: Book (I), chapter (i), and paragraph (1) citations are common to all modern editions of
Confessions; page numbers refer to the Oxford UP edition translated by Henry Chadwick.**
Context – written shortly after becoming Bishop to give an explanation of his life’s journey
and to refute concerns about his faith, the validity of his baptism, and the sincerity of his
conversion
Style – a long prayer addressed to God
Confessions II. i (1), p. 24: Address to God
Content – Books I-IX: autobiography; Book X: Memory; Book XI: Time; Book XII:
Creation; Book XIII: Genesis
Family
Father – Patrick (Patricius); pagan until baptized on his deathbed
Confessions IX. ix (19), p. 168-169: Monica and Patrick’s Marriage
Mother – Monica (Monnica); Christian, brought up Augustine as a catechumen
Confessions I. xi (17), p. 13-14: On becoming a Catechumen and the faith of his family
Monica’s “weakness for wine;” patron of alcoholics
Confessions IX. Viii (18), p. 167-168: Monica rebuked
Monica’s death at Ostia, the port of Rome (buried at Santa Maria d’Aracoeli, Rome)
Confessions IX. xii (29, 30), p. 174-175: Monica dies
Confessions IX. xiii (37), p. 178: Remembrance of Monica and Patrick
Early Life
Episode of the Pear Tree: Reflection on good and evil
Confessions II. ix (17), p. 33-34: Alone I would not have done it
Student of literature and philosophy: Virgil, Cicero; becomes Manichaean
Confessions IV. i (1), p. 52: Manichaean Life
Friendship: distraught over death of a friend, reflects on value of friendship
Confessions IV. vii (12), p. 59-60: Mourning a lost friend
Confessions IV. viii (13), p. 60-61: “What we love in friends”
Augustine takes a concubine and fathers a child: Adeodatus
Confessions II. I (1), p. 24: Adolescent urgings
Confessions IV. ii (2), p. 53: The concubine
Development of Faith and Conversion
Travel to Rome: as a teacher of rhetoric
Confessions V. viii (14), p. 80: Students in Rome and Carthage
Confessions V. ix (16), p. 82-83: Physical sickness vs. spiritual sickness
Move to Milan as a teacher of rhetoric and introduction to Ambrose
Confessions V. xiii (23), p. 87-88): Ambrose the bishop
Confessions VI. xv (25), p. 109: Too many women
Conversion in a garden in Milan
Confessions VIII. Xii (28-29), p. 152-153: Pick up and read
Confessions IX. vi (14), p. 163-164: Baptism
St. Augustine’s Life after Confessions and the Development of Theology
Return to Africa; ordained priest and then bishop
Worked to combat Donatism and Pelagianism as a way to preserve the faith and unify the
Church
Developed doctrine of original sin and salvation by grace in response to Pelagius: nature was
created good by God, something went wrong, it was Adam’s fault, not God’s, Christ
repairs that wrong through grace
Spent considerable time preparing catechumens for baptism and explaining the Christian faith
to the newly-baptized
Developed a theology for a Church of sinners, not saints
St. Augustine’s Death
Vandals reached northern Africa in 429 and began to siege the city of Hippo; Augustine fell ill
with a fever as the Vandals were attacking the city; he asked to be left alone so he could
pray; he asked for large-print copies of the penitential Psalms to be put on the walls of his
cell so that he could pray, repenting of his sins; he died on August 28, 430; Hippo fell to
the Vandals a year later
St. Augustine is buried in Pavia, Italy
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
ST. LEO THE GREAT, ST. GREGORY THE GREAT,
AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PAPACY
SPEAKER’S NOTES
St. Peter – The First Bishop of Rome
• Matthew 16.18-19: “You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my Church. … I will
give you keys to the kingdom of heaven.”
• Luke 22.32: “You must strengthen your brothers.”
• John 21.15-17: “Feed my sheep.”
