Download Name of the Region: Wider Caribbean - ICMyL

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Name of the Region: The Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME)
The Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem (CLME) is an enclosed sea rich in biodiversity, marine
environments, cultures and politically complex. It encompasses the Brazil & Guianas subregion, its
southern extension off Parnaibas, Brazil through the insular Caribbean to the east and the Central & South
America to the west (Fig. 1). A total number of 26 countries as well as 19 dependent territories of France,
the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, and the United States are part of the CLME (Fig. 2, Table 1). Several
of the countries are Small Island Developing States (SIDS). The CLME embraces two Large Marine
Ecosystems (LMEs): the Caribbean Sea LME and the North Brazil Current LME. It is a marine geographical
region in which the most geopolitical components of complexity of any LME in the world occur, the highest
number of maritime boundaries of any LME in the world happen and the largest number of small islands
developing states (SIDS) exist in the world. The CLME depends on the sea for tourism, the goods
produced or provided by ecosystems such as protein (fish), freshwater and biochemical compounds. It
depends as well on non-material benefits obtained by ecosystems including the recreational, aesthetic,
inspirational and educational.
Fig. 1 The Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem.
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Fig. 2 Countries and dependent territories of the Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem.
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Table 1. Countries and territories of the CLME
Independent countries
Countries and territories
Antigua & Barbuda
UK:
Bahamas
Anguilla
Barbados
British Virgin Islands
Belize
Cayman Islands
Brazil
Montserrat
Colombia
Turks & Caicos
Costa Rica
Cuba
USA:
Dominica
Puerto Rico
Dominican Republic
USVI
Grenada
Guatemala
France:
Guyana
Guadeloupe and St. Bart
Haiti
Martinique
Honduras
St. Martin
Jamaica
French Guiana
Mexico
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Nicaragua
Panama
Netherlands:
St. Kitts Nevis
Aruba
St. Lucia
Curacao
St. Vincent & the Grenadines
Bonaire
Suriname
St. Eustatius
Trinidad & Tobago
Saba
Venezuela
St. Maarten
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Broad ecological characteristics.- The CLME is a transition zone between the tropical zone in the south
and the subtropical zone in the north interacting seasonally with the hurricanes in the summerand the
northern cold fronts in the winter. The ocean currents flow into the CLME through the passages of the
Lesser Antilles, and to a lesser extent through the Windward Passage between Cuba and Haiti, and the
Anegada Passage between Puerto Rico and Anguilla. These inflowing waters form the Caribbean Current
flow westward and northward into the Gulf of Mexico through the Yucatán Channel forming the Loop
Current and further on the Gulf Stream. Two of the world’s largest rivers (Amazon and Orinoco) as well as
numerous other large rivers enter the sea in this region. River discharge drifts through the CLME and
carries materials from the antrhopoligic activities thousands of kilometers from the deltas, features that are
wind-dominated due to the small tidal range. The nutrients promote high primary productivity and remain
the source of local fisheries. The continental shelves associated with these rivers are typically mud bottom
and support diverse ecosystems with a large biomass of shrimp and groundfish. They are influenced mainly
by the North Brazil Current. Throughout the region, shallow coastal shelves provide ideal conditions for
mangroves, seagrasses, and coral reefs. Approximately 7 % of the world’s coral reefs are found in the
CLME. The Mesoamerican Barrier Reef system (MBRS) off Central America is the second largest in the
world. The open ocean areas of the region consist of mostly clear, nutrient-poor waters derived from the
North Equatorial Current, which enters the region through the channels between islands (UNEP & IOC
UNESCO, 2009).
The region has an extended marine area of over 2,754,000 km2 characterized by a large diversity of
ecosystems and habitats including extended beaches and shelves, the latter with the second largest coral
reef fringes, mangrove and seagrass habitats and poorly explored bathyal and abyssal zones hosting the
deepest hydrothermal vent at ca. 5000 m depth (German et al 2010). Its coastal habitats have been
declining throughout the region mainly due to land-based sources of pollution arising from high population
density in coastal areas and associated discharges of municipal and industrial waste as well as of
agricultural pesticides and fertilizers affecting water quality. Other economic activities such as shipping,
tourism, and petroleum extraction are also concentrated on the coast. About 30 % of Caribbean reefs are
now considered at extreme risk from anthropogenic pressures and global change. Hurricanes severely
damage coral reefs and affect the coastal zone development.
Fisheries.- The fisheries in the CMLE provide jobs, income, food and tourism, these are mainly smallscale, there are also large-scale commercial and recreational fisheries. The fisheries of greatest importance
are those for reef fishes, lobster, conch, shrimps, continental shelf demersal fishes, deep slope fishes, and
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coastal pelagics. The offshore pelagics fisheries are also important and are exploited by countries from
within the region as well as by foreign nations. According to a study by the the Association of Cultural
Studies of the University of the Western Indies (ACS/UWI) the regional fishery provides over 504913 jobs
and over 7% of total protein consumption, and has an income of over $1 billion USD in exports in the
Caribbean. The common fisheries policy in the region includes the 1995 Straddling Stocks Agreement, the
International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) and the International Convention
on international trade in endangered species (CITES), the CARICOM Heads of Government conference
2003, Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM) based on the Montego Bay Convention, the
revisited treaty of Reserved areas for nationals and the Non CARICOM Caribbean states.
Navigation and shipping.- Regarding navigation, this theme considers Caribbean legislation and
navigational rights, warships and Nuclear waste and tourism cruise issues. Cruising alone provides to the
region more than 50 billion USD with estimated passenger arrivals up to 3,052,183 in the CLME in 2012. It
has been recognized that 70% of all cruises take place in the North American region where the Caribbean
Islands are in the region the most popular destination departing from ports in the United States and islands
in the CLME being this a shipping route and an area if interest to many foreign fishing vessels.The
Convention has strengthened the maritime profile of the CLME and enhanced its potential for economic
advancement .Several assessments were recognized and these have been classified under the
Anthropogenic topic, among the issues analyzed by these navigation and shipping assessments are those
related to pollution, mainly oil pollution.
