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11/16/2015 Outline: Emancipation 1. McPherson v. Berlin 2. My argument 3. Grand strategy in the Civil War 4. The war stalemates 5. The search for alternatives to the battlefield 6. The offer of the enslaved 7. Congress moves first 8. Lincoln’s big moment 9. The political costs 10. Conclusion Outline: Emancipation 1. McPherson v. Berlin • James M. McPherson, "Who Freed the Slaves?" in Drawn with the Sword: Reflections on the American Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 192-207. • Ira Berlin, "Who Freed the Slaves? Emancipation and Its Meaning," in Major Problems in the Civil War and Reconstruction, Michael Perman, ed., 2nd ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998), 288-97. • Which argument did you find more persuasive? Why? What did you like about each approach? 1 11/16/2015 The debate • Classically posed historical debate • McPherson: hopes to revise a revision • So what is the “orthodox” or “traditional” view? • The centrality of problem (question)-based history • Problems in history are usually good, because they help convey a sense of the “so what?” • But not all problems are equal…. McPherson • Successful prosecution of the war was the “sine qua non” of emancipation • Lincoln was the sine qua non of a successful war • Thus Lincoln was the sine que non of emancipation • Only Lincoln could’ve been elected (consequence) • Only Lincoln would’ve waited for just the right moment to pass the EP (intent) • (The perils of counter-factual history) Berlin’s response • Berlin: “Had another Republican been in Lincoln’s place, that person doubtless would have done the same.” • Is it really doubtless? • Berlin: “Lincoln was a part of history, not above it.” • Berlin: “Both Lincoln and the slaves played their appointed parts in the drama of emancipation.” • Berlin responds with his own vision rather than respond to each point • Which leaves room for us to do so… 2 11/16/2015 Outline: Emancipation 1. McPherson v. Berlin 2. My argument Critiquing McPherson • What is the role of great men in history? • What is the role of great forces? • Lincoln stated, "I claim not to have controlled events, but confess plainly that have events have controlled me." • McPherson’s case: Lincoln’s election critical Lincoln’s commitment to union critical Lincoln’s timing critical (couldn’t be too early or too late) The war was essential – only it permitted possibility of Lincoln’s move, and total abolition of slavery • Critical in the war was the fact of stalemate: only stalemate justified escalation of war aims • • • • Critiquing McPherson • But what if the war hadn’t stalemated? • McPherson and others wonder if the war had gone on longer. But what if the war had been over more quickly? What would the consequences of an early Union victory have been? • There would’ve been lots and lots of pressure to retain slavery as part of an easy peace • So why/how did the war stalemate? 3 11/16/2015 Critiquing McPherson • Rael’s multiple sine qua nons: • Slaves who yearn to be free, and who register that desire through action • The war, which creates the possibility of giving their actions meaning • A Union army and government capable of • Understanding how slavery is implicated • Delivering victory, and hence acting on that understanding Lincoln fits somewhere in here Crittenden resolution, adopted by U.S. House of Representatives, 22 July 1861 “the present deplorable civil war has been forced upon the country by the disunionists of the Southern States now in revolt against the constitutional Government, and in arms around the capitol; that in this national emergency, Congress, banishing all feelings of mere passion or resentment, will recollect only its duty to the whole country; that this war is not waged upon our part in any spirit of oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, nor purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or established institutions of those States; but to defend and maintain the supremacy of the Constitution, and to preserve the Union, with all the dignity, equality, and rights of the several States, unimpaired; and that as soon as these objects are accomplished the war ought to cease” 4 11/16/2015 Earl F. Mulderink, III, New Bedford’s Civil War (New York: Fordham University Press, 2012), 69.. A Letter from President Lincoln.; Reply to Horace Greeley, Aug. 22, 1862 “I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored the nearer the Union will be ‘the Union as it was.’ If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time save Slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy Slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or destroy Slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves, I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that. What I do about Slavery and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save this Union, and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union.” Outline: Emancipation 1. McPherson v. Berlin 2. My argument 3. Grand strategy in the Civil War 5 11/16/2015 "War is merely the continuation of policy [politics] by other means.