• Acts 1.15-26: Peter presides over choosing a replacement for Judas
• Traveled to Rome, where he lived for up to 25 years
• Martyred under persecutions of Nero c. 64; buried on the Vatican Hill
• Why is Peter more important than the other apostles? Clearly chosen as a leader by Jesus
and seen as leader by the early Church; more mention of Peter in NT than any of the other
12 apostles
• Why Rome? Capital of the empire, center of politics, law, culture, communication; location
of death and tombs of Ss. Peter and Paul, as determined by God’s providence
• Why Pope? Successor to St. Peter as Bishop of Rome and as pastor or shepherd of the
universal Church; instrument of unity of faith and morals; head of the college of bishops
St. Victor I and the Quartodeciman Controversy
• Early example of the authority and decision of the Bishop of Rome affecting the universal
Church
• Controversy: date of annual celebration of Easter
o Quartodecimans – celebrated Easter on 14 Nisan, the Jewish Passover, no matter
what day of the week it fell on (Asia Minor)
o Roman and Alexandrian custom – celebrated Easter on the Sunday following the
Jewish Passover
• Pope St. Victor I (189-198) held synods to address the discrepancy and declared that the
Roman practice of celebrating Easter on Sunday should prevail in the universal Church;
declared the Quartodecimans excluded from communion (unity) with the Church in Rome
and the universal Church; first example of the Pope exercising authority over other
churches
• Quartodecimans continued to celebrated Easter on 14 Nisan until the Ecumenical Council
of Nicaea, which again condemned the practice
St. Stephen I and the Novatian Controversy
• Example of other churches appealing to Rome to settle a question of faith and morals
• Controversy: forgiveness of lapsed Christians
o Novatian: Christians who had denied the faith under persecutions can never be
reconciled with the Church, even on their deathbeds; supported by Cyprian of
Carthage in question of baptisms performed by traditores: these baptisms were not
valid
o Catholic position: Reconciliation is possible
• Bishops from Gaul and Spain appealed to Pope St. Stephen I (254-257) to declare the
Church’s position
• St. Stephen I sided with Roman tradition (as well as Alexandrian and Palestinian) that
lapsed Christians could be reconciled with the Church and that baptisms performed by
traditores were valid
• St. Stephens’ position and authority were upheld by his successor, Pope St. Sixtus II
St. Leo the Great (440-461)
• Pope during declining days of the Western Roman empire; Rome had been sacked in 410,
and continued to be attacked and occupied by barbarians
• Began to use the authority and influence of the papacy in temporal as well as spiritual
matters
• In 452, personally went out of Rome to meet Attila the Hun and convinced him not to
attack Rome; in 455, met with Gaiseric the Vandal and, while unable to convince him not
to invade Rome, won a “peaceful invasion” that consisted only of looting and seizing the
city
• Spoke with the authority of St. Peter in dealing with other churches and on doctrinal
matters
• Sent his Tome to the Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, where it was received as
authoritative: “This is the faith of the Fathers and of the Apostles. This we all believe.
Peter has spoken through Leo.”
• First Pope to be given the name “Great;” first Pope after Peter to be buried in St. Peter’s
Basilica (148 of 265 deceased popes are buried in St. Peter’s); one of two popes to be
declared Doctors of the Church (with St. Gregory the Great)
St. Gregory the Great (590-604)
• Born into a wealthy Roman family; educated in legal studies; became Prefect of Rome, the
highest political office in the city; one of the richest men in Rome; gave up his career to
become a monk; used his wealth to found monasteries; first monk elected Pope
• Primary achievements as Pope: 1) established the Pope as temporal ruler of central Italy,
what became the papal states, organizing a feeding program for a population left starving
after barbarian invasions; 2) strengthened papal primacy over other churches; 3) worked to
convert the barbarians and to evangelize in England; 4) wrote a lasting collection of
theological and spiritual writings, including Pastoral Care on the role of the bishop as
shepherd of souls
• Strengthened the Church and the Papacy as the dominant unifying force of Europe in the
Middle Ages
• Began unification of liturgy, composing many prayers for the liturgy and having some
connection to the development of Gregorian Chant, which is named for him
• Second Pope to be given the name “Great;” one of two popes to be declared Doctors of
the Church (with St. Gregory the Great); one of the four great Doctors of the Western
Church (with Jerome, Ambrose, and Augustine)
Significant Popes of the First Christian Millennium
There were 140 Popes in the First Christian Millennium, from St. Peter to Pope Sylvester II (17 below, plus
one antipope)