Pollution.- International and Regional Conventions and Initiatives: United Nations Environment
Programme in the Caribbean, GEF-IWCAM in the Car Small Island Developing States, Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission for the Caribbean, Caribbean Large Marine Ecosystem, Caribbean regional
Fisheries Mechanism, The 1983 Convention for the Protection and Development of the Marine
Environment in the Wider Caribbean Region with the Cartagena Convention and three protocols:
Cooperation in combating oil spills, Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) and Pollution from
Land-Based Sources and Activities. Competent international organizations such as MARPOL 73/78 and
OPPRC 1990; Merchant Shipping (Oil Pollution) Act (Chapters 275), The Bahamas Shipping (Oil Pollution)
Act (Cap 296A, Barbados Pollution and the Wider Caribbean: Part IX semienclosed sea, the Caribbean
Environment Programme (CEP/RCU) and the MARPOL Special Area status in the Context of Sustainable
Development for the Wider Caribbean Region on oil, noxious liquid substances and garbaje (Annex V, May
2011) among others support the CLME assessments on pollution. The CLME is one of the LMEs in the
world that faces most of the challenges encountered due to the impact of a complex mixture of
stakeholders from within and outside the region: Among the assessments recognized in the region that
attend the pollution issues are the following: Strengthening Coastal Pollution Management in the Wider
Caribbean Region, Marine pollution on Bays and coastal zones of Cuba and Great Caribbean, Baseline
study on the management of wastewater domestic countries in the Wider Caribbean; Profiles of
Wastewater Management in CLME Countries, Establishing Wastewater Management Systems in the
Placencia Peninsula (Belize); A literature review on trace metals and organic compounds of anthropogenic
origin in the Wider Caribbean Region, Effect of stream channel size on the delivery of nitrogen to the Gulf
of Mexico; Heavy metals in the clam Tivela mactroides Born, 1778 (Bivalvia: Veneridae) from coastal
localities with different degrees of contamination in Venezuela, Heavy metals distribution in mangrove
sediments along the mobile coastline of French Guiana. In 1991 the International Maritime Organization
designated the CLME and the Gulf of Mexico as a Special Area under Annex V of the MARPOL
Convention. In 2007, the UN General Assembly adopted a resolution entitled: “Towards the Sustainable
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Development of the Caribbean Sea for Present and Future Generations” (UN General Assembly 61/197).
This resolution is a further step in a process known as the “Caribbean Sea Initiative” by the Association of
Caribbean States and the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) to secure the recognition by the international
community of the Caribbean Sea as a special area in the context of sustainable development. The most
significant regional agreement is the Cartagena Convention and its Protocols: the Specially Protected
Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol, the Cooperation in Combating Oil Spills Protocol, and Land-Based
Sources of Pollution (LBS) Protocol (UNEP & IOC-UNESCO, 2009).
Within the CLME, numerous organizations undertake assessments. These organizations include:
1. National and local government departments and non-governmental organizations (NGOs);
2. National/regional universities and research institutions;
3. Regional inter-governmental organizations (IGOs);
4. UN organizations and their regional offices; and
5. International NGOs.
Various institutions contribute to assessment work in the region including international organizations as well
as governmental and academic institutions. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and The
Expanded Program of Investigation in Fish of Tip, supported and coordinated by the International
Commission for the Conservation of the Atlantic Tuna (ICCAT) in collaboration with the Fishing Research
Center FONAIAP-Sucre and the Oceanographic Institute of Venezuela of the University undertake regular
assessments of Coastal fisheries, shellfish and Atlantic tuna, while UNEP and ENPFF carries out
assessments on marine mammals.
This region has been widely explored and it is probably one of the best studied in terms of its marine
environments and organisms. Developed nations supported the initial scientific efforts, however the
scientific capacity has increased in the region since. There are more than 50 institutions, laboratories and
marine field stations in the CMLE, some of them with a long history of research; most are located in the
northern Caribbean. Most countries have a university conducting research and marine laboratories and
collaborate regionally with European support such as FORCE project. The Association of Marine
Laboratories of the Caribbean is a confederation of more than 30 marine research, education, and resource
management institutions and more than 200 individual members from around the region. A number of
entities are associated with institutions and universities from outside the region, such as the Smithsonian
Institute station in Panama and the McGill University station in Barbados. These universities and research
institutions conduct numerous research programmes and projects, for instance, the Caribbean Coastal
Marine Productivity Programme (CARICOMP) and the Caribbean LME project.Their research has focused
in all fields of marine science, from Physical Oceanography to genetics and from atmospheric sciences to
autoecology of reef organisms. Regional scientific societies promote marine research and exchange in the
region. In addition to local efforts in research and capacity building, there are close to 100 institutions of
higher education with diverse marine programs that are connected in some way to science in the CLME.
Some are within the countries or territories while others collaborate through study abroad programs. The
growth and training of local scientists remains essential for the development of the Caribbean nations and
states.
Several national level government departments (e.g., fisheries, agriculture, environment, tourism, health,
and planning) conduct assessments that are relevant to the marine environment including conservation and
design of natural protected areas. Given the 45 entities in the region, the number of national government
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bodies that may be generating data and information on the marine environment is likely to be over 200.
Many national and local level NGOs within the region also conduct assessments of one type or another.
Many regional IGOs undertake a diversity of assessments primarily as projects. Key among these are the
Association of Caribbean States (ACS), Caribbean Alliance for Sustainable Tourism (CAST), Caribbean
Environmental Health Institute (CEHI), Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology (CIMH),
Caribbean Tourism Association, CARICOM Caribbean Regional Fisheries Mechanism (CRFM),
Environment and Sustainable Development Unit of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS),
Latin American Organization for Fishery Development (OLDEPESCA), and Organización del Sector
Pesquero y Acuícola del Istmo Centroamericano (OSPESCA). International IGOs such as the International
Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas (ICCAT) also conduct assessments that are relevant to
the region.