“ Prussian military theorist Carl von Clausewitz "politics is war without bloodshed while war is politics with bloodshed." Mao Zedong Defining total war • War is the continuation of politics by other means • Relationship between means and ends • Means = how war is fought • Ends = what war is fought to achieve • A range or scale of possibilities toward “totality” Clausewitz theorized a relationship between means and ends in war. How a war was fought should be related to why a war was fought. Wars fought for “limited” ends should be fought with “limited” means; wars fought for “total” ends could be fought with “total” means. When means and ends fell out of conjunction, political problems arose. Can you think of any examples? CSA strategic picture USA strategic picture • Fighting on/for native soil • Interior lines • Default outcome = independence • Invasion required • 1,200 mile front • Victory of arms = triumph of ideas?? • Enormous material advantage 6 11/16/2015 7 11/16/2015 Grand Strategy • USA: • Blockade the CSA • Imposed Summer/Fall 1861 • Confederate blockade runners export/import • Lunge for Richmond (new CSA capital) • Split the CSA by controlling the Mississippi • (Later) wage war on CSA economy and society Grand Strategy • CSA • Capitalize on advantage of defense • Internal lines • Moral value of repelling invaders • Wait for foreign recognition • “King Cotton diplomacy” • Break the Union will to fight 8 11/16/2015 The Confederacy relied on “King Cotton” diplomacy, hoping that British “Lords of the Loom” would ally with Southern “Lords of the Lash” Manpower • Total population • USA = 23,000,000 • CSA = 8,700,000 (whites) • Total who served • USA total = 2,100,000 served • CSA total = 850,000 Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates 9 11/16/2015 No battle emblematized the problem of stalemate more than the Union’s costly victory at Antietam, Maryland in Sept. 1862. Despite the loss of a total of 27,000 troops (over 3,600 of which were killed), the battle achieved very little strategically. But Lincoln had already begun considering alternatives to the battlefield. Selected Battle Casualties 10 11/16/2015 Technological transformations • Rifled musket with conoidal bullet and percussion cap • Fewer misfires, greater accuracy, longer range • Deepens fire-swept zone, making offensive actions costly • Leads to stalemate on the battlefield • War could not achieve political decision 11 11/16/2015 Casualties in Civil War, by Agent Civil War Combat Deaths Compared with Other Wars Means and ends in war • Carl von Clausewitz: political aims and military means • Initial aims of Civil War “limited” • The problem of stalemate • Escalation 12 11/16/2015 Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates The search for alternatives to the battlefield Lincoln’s approach to slavery • Get slaveholding Union (border) states to relinquish slavery on own • Delaware, 1861: gradual, compensated emancipation offer (rejected) • March 1862: Congress will compensate any border states adopting gradual emancipation (rejected) • May and July offers rejected, too 13 11/16/2015 Lincoln on the need for border-state emancipation "the war would now be substantially ended. . . . But you cannot divest them of their hope to ultimately have you join them so long as you show a determination to perpetuate the institution within your own states. . . . break that lever before their faces" "This government cannot much longer play a game in which it stakes all, and its enemies stake nothing," the President scolded a New York Democrat who requested leniency for Confederate slaveholders. "Those enemies must understand that they cannot experiment for ten years trying to destroy the government, and if they fail still come back into the Union unhurt.“ "a military necessity absolutely essential for the salvation of the Union. . . . We must free the slaves or be ourselves subdued." Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates The search for alternatives to the battlefield The offer of the enslaved Union officer at Fort Pickens, Pensacola, Florida (March 1861) “On the morning of the 12th instant four negroes (runaways) came to the fort entertaining the idea that we were placed here to protect them and grant them their freedom. I did what I could to teach them the contrary. In the afternoon I took them to Pensacola and delivered them to the city marshal to be returned to their owners. That same night four more made their appearance. They were also turned over to the authorities next morning.” 