St. Linus (c. 66-c. 78) – first successor of St. Peter, appointed by Ss. Peter and Paul;
mentioned as a companion of St. Paul in 2 Timothy 4.21; mentioned in Roman Canon
St. Cletus/Anacletus (c. 79-c. 91) – erected first monument to St. Peter; mentioned in Roman
Canon
St. Clement I (c. 91-c. 101) – possibly mentioned by St. Paul in Phil. 4.3; wrote letter to the
Church in Corinth, first example of the Church in Rome taking an interest in the
intervention of Rome with other communities; Church of San Clemente in Rome built
over his house
St Victor I (189-198) – African; first Latin-speaking Pope; first Pope known to have dealings
with the imperial household (in freeing Christian slaves using the influence of a Christian
imperial mistress); exercised the authority of Rome in setting the feast of Easter on a
Sunday, against the Quartodecimans
St. Hippolytus (antipope 217-235) – priest and chief theologian in Rome; wrote extensively,
including the Apostolic Tradition, which includes the oldest existing Eucharistic Prayer; when
a theologically-dubious man became Pope (Callistus I), Hippolytus set himself up as
bishop of a small, schismatic group in Rome, becoming the first antipope; continued as
“bishop of Rome” through three papacies; eventually was reconciled with the Church of
Rome and the Pope; commemorated on the same day as Pontian, who was Pope when he
was antipope and with whom he reconciled
St. Stephen I (254-257) – exercised authority of Rome and the Pope against Cyprian and other
north Africans who followed Novatian; allowed reconciliation of lapsed Christians with
the Church
St. Sylvester I (314-335) – Pope during the reign of Constantine, the legalization of
Christianity, and the Council of Nicaea; his influence was negligible next to the authority
and influence of Constantine
St. Damasus (366-384) – Pope during the Second Ecumenical Council of Constantinople, but
did not take part; first widespread reference to the papacy as the “Apostolic See;”
commissioned St. Jerome to translate the Bible into Latin (the Vulgate)
St. Leo I the Great (440-461) – see above
St. Gelasius I (492-496) – used private wealth to relieve famine and feed the poor; first Pope
to be referred to as the “Vicar of Christ;” developed an understanding of the differing yet
complementary roles of secular and religious authorities – both received their authority
from God, but the religious authority was superior because it was concerned with
salvation; several prayers in the Sacramentary are attributed to him
St. John I (523-526) – commissioned Dionysius Exiguus to compute the date of Easter and
thus the date of the birth of Christ
Pope John II (533-535) – born Mercury; first Pope to take a new name
St. Gregory I the Great (590-604) – see above
St. Martin I (649-653) – last Pope to be venerated as a martyr (died of cold, starvation, and
harsh treatment after being deposed because of his opposition to heresies that were
supported by the Emperor)
Stephen [II] (752) – died of a stroke four days after his election, before being consecrated;
canon law at different times in history has seen either election or consecration to be
necessary to become Pope; generally not considered a Pope because he was not
consecrated
St. Leo III (795-816) – crowned Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor
Pope John VIII (872-882) – political Pope, leading forces to unite southern Italy against
Muslims ; first Pope to be assassinated (poisoned and then clubbed to death)
Pope Formosus (891-896) – on the losing side of political rivalries in Italy, supporting Arnulf
of the Franks over Lambert of Spoleto; nine months after his death, Pope Stephen VI
[VII], a supporter of Lambert, put Formosus on trial for perjury, coveting the papal
throne, and violating canons forbidding the translation of bishops; Formosus’ body was
exhumed, put on a throne in full pontifical vestments, and put on trial, with a deacon
answering for him; found guilty, with all his papal acts and ordinations considered null and
invalid; the three fingers of his right hand used for blessing were chopped off, and his
body was thrown into the Tiber River; a hermit retrieved the body and buried it; the
populace of Rome revolted, deposed Stephen and put him in jail, where he was strangled
to death; rehabilitated by Pope Theodore II (897), who ordered his recovered body to be
clothed in pontifical vestments and reinterred in St. Peter’s
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
FROM ST. BENEDICT TO CLUNY: THE DEVELOPMENT OF MONASTICISM
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Ascetic Movement
Early in the Church, but the fourth century, some Christians had the desire to live a simple
life away from the problems posed by politics, wealth, and possessions; devoted their entire
lives to detaching themselves from the world in order to live for Christ; spent their time in
prayer and doing works of mercy; most of the early ascetics did this as individuals, but they
gradually became organized.