UN organizations with regional bodies that carry out or facilitate assessments include the Western Central
Atlantic Fisheries Commission (WECAFC) of FAO, UNEP Caribbean Environmental Programme,
Caribbean Sub-Commission (IOCARIBE) of IOC-UNESCO, UN Economic Commission for Latin America
and the Caribbean (UNECLAC), UNDP, UNEP Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean (GEO
global and Small Island Developing States outlook reports). The Global Environment Facility (GEF) has
funded a variety of projects in the region.
Several large international NGOs, such as World Wildlife Fund (WWF), The Nature Conservancy (TNC),
World Resources Institute (WRI), the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and Census of Marine Life, have
programmes within the region that include assessments. These organizations bring financial resources and
expertise from outside the region. There are also regional organizations such as the Wider Caribbean Sea
Turtle Conservation Network (WIDECAST), which has recently completed an assessment on the status of
sea turtles. The Gulf and Caribbean Fisheries Institute (GCFI) plays a significant role in networking at the
technical level.
National assessments are a regular process in some of the more developed Caribbean states, and are
used to monitor progress on national and regional programmes or to fulfil the requirements of international
conventions that have been signed by the countries. Each government has at least one department for
research, but it usually does not cover all aspects of the marine environment. Linking assessments to
decision making is weak at regional levels and there is uncertainty regarding appropriate modes for
governance of marine resources in the CLME (Chakalall et al 2007; Fanning et al 2007).
Many non-Caribbean researchers either participate in regional assessments (through contracted services
or voluntarily) or conduct research work and monitoring efforts of their own. The government of a country
may not be aware of research being done locally by external institutions. This makes controlling and
quantifying available data difficult. Much of this work is only encountered in the primary literature and is
disconnected from governance.
Data
Information is arranged in an Assessment Basic Information Worksheet with the following column content:
Theme, Scale, Region, by Country; the Name of the Assessment; the assessment Acronym; the Full
Reference; the Full Text Reports/Output URL; the Assessment reviewed; the Classification or Assessment
Type; the Organization; the Justification or Context of the Assessment; the Objectives of the Assessment;
the Status of the Activity; it the Assessment is repeated; the dates when the Assessment started and
ended. The themes covered by the Assessments were grouped into Biodiversity; Coral Reef;
Anthropogenic (Activities affecting the environment); Conservation; Monitoring and Fisheries. A total of 100
new Assessments were validated, and additional 50 assessments were recorded but were not validated
and are not included herein in the worksheets. The number of Assessments varied among themes (Table
2).
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Table 2. Number of Assessments by Theme in which these were grouped.
Themes
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# Assessments
Biodiversity
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Coral Reef
20
Anthropogenic
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Conservation
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Monitoring
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Fisheries
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Ecosystem data.- A significant amount of marine data is collected within the Caribbean. Each year,
numerous assessments are carried out at the national, sub-regional, regional, and global levels. There is a
large pool of information at the regional and sub-regional levels. At present, data are available in the
following areas in varying levels of detail and on varying geographic scales. Table 3 provides a synthesis of
the type of assessments by theme for the 110 new assessments.
Table 3. Type of Assessment by theme in the CLME.
Assessment Type
Theme
Broad
Narrow
Biodiversity
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Coral Reef
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11
Anthropogenic
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13
Conservation
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14
Monitoring
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Fisheries
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a) biodiversity (with assessments carried out by the Census of Marine Life program, the United Nations
Environment Programme, the Caribbean conservation corporation, the Brazilian academic institutions
NEBECC (Group of Studies on Crustacean Biology, Ecology and Culture), Brazil, UNESP – Unidade
Diferenciada de Registro Departamento de Zoologia – IBB – UNESP – Botucatu, Brazil, Museu de
Zoologia – USP, Sao Paulo, the Universidad Simón Bolívar supported by the Global Environmental Fund
(GEF), Fundación Museo del Mar, Boca del Río Universidad Centroamericana, Université du Littoral Côte
d´Opale, France; Institut Français de Recherche pour l´Exploitation de la Mer; Institut de Recherche pour le
Développement, Laboratoire d´Ecologie Terrestre, Unité Mixte de Recherche and Centre d´ Etude Spatiale
de la Biosphère, France, Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Tulane University New
Orleans; and Department of Oceanography, Texas A and M University; COLCIENCIAS from CIBIMA, the
Program of conservations of sea turtles, ENPFF; Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras and CITMA, Cayo
Largo, Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras, La Habana, Cuba)
b) offshore pelagic and nearshore fisheries with assessments carried out by “Centro de Investigación y
de Estudios Avanzados Unidad Mérida”, Mexico; Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada; Saint
Mary’s University, Canada; Universidad Marista de Mérida, Mexico. European Union through the project
Integrating Multiple Demands on Coastal Zones with Emphasis on Aquatic Ecosystems and Fisheries
(INCOFISH); the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO); the Expanded Program of
Investigation in Fish of Tip, supported and coordinated by the Commission the International for the
Conservation of the Tuna of Atlántico (ICCAT) in a collaboration between the Fishing Research Center of
the FONAIAP-Sucre and the Oceanographic Institute of Venezuela of the University
c) coastal habitats (with emphasis on coral reefs) with assessments carried out by the World Fish Center
as a member of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP), the New
Hampshire Charitable Foundation, CI, Esmée Fairbairn Foundation, and the Royal Caribbean Cruises
Ocean Fund supported of the IUCN Coral Red List Assessment; the European Commission of the Seventh
Framework Programme under the Environment theme; the World Resources Institute; Departamento de
Biología de Organismos, Universidad Simón Bolívar Laboratorio de Comunidades Marinas, Instituto de
