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MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY Blacksmithing on the move Forging ahead What did a mobile smithy look like and what was its hypothetical function in an army baggage train? What could have been its added value? Which objects could have been produced given the limited size of the smithy? What logistical advantages could have been gained by having a mobile smithy on hand? The author uses his own experiences as a blacksmith and reenactor to find answers for these questions. By Robert Wimmers making Roman-style mono-steel blades. Indeed, I use it to produce my swords. Tools of the trade Many of the tools typically used by a Roman blacksmith have been excavated and described, such as the hoard finds from Switzerland and Newstead, England; other tools are depicted in iconographic sources (such as reliefs). Like his modern counterpart, the ancient blacksmith had some basic tools, including the bellows-blown fire (using either charcoal or coal where readily available), the anvil and an array of hammers, tongs, pliers, shears, punches and files. Tongs were used to hold the piece or draw it from the fire. When comparing ancient tools to those used today, the primary difference is in the main anvil, as the Romans used a block anvil as opposed to the horned one common in modern times. However, several Roman T-shaped stake anvils in various sizes have been found together with block anvils. These stake anvils have a tapered plane on one end and a spike on the other (see the picture on page 41). A set of two anvils, a block and a T-stake would have given the Roman blacksmith © Wolfgang Sauber (via Wikimedia Commons) Toolmakers like the blacksmith were very much at the heart of iron age society. Without proper tools, other craftsmen and labourers stood empty handed, unable to produce their goods. Warriors and hunters would go without weapons. Horses and mules went unshod, ploughs had no shear, houses no nails; indeed, much of society depended on the products of the blacksmith. It was a socially important craft learnt by seeing and, most of all, by doing. The Roman blacksmith is commonly depicted as working seated. I have found three reliefs of a Roman blacksmith at work, all show him seated at the anvil. The Archaeological Museum of Aquileia in Italy has a very good relief of this kind on display. This way of working may seem very unusual to us, but in India for instance, craftsmen of all kinds still work seated on the ground or on low stools. The fire was stoked by an assistant working the double bellows. The blacksmith would buy his stock of iron to be worked from various sources in the shape of billets. Examples of these have been found. Although he had no knowledge of metallurgy, there was a recognizable difference in the quality of iron from different sources. This was due to the natural alloys formed in the smelting process; iron ore can have trace elements like silica, manganese or chrome in it. So, the iron from some areas would be considered more suitable for making a strong sword for instance, than iron from an area where the iron ore did not have similar quality-enhancing natural elements. Both low carbon iron and higher carbon steel were available for the production of tools and weapons. Carbon steel was produced by a method called case hardening. Iron was left for many hours in a slowly smouldering charcoal fire, creating an atmosphere very rich in free carbon and low in oxygen. The free carbon bonded to the hot iron and soaked in, creating a surface of steel. The billet was then flattened, folded over and forge welded, spreading the carbon through the piece. The process was then repeated, producing a many-layered piece of steel. The carbon content did not exceed 0.45%, the equivalent of modern C45 or EN45 carbon steel. This is well suited for A Roman blacksmith at work. Currently in the Archaeological Museum at Aquileia. 40 Ancient Warfare VII-4 AW VII-4.indd 40 19-09-13 16:32 © Robert Wimmers MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY A reconstruction of Roman bellows. all the functionality of the modern-day combined anvil. Tongs, hammers, files and large pliers were surprisingly similar to those made today and their use can be instantly recognized by a modern-day blacksmith. Sometimes, an exceptional, specialized tool was used to create a particular object. An example is the small anvil used to create trilobate arrowheads, as it has a slit cut into it to allow forging of a three-bladed point. Prior to the invention of the valve, the bellows were double and connected by a Y-shaped tuyere (air pipe). The two ends led to the two bellows, the single one fed air into the fire. This was done to prevent the bellows from sucking in hot air, sparks and even small coals, setting the whole contraption on fire. As the bellows were operated alternately, one drawing in air from beneath as the other was fanning the fire, there was a near continuous flow of air through the tuyere. An assistant working the bellows was positioned behind a fire screen to avoid the direct radiant heat and sparks. The fire itself was located in a roofed brick construction that was open on three sides. We know this from iconographic depictions of the blacksmith working his trade. make nails and perhaps insert anvil tools, although I am not aware of the later having been found. On the other hand, they may not have been recognized as such, even if they were. The double bellows could be mounted on a wooden board for easy transport, giving both support and lifting it off the ground, allowing air to be sucked in from beneath. In my reconstruction, an oak slab is an integral part of the bellows. As I work alone (for lack of a slave), I have come up with a device that incorporates a cantilever to operate the bellows, depressing one and lifting the other to fill with air at the same stroke. No evidence exists from the Roman period. However, double bellows from later times have been depicted with such a cantilever (for example by Agricola while describing the evolution of the bellows). For