The Desert Fathers – hermits living in Egypt in the second half of the fourth century; greatly
revered for their wisdom; individuals would visit them asking, “Speak to me a word, father,
that I may live;”
The Stylites – individuals who lived for long periods on top of columns, trying to live as
simple a life as possible, with no shade from the sun, little food, little clothing, and little
contact with the world; e.g., Symeon the Stylite (390-459) in Syria and Daniel the Stylite
(409-493) in Constantinople, who spent 33 years on a column
St. Antony of Egypt (251-356) – most famous of the early hermits; renounced his family
wealth, giving the money to the poor, and moved farther and farther into the desert;
attracted followers, for whom he founded monasteries, although he preferred the solitary
life; biography written by St. Athanasius; known as the Father of Monasticism
St. Pachomius (c. 290-c. 346) – contemporary of St. Antony; began as a hermit, but felt called
to found monasteries in Egypt based on a communal life (coenobium), called cenobites;
stressed obedience to a superior and community life based on a rule; wrote earliest known
rule for monks
St. Basil the Great (329-379) – saw the value of the ascetic movement, but it was separated
from the structure and life of the Church; worked to bring monasticism into the fold of
the Church by having monastic communities be governed by a Rule and subject to the
authority of the local bishop; Archbishop of Caesarea; known as the Father of Eastern
Monasticism
St. Benedict (480-547) – The Father of Western Monasticism
Biography – born in Nursia (Umbria) during the age of barbarians, after the fall of Rome and
the Western Roman Empire; studied law in Rome, but became discouraged with the
paganism he saw there; retreated to a cave near Subiaco (30 mi. east of Rome), where he
lived as a hermit for three years; was asked by a group of monks to become their abbot,
and he reluctantly agreed; the monks were undisciplined and thought him to be too strict
and so tried to poison him, but he survived; left Subiaco and founded 12 monasteries of 12
monks each, including Monte Cassino (80 mi. southeast of Rome) where he lived and
wrote his Rule for monks; named patron of Europe
St. Scholastica – sister of St. Benedict (possibly twin); head of first monastery for women that
followed the Rule; visited her brother annually and they had intense theological discussions
Abbey of Monte Cassino – most important Benedictine monastery, founded in 529; destroyed
by Lombards in 577, by the Saracens in 833, by earthquake in 1349, by Napoleon’s army in
1798, and by Allied bombings during World War II in 1944; rebuilt in 1964
The Rule of St. Benedict – written to govern the daily life of the Abbey of Monte Cassino;
topics include: election and role of the abbot, arrangements of the psalms for prayer; how
to correct faults among monks; clothing; procedure for becoming a monk; obedience;
humility; reception of guests; often summarized as Ora et Labora, “Prayer and Work,”
although this phrase does not occur in the Rule
Excerpts From the RB (The Rule of St. Benedict in English, The Liturgical Press: 1982)
Purpose of the Rule: Prologue 1-3 (p. 15)
Death and Everlasting Life: 4.46-47 (p. 28)
Sleeping and waking: 22.5-8 (p. 49)
Communal Ownership: 33.1-3 (p. 56)
Manual Labor: 48.1 (p. 69)
Lent: 49.1-3 (p. 71)
Guests: 53.1-2 (p. 73)
Monastic Promises: 58.17 (p. 79)
The Spread of Monasticism
The influence of individual monks – like St. Gregory the Great – led to the spread of
Benedictine monasticism; monasteries that became too large broke apart and formed new
monasteries; monastic living became a popular way of Christian living throughout Europe,
especially as monasteries became centers of learning – they were one of the few places men
could receive an education or be guaranteed a stable livelihood; missionaries who were monks
helped spread monasticism: Ss. Patrick (Ireland), Augustine of Canterbury (England),
Boniface (Germany), Columban (Gaul); Charlemagne (c. 800) promoted use of the Rule of St.
Benedict; monasteries became the center of religious life for towns
The Reforms of Cluny
The Challenge of Feudalism – as feudalism developed in the Dark Ages, feudal lords
exercised more and more control over the church, having great say in appointing bishops
and abbots; local bishops and abbots were often selected because of their skill in managing
farms and towns, not for religious reasons, and owed loyalty to secular rulers; simony and
nepotism were rampant
The Monastery of Cluny – founded in 910 by a William the Pious, Duke of Acquitaine; its
charter declared that it would be independent of any control by secular rulers; the abbot
was elected only by the monks and answered only to the Pope – thus, Cluny broke free of
the feudal system and it became possible for the Church to bring about renewal and
reform; several holy abbots developed Cluny into a monastery of prayer and good works
and spread their charism throughout Europe; hundreds of European monasteries
reformed themselves and asked to be governed by the abbot of Cluny; the abbot of Cluny
became second only to the Pope in Church influence in Europe; Gregory VII was a monk
of Cluny
The Influence of Monasticism
Church Hierarchy – by 1300: 24 popes, 200 cardinals, 7,000 archbishops, 15,000 bishops
Saints – by 1300, 1,500 canonized saints
European nobility – by 1300, many members of the nobility entered monasteries near the end