Zoología Tropical, Escuela de Biología, Universidad Central de Venezuela, the Universidad Simón Bolívar,
the Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR), Ciudad de la Investigación,
Universidad de Costa Rica; Escuela de Biología, Universidad de Costa Rica; World Wildlife Fund (WWF),
San José, Costa Rica, the Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICIT), the
United Nations Environmental Program-Jamaica (UNEP), the Smithsonian Institution; the Instituto de
Oceanología, Acuario Nacional de Cuba and Centro Nacional de Áreas Protegidas Instituto de
Oceanología, Acuario Nacional de Cuba and Centro de Investigaciones Pesqueras Universidad del
Magdalena, Programa de Biología e Instituto de Investigaciones Tropicales-INTROPIC Instituto de
Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras-INVEMAR, Museo de Historia Natural Marina de Colombia MHNMC,
University of Queensland, Centre for Marine Studies, Australia Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y
Costeras – INVEMAR, Universidad Jorge Tadeo Lozano, Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Programa de
Biología Marina INVEMAR,
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d) watersheds/hydrology, pollution (particularly land-based sources),with both narrow and broad
assessments carried out by INESER University of Guadalajara, Mexico: International Development
Research Centre, the United Nations Environment Programme Caribbean Environment Programme, InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB) and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), Centro de Ingeniería y
Manejo Ambiental de Bahías y Costas (CIMAB),AMEP Programme Assistant CEP - UNEP CAR/RCU; the
Southeast Environmental Research Center, the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment
& Health (UNU-INWEH), Trent University,UNU-INWEH, Great Lakes Institute for Environmental Research,
the CINVESTAV Unidad Mérida; Centro de Ingeniería y manejo Ambiental de Bahías y Costas; Stanford,
The Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, and the University of Minnesota, the Escuela de Ciencias,
Universidad de Oriente, Venezuela y el Instituto Oceanográfico de Venezuela; the Decanato de
Investigación y Desarrollo (Grant GID-003) and Instituto de Tecnología y Ciencias Marinas (Universidad
Simón Bolívar) and Centro de Estudios Avanzados and Laboratorio de Biología Marina (Instituto
Venezolano de Investigaciones Científicas); the Institut des Sciences de la Terre d´Orleans; Départment
des Sciences de la Terre; and Institut Français de Recherche pour l´Exploitation de la Mer and AMBIO.
e) conservation (sea turtles, manatees) and conservation with assessments carried out by UNEP, the
Centro de Investigación en Ciencias del Mar y Limnología (CIMAR) and Escuela de Biología Universidad
de Costa Rica, the Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, La Paz, México; Asesores Legales del
Istmo, San José, Costa Rica; Fundación MarViva and the Wildlife Conservation Society.
f) oil and gas deposits, (see UNEP IOC-UNESCO, 2009).
g) climate change, with broad assessments by the Caribbean Community Climate Change Center
(CARICOM), the CARIBSAVE Partnership and the Coastal Research Center, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution. In addition two Long term Ecological Networks (Costa Rica and Venezuela) monitor among
other issues biodiversity, climate change.
h) physical oceanography (through field and remote sensing data on atmospheric processes, bathymetry,
and currents), with assessments on monitoring carried out by the Center for Science and Technology
Policy Research, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado–
Boulder, USA; National Dept. of Predictions, La Habana, Cuba; Hurricane Research Division, Atlantic
Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami,
FL., USA; World Economy Research Centre, Havana, Cuba; Center for Science and Technology Policy
Research, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, Univ. of Colorado-Boulder, USA.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s Coastal Services Center, and National Science
Foundation; PANUMA PAC, the Oceanography Institute, Cuba; the Conservation Biology and Sustainable
Development Program, Department of Life Sciences, University of Maryland, College Park, USA; University
of Puerto Rico, Department of Marine Sciences; Universidad Simón Bolívar, Departamento de Biología de
Organismos; the Centro para la Investigación en Recursos Acuáticos de Nicaragua, Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de Nicaragua; the Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts;
the National Emergency Management Organization (NEMO), the Laboratoire Dynamique de la Biodiversité;
and UMR AMAP, IRD, Route de Montabo.
INVEMAR.
i) tourism, with narrow and broad assessments carried out at the national and regional level by the
University of the Antilles and Guyana; the Instituto de Ciencias Sociales y humanidades en la BUAP,
Puebla, Mexico, Utrecht University, Copernicus Institute for Sustainable Development and Innovation,
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Chair of Environmental Studies and Policy, The Netherlands; Universidad Nacional, Centro Internacional
en Política Económica para el Desarrollo Sostenible (CINPE), Heredia, Costa Rica; the University of
Ballarat and Deakin University, Australia; the Department of Marine Affairs University of Rhode Island,
Kingston, RI, USA Oak Foundation, USA; Community Conservation Network and the Belize Tourism
Industry Association, the Belize Tourism Board and Ministry of tourism, civil aviation and culture; Sea-tone
Consultants, Collaborative Solutions for a Sustainable Future.
i) litter (see UNEP & IOC-UNESCO, 2009). Litter is an emerging theme that requires more assessments.
A substantial amount of data is available in global databases (e.g., FAO Fishstat, WRI Earthtrends, UNEP
World Conservation Monitoring Centre, GEO data portal, ILTER and ICCAT). Data are also collected during
oceanographic and fisheries surveys (e.g., Fridtjof Nansen surveys on the northeastern South American
continental shelf) and in global observing programmes such as the Global Ocean Observing System
(GOOS).
Many of the countries are engaged in developing environmental indicators (and related databases),
including for the marine environment. For instance, under the GEF-supported project for Integrated
Watershed and Coastal Areas Management (IWCAM) in Caribbean SIDS, a template of environmental
state (including for marine and coastal areas), stress reduction, and process indicators, has been
developed for use by the countries. Environmental indicators are also being developed or have been
proposed by the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS) under the St. George’s Declaration as
well as by CARICOM. In addition, countries are also developing or using indicators for state of environment
assessment and reporting and for reporting to environmental conventions and international donors. Some
of the countries have produced national compendia of environmental indicators and statistics. Among the
indicators are those related to fisheries (e.g., annual catch levels), marine biodiversity, and water quality.