the smithy used by the Romans, it is however more probable that the bellows had two handles and was operated by a second person. Next comes the fire. A stationary smithy would have had the fire housed in a brickwork construction as seen in iconographic evidence, but on the move, a simple firebox would have sufficed. The quickest way of making a firebox was to cut a 30x30cm square of sod from the earth, divide it into three parts, and build up the edges of the depression with the pieces of sod. Locally gathered stones could have been laid at its bottom, as they facilitate the flow of air beneath the coals. Bricks and tegulae could also have been used to make the firebox, but a fanned charcoal fire burns hot enough to crack any baked material after prolonged use, as I have experienced firsthand. Some clay could have been packed around the mouth of the tuyere, shielding it from most of the heat. A large wooden bucket would have been necessary to hold the water needed to quench the hot iron after it was shaped, returning it to its original hardness. Contrary to popular belief, quenching low carbon iron does not improve the hardness, but leaving it to cool in the air will cause the piece to stay annealed and too soft for its intended purpose. The mobile array would also have included one or more small rotary grindstones. Set in a box holding water, these would be used to sharpen tools and weapons. The stone was operated by a crank: nice work for the slave or assistant. The smith would also carry a stock The tools of the trade. A mobile smithy would have included a fully functional array as described earlier, but of a sort that allowed for easy transportation. The anvils could have been set in hewn wooden blocks, or alternatively, in sturdy five-sided boxes bound by metal bands. This would have saved weight. As the anvil and tools could be stored inside, it would also have saved space. The Roman anvils fit for use in a mobile smithy are not all that big, weighing only several kilograms each. The T-shaped anvil has a hole to be able to © Robert Wimmers A hypothetical mobile smithy Ancient Warfare VII-4 AW VII-4.indd 41 41 19-09-13 16:32 MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY long logistic lines. Ballista points and arrowheads could both easily run low, as could caltrops and ‘lilies’ (barbed points stuck on stakes in pits for perimeter defence), although it is very likely that a good few casks or crates of these would have been part of the armourer’s stock. These were mass-produced in fabrica, and then oiled and packed in the thousands. Closing remarks © Stichting Romeinenfestival Although we have no hard evidence for mobile smithies, it stands to reason that such a vital service would have been part of the Roman army on the move. The practical advantages of such an imbedded craftsman are just too great to be ignored. The maintenance services he provided would have ensured that the army could keep on the move and that their equipment would stay in good working order. • The author at work. of iron. This would have consisted not only of various billets but also of assorted scrap iron. The advantage of scrap iron is that as it has already once been worked, it is often of a better quality than the raw billets, having had the impurities further hammered out. In the Newstead hoard, it is evident that the smith kept a stock of iron in the shape of worn out tools, broken fittings and such. Baskets or sacks would have held a store of charcoal. This could be replenished on the way. This entire array could be transported on a two-wheeled cart. Actual field use It is my belief that the main function of the mobile smithy was to provide maintenance for equipment, tools and weapons. The baggage train itself, with all the wagons and carts, would have had a lot of iron parts subject to heavy wear and tear. Axel pins, harness trappings, bonding irons, supports and yoke pole joins are some of the great variety of bits and pieces prone to breakage or distortion. Then there was the army itself, with cooking pots, grates, tripods and a whole 42 bunch of utensils which may have needed mending or banging back into shape. There was also the mundane task of sharpening all sorts of knives and blades. As the soldiers cared for their own weapons, this could have been a handy source of income on the side. Having your sword expertly sharpened in a matter of minutes beats having to sharpen the blade with a whetstone by hand. The soldiers would also have been a good outlet for objects such as utility knives and various small tools (for instance those used for leatherwork). Any smith with an enterprising nature was sure to have a steady production of such items at times when his services were not required for army business. It is unlikely there would have been any real production of arms. Most smithing dealing with armament would have consisted of refurbishing snapped points, straightening bent swords and rehafting spears. Shield bosses would have been replaced and mended at a later moment. However, there may well have been need to replenish stores of ranged weapons during any protracted campaign with Robert Wimmers started forging as a hobby in 2006. His interest in the Roman period stems from his previous involvement as an amateur archaeologist. He occasionally gives demonstrations at reenactment fairs. For more information on Roman forging or doing historical reproductions, feel free to contact the author at r.p.wimmers@ hotmail.com or visit the site of www. ferrumantica.eu Further reading - Gert Weisgerber and Christoph Roden, ‘Römische Schmiedeszenen und ihre Gebläse’, Der Anschnitt, Zeitschrift für Kunst und Kultur im Bergbau 37 (1985), pp. 2-21. - Marianne Pollak, Stellmacherei und Landwirtschaft: zwei Römische materialhorte aus Mannersdorf am Leithagebirge, Niederösterreich (Vienna 2006). - Christian Koepfer and Florian Wulfgang Himmler, Die römische Armee im Experiment (Berlin 2011). - James Curle, A Roman frontier post and its people. The Fort of Newstead in the Parish of Melrose (Glasgow 1911). Ancient Warfare VII-4 AW VII-4.indd 42 19-09-13 16:32