of their lives, including: 20 emperors, 10 empresses, 47 kings, 50 queens
Agriculture – monasteries were often established in out-of-the-way areas on land that no one
else wanted, or that had not been able to be cultivated; monks learned how to convert
swamps and forests to farmland; developed methods of irrigation; became experts at cattle
breeding; spread farming techniques throughout Europe; at the height of monasticism,
monasteries owned 1/5 of the land in Europe
Alcoholic Beverages – developed techniques for making wine and beer on a large scale; using
hops in beer was developed at a monastery; the world’s oldest continually operating
brewery is Weihenstephan Abbey Brewery outside of Munich; champagne was invented by
a monk, Dom Pierre Perignon of St. Peter’s Abbey in France
Machinery and Technology – monks were far ahead of their time in developing machinery,
especially for use in farming and other trades; used waterpower for crushing wheat, fulling
cloth, and tanning leather
Clockmaking – first clock in recorded history was made in 996 by a monk of Cluny named
Gerbert, who later became Pope Sylvester II (999-1003)
Inns and Hospitality – in welcoming all guests as Christ, monasteries were known as the most
hospitably inns for travelers and pilgrims throughout Europe
Hospitals and Medicine – monks trained in medicine were the most accomplished physicians
of the Middle Ages; hospitals and infirmaries at monasteries preserved and advanced
medical techniques
Learning – monasteries preserved literacy through the Dark Ages
Scriptoria – monks copied manuscripts of Greek philosophy and Latin literature, in addition
to the Bible; without these copies, the Bible may not have survived the barbarian
invasions, and much of classical learning would have been lost
And much more … architecture, music, mathematics, astronomy, genetics (Gregor Mendel in
the 19th Century)
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
CHARLEMAGNE AND THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE
SPEAKER’S NOTES
Christian Life in the Early Middle Ages (c. 476-800)
God as Ruler – people had little control over their lives (disease, environment, occupation,
travel); there was a clear sense that God ruled creation; Christians identified with the
suffering Jesus and hoped for the joy of heaven as a reward for earthly hardship; God
looked down on them, blessing the good and punishing the wicked
The Mass and Sacraments – Sunday Mass is central to the lives of all Christians, although it
began to become unintelligible because the language of the liturgy continued to be Latin
even as new vernacular languages emerged; Mass became a way for the faithful to glimpse
heaven while enduring the most difficult of lives on earth; little participation of the people
and infrequent communion became standard; baptism was important for newborns
because of high infant mortality rates; reconciliation took the form of public penitence for
the most serious sins
Veneration of Saints – became widespread during the Early Middle Ages as intercessors in
heaven; relics were treasured in local churches; saints’ feast days begin to appear in local
calendars
The Clergy – qualifications for the priesthood became uniform: not done public penance, not
served in the army, not paid for pagan games, not been a pagan priest, literate, not a
proven criminal, not physically deformed; priests often chosen by local townspeople or
lords; no formal training or education (seminaries not established until the 16th Century
Council of Trent) – candidates for the priesthood underwent a three-day oral exam on the
basics of the Catholic faith; duties of priests: celebrate sacraments, bury the dead, care for
the sick, arrange for the needs of the poor; celibacy encouraged (especially after Gregory
the Great), but not required (until 1139, Second Lateran Ecumenical Council)
From the Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the Rise of Charlemagne
Barbarian leadership – from 476 onward, the Western part of Europe had no centralized
leadership; barbarian chieftains exercised limited authority in small areas; leaders moved
often, with no well-built towns or fortifications; little trade or commerce between towns,
which were all self-sufficient
Clovis (d. 511) and the Franks – most barbarian tribes were Arian Christians, but the Franks
in northern Europe were pagan; led by their king, Clovis, a fierce warrior, many Frankish
tribes united in the 490s; Clovis married a Catholic princess, Clothilda; found on the losing
side of a battle, Clovis prayed to God, and he won the battle; Clovis was baptized in 496
along with more than 3,000 of his soldiers; as he continued to conquer central Europe,
especially Gaul, he was welcomed by local bishops and convinced more tribes to become
Catholic Christians; Clovis died in 511 and his descendents, the Merovingian kings,
continued his legacy
Pepin the Short (d. 768) and the Donation – in evangelizing northern Europe, St. Boniface
worked closely with the Franks and their leaders, crowning Pepin as King of the Franks in
751, the beginning of the tangled tension between church and state; lacking a unified
government, the Popes turned to the Franks asking for protection from invasion; Pope
Stephen II traveled across the Alps in 753 to meet with Pepin, asking him for protection,
which he pledged; in return for the papal support of his rule, Pepin issued what is called
the Donation of Pepin in 756, a decree granting the land of central Italy to the papacy to