The availability and use of indicators vary among countries. There is a need to develop a standard suite of
robust indicators for assessment of the state of the marine environment (and human and natural driving
forces), which can be applied at national/regional levels (UNEP & IOC-UNESCO, 2009).
Various regional organizations such as CARICOM, OECS, UNECLAC, and the Secretaries-General of the
Central American Integration System (SICA) collect socio-economic and environmental statistics from
member countries. A Caribbean marine atlas is under development by IOC-International Oceanographic
Data and Information Exchange, and will include geo-spatial data and environmental indicators.
Socio-economic data.- Managers and policy-makers in the Caribbean recognize the importance of the
assessment information. However, there are still major gaps, especially in the less developed countries.
The majority of socio-economic assessments have had coastal resource usage as their focus and the
tourism uses. Hence, fishermen and beach users are the most assessed user groups, providing data
related to fisher demographics, income, marine protected area (MPA) usage, turtles, and other aspects.
With the recognition of coastal and marine impacts of upstream processes in watersheds, watershed
management has led to assessment of users in the watershed, for example, in the MBRS project. Also, the
IWCAM project is beginning to carry out socio-economic studies in the watersheds.
Assessments
Many assessments are executed in response to the requirements of the regional and international
agreements and conventions adopted by countries in the region, and some have been done to guide the
development of policy (regional agreements). A total number of 110 new assessments were reviewed and
added in addition of the updating of the 42 assessment prepared in the 2009 exercise. These include only
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the most prominent assessments that have been conducted at regional and sub-regional scales in addition
to 3 at the global scale (Tables 4, 5).
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4 Table 4 Number of Assessments by scale of
5 coverage
Scale
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40
No. of Assessments
Global
4
Regional
42
National
64
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16 Table 5. Scale of coverage of Assessments
17 arranged by Theme.
No. of Assessments
Theme
Global Regional National
Biodiversity
0
7
9
Coral Reef
3
8
9
Anthropogenic
0
13
11
Conservation
0
4
18
Monitoring
0
10
15
Fisheries
1
0
2
The new assessment list is by no means exhaustive. This new assessment list, together with the revised
GRAMED CLME assessments do, however, provide an indication of the diversity of assessments that have
been conducted. The topics include biodiversity, pelagic and coastal fisheries, coral reefs (and associated
coastal ecosystems), all anthropogenic activities (marine pollution and watershed management, tourism,
climate change), conservation and endangered species (exploitation, trade, and management), monitoring
and coral reefs.
Although these assessments do include considerable information, there are still numerous gaps at all
levels. Among the gaps recognized are assessments for the deep sea and its baseline (the most extensive
ecosystem in the CLME), on potential resources within the marine bioprospecting and mining exploration
activities, many of these are only carried out in collaboration or by the most developed states in the CMLE.
Furthermore, the economical, social, linguistic, and cultural diversity in the region makes it difficult to
transfer lessons learned from one place to another within the region without considerable adaptation.
Thematic/sectoral assessments
Many assessments focussed directly on specific resources and sectors as was recognized by the 2009
exercise. Examples of those that focussed on fisheries include: FAO/UNDP exploratory fishing (19691973), the Eastern Caribbean Flyingfish Project (Oxenford and other 1993), the Lesser Antilles Pelagic
Ecosystem Project (FAO), the FAO-CARICOM Large Pelagic Fisheries Project (Mahon and McConney
2004), the Western Central Atlantic aspect of the FAO State of Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA) reports,
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the annual assessments of ICCAT (Singh-Renton 2007), and the Significant Trade Review assessments of
queen conch required by CITES. Other assessments focus on coral reefs and related habitats, some from
a strictly ecological perspective, for example, CARICOMP (UNESCO 1998), Reef Check, Status of
Caribbean Coral Reefs after Bleaching and Hurricanes in 2005, and the Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef
Assessment (AGRRA) programme. Others take a multidisciplinary approach, for example, the Reefs at
Risk in the Caribbean conducted by WRI (Burke and Maidens 2004), and the Rapid Assessment of
Anthropogenic Impacts on Selected Transboundary Watersheds of the Mesoamerican Barrier Reef
Systems Region, a part of the GEF MBRS Project that carried out a wide range of assessments, planning,
and implementation activities for this region. Still others focus narrowly on specific resources such as the
Regional Management Plan for the West Indian Manatee, Trichechus manatus, and Exploitation, Trade,
and Management of Caribbean Sea Turtles required by CITES and conducted by TRAFFIC. The Wider
Caribbean Sea Turtle Network (WIDECAST) has also been instrumental in initiating a number of national
assessments of sea turtles leading to National Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plans in sufficient numbers that
they can be collectively considered a regional programme. Regional assessments such as the Atlas of Sea
Turtle Nesting Habitat for the Wider Caribbean Region have also been carried out. The UNEP Caribbean
RCU, under the SPAW protocol, collaborates with WIDECAST and supports monitoring sites for
endangered hawksbill sea turtles. Sectoral assessments include those for tourism, such as the Assessment
of the Competitiveness of Ecotourism in the Wider Caribbean Region. Of the 110 assessments revised a
total of 6 new assessments on fisheries were recognized having a regional and local scale impacts; only
one of the studies has a global impact. These were the Coastal fisheries of Latin America and the
Caribbean; Costs and benefits of the cooperation and the development of capacity for the arrangement of
the responsible fishing; A regional shellfish hatchery for the Wider Caribbean; The spiny lobster fishery,
connectivity and climate change in Cuba; Incidental captures observed of billfish in the Industrial Palangre
fisheries of Venezuelan in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic Centro-Occidental. 1991-1999, and Incidental
capture of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea) sea turtles by the pelagic
longline fishery off southern Brazil assessments.