14 11/16/2015 Commander of the Department of Virginia [General Benjamin Butler] to the General-in-Chief of the Army [Fortress Monroe, Va.] May 27 /61 “I have therefore determined to employ, as I can do very profitably, the ablebodied persons in the party, issuing proper food for the support of all, and charging against their services the expense of care and sustenance of the non- laborers, keeping a strict and accurate account as well of the services as of the expenditure having the worth of the services and the cost of the expenditure determined by a board of Survey hereafter to be detailed. I know of no other manner in which to dispose of this subject and the questions connected therewith. As a matter of property to the insurgents it will be of very great moment, the number that I now have amounting as I am informed to what in good times would be of the value of sixty thousand dollars. ” 15 11/16/2015 General John C. Fremont Missouri (August 1861) General David Hunter GA, FL, SC (May 1862) Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates The search for alternatives to the battlefield The offer of the enslaved Congress moves first Moves in Congress • First Confiscation Act (July 1861): masters cannot reclaim slaves used in aid of rebellion • Second Confiscation Act (July 1862): slaves of disloyal citizens “forever free” • Militia Act (July 1862): authorizes Union army use of slaves; formally frees them and their families • Abolition of slavery in District of Columbia and U.S. territories (April 1862) 16 11/16/2015 Rejoicing over abolition of slavery in District of Columbia, 1862 Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates The search for alternatives to the battlefield The offer of the enslaved Congress moves first Lincoln’s big moment Massachusetts Senator Charles Sumner: "under the war power the right had come to him [Lincoln] to emancipate the slaves.“ In July 1861, the House resolved that "it is no part of the duty of the soldiers of the United States to capture and return fugitive slaves.“ If war could not pursue politics through other means, perhaps politics could be made to pursue war 17 11/16/2015 Preliminary draft of the Emancipation Proclamation September 22, 1862 Warned that emancipation would be declared the following year unless the rebels subsisted Final version goes into effect January 1, 1863 The Emancipation Proclamation • A presidential “executive order” that applied only to military matters (President is Commander in Chief) • Not a law, because not produced by legislative process • That would’ve required Congress, but Congress not in charge of military matters • In a show of support, Congress endorsed the EP in December 1862 • Preliminary draft – did it invite rebellion? Preliminary draft of EP, issued 9/22/62 “… on the first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty-three, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part of a State, the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the United States, shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free; and the Executive Government of the United States, including the military and naval authority thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of such persons, and will do no act or acts to repress such persons, or any of them, in any efforts they may make for their actual freedom.” 18 11/16/2015 The Emancipation Proclamation • Declared slaves free in designated areas (mostly) under Confederate control • EP immediately freed only a fraction of the millions it declared free – apx. 20,000-50,000 slaves in designated areas under Union control • For most, actually enforcing freedom required US military presence • Some enslaved people didn’t learn of their freedom for months or years later • “Juneteenth” announcement in Texas, June 1865 • Provided for enlistment of freed slaves into Union forces The counties in red were covered by the Emancipation Proclamation. Those in blue indicate slaveholding counties not covered by the EP. Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863 “… I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, by virtue of the power in me vested as Commander-in-Chief, of the Army and Navy of the United States in time of actual armed rebellion against the authority and government of the United States, and as a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing said rebellion, do, on this first day of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixtythree, and in accordance with my purpose so to do publicly proclaimed for the full period of one hundred days, from the day first above mentioned, order and designate as the States and parts of States wherein the people thereof respectively, are this day in rebellion against the United States, the following, to wit: …. [list of affected areas follows] “I do order and declare that all persons held as slaves within said designated States, and parts of States, are, and henceforward shall be free; and that the Executive government of the United States, including the military and naval authorities thereof, will recognize and maintain the freedom of said persons.” 