govern; the Papal States endured until 1870; Pope Stephen named Pepin and his two sons,
Carloman and Charles, “Patricians of the Romans”
Charlemagne
Biography – Charles, the second son of Pepin the Short; given half of the Kingdom of the
Franks upon his father’s death in 768; his brother Carloman died in 771, leaving Charles
the entire kingdom; expanded his father’s kingdom through military campaigns, brining
Christianity to the peoples he conquered; organized the Kingdom of the Franks as a
unified empire, from the Atlantic to southern Italy and from the Pyrenees to the Elbe –
virtually all of the former Western Roman Empire; given the French name Charles the
Great, Charlemagne
Coronation as Emperor – continued to protect Rome and the Pope and to spread
Christianity; while in Rome in 800, Leo III unexpectedly crowned Charlemagne on
Christmas Day in St. Peter’s Basilica: “Hail to Charles the Augustus, crowned of God, the
great and peace-bringing Emperor of the Romans”
The Holy Roman Empire – lasted in some form from Charlemagne to Francis II in 1806;
boundaries fluctuated, but centered on modern-day Germany; historically seen as not holy,
Roman, or an empire, but claimed these titles:
Holy: title of emperor given by God through the Pope, emperor was military protector
of the papacy
Roman: empire covered much of the area of the historic Western Roman Empire,
emperor crowned in Rome, wanted to replicate the unity and success of the Roman
Empire
Empire: controlled a large number of kingdoms, each with their own languages, history,
and customs
The Ideal of Christendom – a united Europe with a common Christian faith, a single society
and government in which the Pope and the Emperor worked together; conflict: who was
the ultimate authority – Pope or Emperor? Settled as the Pope with the reforms of Pope
Gregory VII
Influence on the Church – Charlemagne founded schools to educate the men of power in
Europe, using monks as teachers; encouraged the building of monasteries and promoted
the use of the Rule of St. Benedict; attempted to educate and reform corrupt clergy;
promoted uniformity of worship throughout his Empire, enforcing the use of Latin in the
Mass and commissioning uniform liturgical books
The Breakdown of the Empire – Louis the Pious succeeded his father, Charlemagne, as
Emperor , until his death in 840; the empire was divided among his three sons: Charles the
Bald (France), Lewis the German (Germany), and Lothar (The Middle Kingdom and
Lombardy), who were constantly quarrelling and divided; the empire crumbled completely
under Viking and Magyar invasions in the 880s and 890s, ushering in the era of feudalism
with no universal government or authority; the easternmost part of the Empire, modern
day Germany, was revived under Otto the Great (d. 973) who was crowned by Pope John
XII in 962 (the first of Germany’s three reichs), who with his successors exercised great
control over the Popes, including reserving the right to approve their election; St. Henry II
(973-1024), became Holy Roman Emperor in 995 and was crowned by the Pope in 1014;
friends with St. Odilo, Abbot of Cluny, and helped spread reforms in the Church and
empire; married to St. Cunegunda (978-1033), who was crowned with him by the Pope;
childless; entered a Benedictine convent after Henry’s death
The Edges of Europe and Royal Saints
The Magyars – a nomadic people from the borders of Asia who migrated to an unpopulated
area in Eastern Europe; lived by pillaging and plundering farms, monasteries, and villages,
but never fortified cities; were so ferocious in their attacks that they were called cannibals
or vampires; defeated by Emperor Henry I in 933
St. Stephen of Hungary (975-1038) – king of Hungary, married to the sister of St. Henry
II, the Holy Roman Emperor; worked to spread Christianity by appealing to the fact
that the Pope had given him the title of king and his crown, which still survives;
established church order and structure through dioceses and monasteries (including the
Archabbey of Pannonhalma); united the Magyars into a single kingdom with
Christianity as its religion, using the force of the state to spread the faith
The Slavs – the peoples of Eastern Europe, the ancestors of the Czechs, Croatians, Slovaks,
Serbians, Bulgarians, Poles, and Russians; some were connected to the Eastern Church,
some to the Western Church (first missionaries were German, most successful
missionaries were Greek); most Slavs were Christian by 1000; Prince Mieszko (d. 990),
unified Poland and presented his kingdom as a vassal state to the Pope, thus becoming
connected with Western Christianity; the first ruler of a unified Russia, Vladimir (d. 1015),
allied himself with the Byzantine Church and became connected with Eastern Christianity
Ss. Cyril (826-869) and Methodius (815-885) – sent by the Byzantine emperor from Greece
to evangelize the Slavic people; developed an alphabet for their language, which at that
time had no written form (called the Cyrillic alphabet, still used today); translated the
Gospels into Slavic and converted many people; named co-patrons of Europe by Pope
John Paul II
St. Wenceslaus (907-929) – duke of Bohemia, generous ruler who worked for the religious
and educational improvement of his people; killed by his brother, Boleslav’s, followers
for recognizing the leadership of the Holy Roman Emperor; the events of the
Christmas carol are not known to have a basis in fact
The Vikings – men from the north, “Norsemen,” who came in the 800s in boats first looking