Assessment of primary productivity (e.g., coral reefs, mangroves) is undertaken by CARICOMP, which has
a number of monitoring stations in the region. Coastal primary productivity and the occurrence of harmful
algal blooms are monitored in some of the countries. Of the 110 new assessments revised 46 focused on
coral reefs or their related habitats and resources including the following: NOAA Coral Reef Watch (CRW)
ReefBase; A Global Information System on Coral Reefs; Status of coral reffs in the U.S. Caribbean and
Gulf of Mexico: Florida, Texas, Puerto Rico , U.S Virgin Islands and Navassa; Coral reef of Bocas del Toro,
Panama: distribution, structure, diversity and conservation status of Pastores, Cristobal, Popa and Cayo
Agua islands: Reef ecosystems, spatial distribution of coral reefs and other benthic habitats in the National
Park Puerto Morelos Reef (PN-APM); Monitoring coral reefs, seagrasses and mangroves in Costa Rica
(CARICOMP); Monitoring of coral de dedo (Porites porites) in the National Park Occidental coast of Isla
Mujeres, Punta Cancún, Punta Nizuc; Taxonomic review of Porites colonensis (Scleractinia: Poritidae) on
Colombian Caribbean; First record of nine azooxanthele corals (Anthozoa: Sleractinia) from the Colombian
Caribbean (200-500m); Reefs at Risk in the Caribbean
NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program. 2009. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program International
Strategy 2010-2015; Future of Reefs in a Changing Environment: considering people, corals & marine life
in finding the best ways to manage Caribbean coral reefs (FORCE) carried out by ICML UNAM in a
collaborative international effort; Program of management of the National Marine Park Cozumel´s reef;
Program of conservation and management of Alacranes National Park reef; Management Program Xcalak
Reef National Park; Current condition of Acropora palmata and A. cervicornis coral formations in the
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Tayrona National Natural Park (Colombia); Coral formations in Santa Marta area: Status and spatial
distribution patterns of the benthic community; Status of coral reefs of Little Cayman, Grand Cayman and
Cayman Brac, British West Indies in 1999 and 2000 (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); Brazilian coral reefs:
What we already know and what is still missing; Assessment of the Andros Island reef system, Bahamas
(Part 1: Stony corals and algae); Assessment of coral reefs off San Salvador Island, Bahamas (Stony
corals, algae and fish populations); Assessment of the coral reefs of the Turks and Caicos Island (Part 1:
Stony corals and algae); Assessment of selected reef sites in Northern and South-Central Belize, including
recovery from bleaching and hurricane disturbances (Stony corals, algae and fish); A rapid assessment of
coral reefs in the Virgin Island (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); A rapid assessment of the Horseshoe reef,
Tobago Cays Marine Park, ST. Vincent, West Indies (Stony corals, algae and fishes); A rapid assessment
at Cahuita National Park, Costa Rica, 1999. (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); A rapid assessment of the
Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary (Stony corals, algae and fishes); A rapid assessment of
Mexico`s Yucatan reef in 1997 and 1998: Pre –and Post-1998 mass bleaching and hurricane Mitch (Stony
corals, algae and fishes); A rapid assessment of coral reefs near Hopetown, Abaco Islands, Bahamas
(Stony corals and algae); A rapid assessment of the Abrolhos reefs, eastern Brazil (Part 1: Stony corals
and algae); A rapid assessment of coral reefs in the Archipiélago de los Roques National Park, Venezuela
(Part 1: Stony corals and algae); A rapid assessment of coral communities of Maria La Gorda, southeast
Ensenada de Corrientes, Cuba (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); Condition of coral reefs off less developed
coastlines of Curacao (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); Condition of coral reef ecosystems in centralsouthern Quintana Roo, Mexico (Part 1: Stony corals and algae); Condition of selected reef sites in the
Veracruz reef system (Stony corals and algae); Synthesis of coral reef health indicators for the Western
Atlantic: Results of the AGRRA Program (1997-2000); Benthos condition in the coral reefs of Santa Lucia
(northeast Cuba) before and after the pass of Hurricane Ike; Effects of an unusual period of high frequency
of hurricanes on coral reef benthos; A post-hurricane, rapid assessment of reefs in the windward
Netherlands Antilles (Stony corals, algae and fishes); Severity of the 1998 and 2005 bleaching events in
Venezuela, southern Caribbean.; Climate change and coral reef bleaching: An ecological assessment of
long-term impacts, recovery trends and future outlook; One-Third of Reef-Building Corals Face Elevated
Extinction Risk from Climate Change and Local Impacts; Possible event of bleaching in Caribbean the
information NOAA- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; White plague disease outbreak in a
coral reef at Los Roque National Park, Venezuela; Sedimentation rates and metal content of sediments in a
Venezuela coral reef; Nutrification impacts on coral reefs from northern Bahia, Brazil.
Biodiversity.- The policy framework recognizes the Summits of the Americas Process 1996 can be cited in
regards to promote the establishment of a marine environment center for the Caribbean and the design and
development of model legislation for integrated and sustainable approach to the management of coastal
and marine resources. The CML the Declaration of Commitment of Port of Spain recognized as a marine
area of unique diversity and highly fragile ecosystems requiring to develop and implement regional
initiatives to promote the sustainable conservation and management of the coastal and marine resources.
The Organization of American States has recognized deep concern about the potential threats posed on
the CLME marine environment by ships transporting petroleum, dangerous materials, radioactive material
and/or toxic waste that could have and accident or be the target of a terrorist attack while transiting the
Caribbean Sea and could in that way affect the SIDS.