19 11/16/2015 Emancipation Proclamation, January 1, 1863 “And I hereby enjoin upon the people so declared to be free to abstain from all violence, unless in necessary self-defence; and I recommend to them that, in all cases when allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable wages. “And I further declare and make known, that such persons of suitable condition, will be received into the armed service of the United States to garrison forts, positions, stations, and other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. “And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of justice, warranted by the Constitution, upon military necessity, I invoke the considerate judgment of mankind, and the gracious favor of Almighty God.” The Emancipation Proclamation • Established a precedent for freedom not easily rescinded • Lincoln on a proposal to return black soldiers to slavery: “I should be damned in time & in eternity for so doing. The world shall know that I will keep my faith to friends & enemies, come what will.” • Established legal basis for continued acts of liberation, including 13th Amendment • Broadened the purpose of the war, but at a cost Outline: Emancipation 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. McPherson v. Berlin My argument Grand strategy in the Civil War The war stalemates The search for alternatives to the battlefield The offer of the enslaved Congress moves first Lincoln’s big moment Opposition 20 11/16/2015 Critics of emancipation • Ohio Congressman Samuel Cox: • "Your anti-slavery crusade adds to the rebel army day after day thousands of soldiers” • Fosters “a St. Domingo-insurrection” by placing "the saber, the musket, and the torch in the hands of the enfranchised African” • "King Lincoln” • "crushing out liberty and erecting a despotism.” Politics in the Union • Clement L. Vallandingham • Ohio Democrat arrested May 1863 for incendiary antiUnion speeches • Sentenced to imprisonment for the duration • Becomes anti-Lincoln cause celebre • Lincoln banishes to Confederate lines; Vallandingham continues his campaign in exile in Canada 21 11/16/2015 Cjdraf~1: Anti-Draft Rioters, New York City: The Union draft triggered controversy throughout the North, but nowhere was the tension greater than in New York City. That stronghold of Democratic sentiment erupted into three days of anti-draft rioting in July 1863, shortly after the Battle of Gettysburg in Pennsylvania. Before Union troops restored order, black homes and institutions were burned, and nearly 100 African Americans were killed in the largest civil insurrection in the nation’s history. In the election of 1864, Republicans re-formulated their ticket. Running as the Union Party, they ditched Maine Republican Hannibal Hamlin, and added instead Andrew Johnson, a Jacksonian from the nonslaveholding region of Tennessee. It was a fateful choice. The recalcitrant General McLellan ran on a peace platform that would have left slavery in tact throughout much of the South. 22 11/16/2015 Outline: Emancipation 1. McPherson v. Berlin 2. My argument 3. Grand strategy in the Civil War 4. The war stalemates 5. The search for alternatives to the battlefield 6. The offer of the enslaved 7. Congress moves first 8. Lincoln’s big moment 9. Opposition 10. Conclusion The final end of slavery • West Virginia enters union as free state, 1863 • Missouri, Maryland, Kentucky, Delaware • Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee • Thirteenth Amendment • Intended to guarantee constitutionality of Emancipation Proclamation • January 1865 passes Congress • December 1865 ratified by states • Come to the screening of “Lincoln” on Monday night! Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution (1865) Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 23 11/16/2015 Take-aways • Emancipation happened not through a revolution in racial attitudes or moral sentiment. It happened because Union victory in the war required it. • Union victory required it because the war stalemated. And the war stalemated because of technological developments caused by industrialization. • The road to emancipation was long and circuitous in the US, but (as in other places where it happened) it ultimately owed to slave behavior and antislavery sentiment. (Come to my talk on Thrs.) Who cares? • How emancipation happened mattered • Emerged through exigencies of war, not through a revolution in racial sentiment • Before the war: both sections suffused with racial prejudice and ideas of white supremacy • War: military need creates emancipation • After the war: the fate of the freedpeople?? 24