and leaving, later settling in northern France (Normandy), England, Ireland, and Eastern
Europe; brought pagan religion and customs, but quickly intermarried with Christians after
settling in mainland Europe; at the same time, Christian missionaries traveled to the land
of the Vikings and converted their leaders, who brought the entire region to Christianity
St. Olaf (995-1030) – king of Norway; became Christian while fighting in Normandy;
brought peace and security to Norway; converted Norway to Christianity, sometimes
using force and persuasion; killed in battle after being deposed by the king of England
and Denmark; patron of Norway
St. Eric (d. 1160) – king of Sweden; showed great favor to the Church, helping to
consolidate Christianity in Sweden and evangelize Finland; established monasteries;
codified laws; insistent that tithes be paid to the Church, for which he was murdered by
soldiers hired by unhappy Swedes; patron of Sweden
The Challenges of the High Middle Ages – 800-1216
Uneducated population and clergy
Feudal society without cities
Tension between the Church and the Empire
Lay Investiture
Corruption of Popes and Bishops
Lack of centralization and communication in the Church
Spiritual mediocrity
And the response …
Papal reform under Gregory VII (d. 1085)
Scholastic Theology
Mendicant Religious Orders – Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites, Augustinians
Monastic reforms of Cluny and St. Bernard of Clairvaux
Universities and Cathedral Schools
Resurgence of monasteries and cathedrals as the centers of life and culture
The building of cathedrals
CHURCH HISTORY: FROM PENTECOST TO THE GREAT SCHISM
THE GREAT SCHISM: EAST AND WEST SPLIT
SPEAKER’S NOTES
The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christianity
The Division of the Roman Empire – initial spread of Christianity was unified because it
existed in a united empire: common culture, unified government; Constantine founded a
second capital in the East (Constantinople), and the eastern and western parts of the
empire began to be ruled by different emperors
The Barbarian Invasions and the Fall of the Western Roman Empire – invasions in the 5th and
6th centuries affected primarily the Western Roman Empire; after Rome fell and the last
Western Emperor abdicated, there was no unity in the West; the East was not affected by
these barbarian invasions and continued to be ruled by an Emperor from Constantinople
The Influence of Islam – in the 7th and 8th centuries, Muslims began to control travel and
commerce in the Mediterranean Sea; communication, cultural contact, and trade between
the Eastern Empire and the remnants of the Western Empire became much more difficult
The Iconoclast Controversy – 8th century controversy over the use of icons; Iconoclasts were
suspicious of any form of art that tried to represent God or the saints, seen as possibly
idolatrous; Iconodules defended the use of icons as “opened books to remind us of God,”
made possibly and necessary by a complete understanding of the incarnation, in which
God took human form to be seen in person and in images; the Second Ecumenical
Council of Nicaea (787) accepted the use of icons; the Popes had always accepted the use
of images of God and the saints, while the Eastern Church was in the midst of the
Iconoclast controversy; Second Council of Nicaea is last Ecumenical Council accepted by
both the East and the West
The Alliance between the Pope and the Franks – when Pope Stephen needed protection from
invading barbarian tribes in 754, he was refused help by the Byzantine Emperor and thus
turned to Pepin, King of the Franks; the alliance between the Pope and the Franks and the
creation of the Holy Roman Empire further divided the former parts of the Roman
Empire
Language Barriers – Greek became the standard language of the Eastern Empire, and Latin
the standard language of the areas of the former Western Empire; by 450, virtually no one
in the West were fluent in Greek; by 600, virtually no one in the East was fluent in Latin;
the two cultures no longer read the same books or shared the same literary sources, and
could not readily communicate with one another
Differing forms of Church Governance – Rome was the only city in the West founded by an
apostle and so had unique preeminence; several cities in the East were founded by apostles
and had more of a sense of an equality of jurisdiction and episcopal leadership; the loss of
Imperial leadership in the west led to more universal recognition of the leadership of the
Papacy as a source of unity
Theological Disputes
The Papacy – Five traditional Patriarchates in the Church: Rome in the West and
Constantinople, Antioch, Alexandria, and Jerusalem in the East; the Eastern Church
model of collegial pastoral leadership conflicted with the Western church model of papal
primacy; the Byzantines recognized the Pope as having a Primacy of honor among all the
Patriarchs, but not a universal jurisdiction by which the Pope had the right to hear appeals
brought against other Patriarchs or issue universally binding teachings
Filioque – “… and the Son,” first inserted into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed in Spain
in the 6th century (evidenced at the Council of Toledo in 589), brought to the Carolingian
court and through there to Rome; not universally used in the West until the 11th century
(Pope Leo III agreed it was doctrinally sound but did not want to change the wording of
the Creed); two Orthodox objections: 1) the Creed is the universal statement of the