Efforts have been made in marine conservation in the region include GEF funding focused on reducing
Pesticides Run-off to the Caribbean Sea (REPCar)- a UNEP project in collaboration with the Global
Environmental Facility (GEF); Integrating Watershed and Coastal Area Management (IWCAM) in the Small
Island Development States (SIDS) of the Caribbean, and a GEF- funded Caribbean Large Marine
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Ecosystem Project (CLME). A total number of 16 assessments were recognized at the 2 of the 3 scales
(regional and national) that address the biodiversity issues: Status of marine mammals in the United States;
Marine Biodiversity in the Caribbean: Regional Estimates and Distribution Patterns; Marine biodiversity in
French Guiana: Estuarine, coastal and shelf ecosystems under the influence of Amazonian waters; Marine
biodiversity in Venezuela: Status and Perspectives; Synopsis quantitative malacofauna of Nicaragua;
Ichthyofauna of Venezuela: Ecological perspective; Structure, above-ground biomass and dynamics of
mangrove ecosystems: new data from French Guiana; A review of marine mammal, sea turtle and seabird
bycatch in USA fisheries and the role of policy in shaping management; Seasonal distributions and
abundances of loggerhead and leatherback sea turtles in waters of the northeastern United States: Sea
turtle nesting activity in the State of Florida 1979-1992; National and Regional Capacities and Experiences
on Marine Invasive Species, Including Ballast Waters, Management Programmes in the Wider Caribbean
Region - a Compilation of Current Information; Inventory of the marine fauna of the Hispaniola Island;
Anemones (Anthozoa, Actiniaria, Corallimorpharia, Ceriantharia and Zoanthidea) knower for the Hispaniola
Island; Analysis of the mortality of the Manatee (Trichetus manatus manatus Linnaeus, 1758) in the refuge
of fauna Lanzanillo-Pajonal. Fragoso Cuba; Sea Turtle nesting Dermochelys coriacea, in the beach of
GANDOCA, the South Caribbean, Costa Rica; The sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) in Venezuela.
Present situation and perspective for its recovery; Possible stress of sea turtle nesting baula Dermochelys
coriacea throughout the Caribbean coast of Centroamerica; Natural capital of Mexico: Current knowledge
of biodiversity; National Strategy of attention to the marine and coastal biodiversity; Proceedings.
International Queen Conch conferences Strombus gigas; San Juan, Puerto Rico. July 29-31, 1996;
Biodiversity of brachyuran crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda) from non-consolidated sublittoral bottom on the
northern coast of Sao Paulo State, Brazil; Reef fishes associated to coral reefs in five Colombian
Caribbean areas: species list and new records; Changes in Hornos reef benthic flora (Veracruz, Mexico);
Nesting of the green turtle (Chelonia mydas) and characterization of the beaches in Cayo Largo, Cuba;
National strategy on invasive species in Mexico: Prevention, control and eradication; Four regional marine
biodiversity studies: Approaches and contributions to ecosystem-based management.
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Integrated assessments
During the 2009 assessment exercise some of the assessments reviewed were highly interdisciplinary and
broad, such as the Caribbean Sea Ecosystem Assessment (CARSEA) (Agard and others 2007), a subregional assessment of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Preliminary Transboundary
Diagnostic Analysis (TDA) of the CLME Project (CLME Project Implementation Unit 2007). Narrower was
the assessment of Marine World Heritage Sites in the wider Caribbean: how research data on biological
connectivity can document the “outstanding universal value” of new nominations.
Some integrative assessments not reviewed include the Biodiversity Conservation Assessment of the
Insular Caribbean (Huggins and others 2007) of TNC and the Caribbean Census of Marine Life-Ocean
Biogeographic Information System (CoML-OBIS), and the variety of assessments carried out by the
Caribbean Programme for Adaptation to Climate Change (CPACC) and its follow-on activities under the
Mainstreaming Adaptation to Climate Change (MACC) through the CARICOM Centre for Climate Change
in Belize. A range of integrative assessments has also been carried out by the IOC-UNESCO/UNEPCaribbean Environment Programme for Marine Pollution Assessment and Control (CEPPOL), which
evolved into the current Assessment and Management of Environmental Pollution Sub-Programme (AMEP)
at the UNEP RCU (UNEP/CEP 1999). The objectives of AMEP relate to the obligations of the LBS and Oil
Spills Protocols, which include the need for ongoing and periodic assessments of the state of the
environment. The new assessment recognized only a few integrative assessments among which the
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Integrated Assessment and Management of Large Marine Ecosystem Gulf of Mexico carried out by Mexico
was one of them.
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Prioritized issues
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Supra-regional issues
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The Caribbean Sea lies adjacent to the second largest ocean and between the two American continents,
making it extremely susceptible to extra-regional natural and anthropogenic pressures.
Due to the presence of high-value pelagic species such as tuna and marlin, many international fishing
fleets cross the oceans to exploit the mid-Atlantic fishery as well as the fisheries resources in the Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZ) of Caribbean countries. The stock abundance of these migratory species is
therefore affected. Furthermore, Caribbean fleets are unable to compete with the advanced technology and
capacity of the foreign fleets. There is also the issue of illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing, to which
the Caribbean States are vulnerable due to the lack of adequate enforcement capacity to monitor their
EEZs and territorial seas. The relevance of the international programs in capacity building recognize the
efforts of the Association of Marine Laboratories of the Caribbean (AMLC), the Gulf and Caribbean
Fisheries Institute (GCFI) and the Association of Caribbean Tertiary Institutions (ACTI). Research and
capacity building require local and international funding, much more research in the deeper regions of the
Caribbean and regional cooperation. The regional collaboration in performing marine scientific research in
the Caribbean needs to improve by enhancing seafloor mapping, marine geology and marine biology,
expand international participation in the region in probvision of resources, personenel assets as shio, ROV
and AUV. Additional capacity building efforts can be explores to help evaluate resources in the Caribbean
region and assist in conservation.
As identified in the TDA of the CLME project, the three foremost priority issues within the CLME are
unsustainable exploitation of fish and other living resources, coastal habitat and community modification,
and pollution. The full-sized CLME project will address these issues with a focus on living marine resource
governance. These issues have been the foci of almost all of the assessments reviewed in the 2009 AoA
for this region.