Church and was agreed to at Ecumenical Councils; filioque was added by a local Church in
the West (and eventually the entire Western Church) without consulting the Churches in
the East; 2) most Orthodox consider filioque to be theologically untrue, that the Holy Spirit
proceeds from the Father through the Son
Other differences in Church worship and discipline – priestly celibacy (encouraged and then
required in the West, married clergy allowed in the East); different rules on fasting; type of
bread used at Eucharist (unleavened in the West, leavened in the East)
The Diptychs – the Papacy had adopted the use of filioque in the Creed by the early 11th
century; beginning in 1009, the Pope’s name did not appear in the Diptychs (lists kept by
each Patriarch of all other Patriarchs his Church was in communion with; a sign of unity
within the Church); technically, the Churches of Rome and Constantinople were out of
communion when the names of the Pope and the Patriarch were not included in each
other’s Diptych
1054: The Bull of Excommunication
Controversy – Norman conquerors in northern Italy were requiring Greek churches there to
conform to Latin practices; in response, the Patriarch of Constantinople required Latin
churches there to conform to Greek practices (the type of bread used at the Eucharist was
at the heart of the quarrel); Patriarch Michael Cerularius of Constantinople extended an
offer of reconciliation Pope Leo IX, offering to add the Pope’s name back to his Diptych
Cardinal Humbert travels to Constantinople – Pope Leo IX sent legates to Patriarch
Celuarius, including Cardinal Humbert of Silva Candida; Humbert and Cerularius both had
tempers and did not meet on good terms; talks between the Papal legates and the Patriarch
and Emperor saw escalated anger and controversy
July 16, 1054 – Cardinal Humbert walked into the Church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople
during Mass and laid a bull on the altar excommunicating Patriarch Cerularius, Emperor
Michael Constantine, and all their followers, ceremoniously shaking the dust off their feet
as they left the church; the people rioted; the Patriarch and Emperor tried to ignore the
Bull, but subsequent Popes continued to acknowledge the schism
Accusations against the Patriarch and the Eastern Church – simony, rebaptizing Latins,
allowing priests to marry, baptizing women in labor, forsaking the Mosaic Law, refusing
communion to clean-shaven men, omitting a clause in the Creed
The Sack of Constantinople
The First Crusade – Eastern and Western leaders cooperated together on the first Crusade
(1098-1099), recapturing Antioch and Jerusalem from the Turks; Eastern and Western
Christians worshipped together in the Holy Places of Jerusalem
The Fourth Crusade – called by Pope Innocent III, one of the military leaders, Alexius, the
son of the deposed Byzantine Emperor, diverted the troops to Constantinople and
promised great rewards if the troops captured the city and placed him on the throne; the
Pope was not consulted, but the troops followed Alexius
1204 – the Christian armies, commissioned by the Pope but acting under the orders of
Alexius, sacked the city of Constantinople, not even sparing the churches; Nicetas
Choniates: “Even the Saracens are merciful and kind, compared with these men who bear
the Cross of Christ on their shoulders;” final, lasting breach between East and West
Summary of the Schism: The Orthodox Church, p. 60-61
The Eastern Orthodox Church Today
Structure – a community of self-governing Churches united by a common faith and
communion in the sacraments; not united by a centralized organization
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople – holds a position of honor among the Churches, but
no jurisdictional authority over other Churches; 270th successor of St. Andrew; currently
His All Holiness Bartholomew
Autocephalous Churches: Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, Russia (100
million), Serbia, Romania, Bulgaria, Georgia, Cyprus, Greece (9 million), Poland, Albania,
Czech Lands and Slovakia, America (1 million)
Autonomous Churches: Sinai, Finland, Japan, Ukraine
Orthodox Churches in the United States: Greek, Antioch, Serbian, Russia, Romania, Bulgaria,
America, Ukraine, Albania
Eastern Catholic Churches in communion with Rome exist in parallel to most of these
Churches; e.g., Greek Catholic Church
Dialogue between East and West
January 1964 – Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras met in Jerusalem – first
meeting of the two leaders since 1439 (each subsequent Pope has met with the Ecumenical
Patriarch)
December 7, 1965 – the anathemas of 1054 were revoked at simultaneous ceremonies in
Rome and Constantinople
1980 – Joint International Commission for theological dialogue between Orthodoxy and
Roman Catholicism formed
Pope John Paul II formally apologized to the Church of Constantinople for the Sack of 1204
Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew attended the funeral of Pope John Paul II in 2005, along
with patriarchs, metropolitans, and bishops representing every Orthodox Autocephalous
Church (first time since the great Schism; he was seated in the honorary first seat of
Church representatives)
Representatives from the Ecumenical Patriarch visit Rome each year on June 29 for the Feast
of Ss. Peter and Paul; representatives from the Pope visit Istanbul each year on November
30 for the Feast of St. Andrew
Central issues today: papal primacy and filioque