High coastal populations, ease of access, and the limited land area in many small islands have made
fishing an important food source and livelihood. With the increased demand, advanced technology, and the
presence of legal and illegal foreign fishing fleets, many fish stocks have become severely overexploited.
Some coastal resources, such as the queen conch (Strombus gigas), are endangered. The CLME also has
one of the highest dependencies on tourism in the world. Demand for coastal tourism development
(coupled with increasing coastal populations and associated impacts) has led to the modification and
destruction of many nearshore habitats and has amplified the effects of land-based pollution.
Climate change is now recognized as a severe threat to the CLME. The recent Global Coral Reef
Monitoring Network (GCRMN) report highlighted the devastating impact that bleaching in 2005 has had on
Caribbean coral reefs. Some suggest that climate change, global warming, ocean acidification, and
overfishing have surpassed land-based pollution as the primary threat to reefs (McClanahan and others
2007). Climate change also poses other threats to the region, from sea level rise to acidification of the
ocean, and should be an integral part of future assessments. The priorities have not changed much since
the 2009 assessment exercise and repeat again in this new assessment.
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Climate change poses an increasing threat. Coral reefs, which provide over US$3 billion in direct and
indirect revenue for the Caribbean, are extremely vulnerable to rising sea temperatures (Hoegh-Guldberg
and others 2008). Rising sea levels will impact on many coastal habitats. Increasing desertification in Africa
leads to an increase in suspended particulate matter dispersing across the Atlantic, which carries many
pathogens that cause reef diseases (e.g., Aspergillosis in sea fans).
The drainage basins of the CLME cover 7.5 million km2 and encompass eight major river systems, from the
Mississippi to the Orinoco, with influence also from the Amazon River, which amounts to the highest rate of
water discharge in the world. Thus, the area from which land-based sources of pollution could arise is
enormous, but the states within the region have little influence over the management of these watersheds.
The high volume of maritime traffic, including through the Panama Canal, presents a significant potential
risk of shipping accidents and spills of oil and hazardous material. Further, the proximity of an entirely
different biogeographic region through the Panama Canal presents a high potential for introduction of alien
invasive species in ships ballast water. So far, however, most alien invasive species have been introduced
through the aquarium trade.
Capacity of the region to undertake assessments
Almost all of the countries within the CLME are developing countries and many are SIDS. Therefore,
capacity to undertake assessment of any type is often deficient at the national level. Furthermore,
economic growth is usually given priority over the marine environment and environmental sustainability on
the whole. Although there is considerable capacity for marine assessment within the CLME, it is highly
centralized in a few major institutions in some of the most developed countries. At the regional level, a
number of organizations have capacity for various types of assessments.
For future assessments (or a global marine assessment) to be more effective, comprehensive, and of
greater use in policy development and decision making, there is the need to focus on building local capacity
for assessment and monitoring and generating a long term culture in data gathering. In some instances
where technological requirements exceed those that a small country can be reasonably expected to have,
the distribution of capacity and responsibility between national and regional levels including regional
collaboration among states will be a critical issue for effective monitoring. Likewise, increased attention on
low-technology, indicator-based monitoring of a suite of indicators should be a priority. Nevertheless,
wherever feasible and sustainable, national agencies should be equipped with the capacity for long-term
monitoring of environmental indicators such as coral health, fish landings, nutrient loads and red tides,
which have local implications and require local response. They also need to possess the means for social
and economic assessments in order to be best able to implement measures that are agreed upon at the
regional levels, especially with regard to shared resources. Few assessments include social and economic
trends and links.
Specific ecosystems and habitats need to be assessed in the future on the degree of the effects of
anthropogenic activities on habitat loss, services and loss of value. Assessment on conservation efforts in
the region, the type and size of the conservation areas, the status by ecosystem and bioregion, the ability
to conserve biodiversity, the endangered species or systems. On the research capacity and infrastructure
of the region to carry out efforts that lead to define potential and priorities for future discovery and research
in the CLME.
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Among the themes not recognized in this review of assessments are the following that require to be
included in future and considered by the states and institutions of the CLME.
1. Deep sea.- including baseline studies, monitoring and resource evaluation.
2. Bioprospecting.- Novel marine compounds occur in coastal waters in the CLME. In regards of this
theme reference was found on the ReefFix program. This study is conducted in 5 case study sites
one of them in the Montego Bay Marine Park Trust, Jamaica where the total benefit was close to
400 million USD with an estimated additional potential benefit of $70 million USD through
pharmaceutical bioprospecting. The development of marine genetic reources into new commercial
products has been considered a powerful tool for conservation and economical development and
incorporated into Integrated Coastal Zone Marine planning efforts. Earlier collaborative efforts
whose objectives were the development of new commercial products with industrial application did
not capture the value of these marine genetic resources getting only taxonomic voucher specimens
that allowed them to know their marine diversity. In other states agreements with pharmaceutical or
agroindustrial companies have seen multiple benefits that has been destined to conservation and
development projects.
3. Marine Mining.- In the past 15 years following the entering into force of the Agreement regarding
Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), new interest regarding
the use of resources in the international seabed and High Seas has arisen. As a result, together
with a deeper assessment of potential environmental impacts a coherent policy and regulatory
framework becomes more relevant to sustainably harnessing marine resources in the Caribbean
and in the Area nearby. On the one hand the exploitation of marine resources in the Caribbean has
traditionally been more concentrated within the 200-nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ),
Seafloor massive sulfide deposits (SMS) may occur within the CLME. On the other, marine mining
exploration and prospecting for polymetallic sulphides on the Atlantic ocean are challenges for the
CLME states and foresee opportunities for international collaboration. This should be done keeping
in mind that regulations are completed to date and conditions for exploitation need to be developed
by the International Seabed Authority.
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