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MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY
Blacksmithing on the move
Forging ahead
What did a mobile smithy look like and what was its hypothetical function in an army baggage train?
What could have been its added value? Which objects could have been produced given the limited
size of the smithy? What logistical advantages could have been gained by having a mobile smithy on
hand? The author uses his own experiences as a blacksmith and reenactor to find answers for these
questions.
By Robert Wimmers
making Roman-style mono-steel blades.
Indeed, I use it to produce my swords.
Tools of the trade
Many of the tools typically used by
a Roman blacksmith have been excavated and described, such as the hoard
finds from Switzerland and Newstead,
England; other tools are depicted in
iconographic sources (such as reliefs).
Like his modern counterpart, the ancient
blacksmith had some basic tools, including the bellows-blown fire (using either
charcoal or coal where readily available), the anvil and an array of hammers,
tongs, pliers, shears, punches and files.
Tongs were used to hold the piece or
draw it from the fire. When comparing
ancient tools to those used today, the
primary difference is in the main anvil,
as the Romans used a block anvil as
opposed to the horned one common in
modern times. However, several Roman
T-shaped stake anvils in various sizes
have been found together with block
anvils. These stake anvils have a tapered
plane on one end and a spike on the
other (see the picture on page 41). A
set of two anvils, a block and a T-stake
would have given the Roman blacksmith
© Wolfgang Sauber (via Wikimedia Commons)
Toolmakers like the blacksmith were
very much at the heart of iron age society. Without proper tools, other craftsmen and labourers stood empty handed,
unable to produce their goods. Warriors
and hunters would go without weapons.
Horses and mules went unshod, ploughs
had no shear, houses no nails; indeed,
much of society depended on the products of the blacksmith. It was a socially
important craft learnt by seeing and,
most of all, by doing.
The Roman blacksmith is commonly
depicted as working seated. I have found
three reliefs of a Roman blacksmith at
work, all show him seated at the anvil.
The Archaeological Museum of Aquileia
in Italy has a very good relief of this kind
on display. This way of working may
seem very unusual to us, but in India for
instance, craftsmen of all kinds still work
seated on the ground or on low stools.
The fire was stoked by an assistant working the double bellows.
The blacksmith would buy his stock
of iron to be worked from various sources in the shape of billets. Examples of
these have been found. Although he had
no knowledge of metallurgy, there was a
recognizable difference in the quality of
iron from different sources. This was due
to the natural alloys formed in the smelting process; iron ore can have trace elements like silica, manganese or chrome
in it. So, the iron from some areas would
be considered more suitable for making
a strong sword for instance, than iron
from an area where the iron ore did not
have similar quality-enhancing natural
elements.
Both low carbon iron and higher carbon steel were available for the production of tools and weapons. Carbon steel
was produced by a method called case
hardening. Iron was left for many hours
in a slowly smouldering charcoal fire,
creating an atmosphere very rich in free
carbon and low in oxygen. The free carbon bonded to the hot iron and soaked
in, creating a surface of steel. The billet
was then flattened, folded over and forge
welded, spreading the carbon through
the piece. The process was then repeated, producing a many-layered piece of
steel. The carbon content did not exceed
0.45%, the equivalent of modern C45 or
EN45 carbon steel. This is well suited for
A Roman blacksmith at work. Currently in the Archaeological Museum at Aquileia.
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© Robert Wimmers
MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY
A reconstruction of Roman bellows.
all the functionality of the modern-day
combined anvil. Tongs, hammers, files
and large pliers were surprisingly similar
to those made today and their use can
be instantly recognized by a modern-day
blacksmith. Sometimes, an exceptional,
specialized tool was used to create a particular object. An example is the small
anvil used to create trilobate arrowheads, as it has a slit cut into it to allow
forging of a three-bladed point.
Prior to the invention of the valve,
the bellows were double and connected
by a Y-shaped tuyere (air pipe). The two
ends led to the two bellows, the single
one fed air into the fire. This was done
to prevent the bellows from sucking in
hot air, sparks and even small coals,
setting the whole contraption on fire. As
the bellows were operated alternately,
one drawing in air from beneath as the
other was fanning the fire, there was a
near continuous flow of air through the
tuyere. An assistant working the bellows
was positioned behind a fire screen to
avoid the direct radiant heat and sparks.
The fire itself was located in a roofed
brick construction that was open on
three sides. We know this from iconographic depictions of the blacksmith
working his trade.
make nails and perhaps insert anvil tools,
although I am not aware of the later having been found. On the other hand, they
may not have been recognized as such,
even if they were.
The double bellows could be mounted on a wooden board for easy transport,
giving both support and lifting it off
the ground, allowing air to be sucked
in from beneath. In my reconstruction,
an oak slab is an integral part of the
bellows. As I work alone (for lack of a
slave), I have come up with a device that
incorporates a cantilever to operate the
bellows, depressing one and lifting the
other to fill with air at the same stroke.
No evidence exists from the Roman period. However, double bellows from later
times have been depicted with such a
cantilever (for example by Agricola while
describing the evolution of the bellows).
For the smithy used by the Romans, it is
however more probable that the bellows
had two handles and was operated by a
second person.
Next comes the fire. A stationary
smithy would have had the fire housed
in a brickwork construction as seen in
iconographic evidence, but on the move,
a simple firebox would have sufficed.
The quickest way of making a firebox
was to cut a 30x30cm square of sod
from the earth, divide it into three parts,
and build up the edges of the depression
with the pieces of sod. Locally gathered
stones could have been laid at its bottom, as they facilitate the flow of air
beneath the coals. Bricks and tegulae
could also have been used to make the
firebox, but a fanned charcoal fire burns
hot enough to crack any baked material
after prolonged use, as I have experienced firsthand. Some clay could have
been packed around the mouth of the
tuyere, shielding it from most of the heat.
A large wooden bucket would have
been necessary to hold the water needed
to quench the hot iron after it was
shaped, returning it to its original hardness. Contrary to popular belief, quenching low carbon iron does not improve
the hardness, but leaving it to cool in the
air will cause the piece to stay annealed
and too soft for its intended purpose.
The mobile array would also have
included one or more small rotary grindstones. Set in a box holding water, these
would be used to sharpen tools and
weapons. The stone was operated by a
crank: nice work for the slave or assistant. The smith would also carry a stock
The tools of the trade.
A mobile smithy would have included a
fully functional array as described earlier,
but of a sort that allowed for easy transportation. The anvils could have been
set in hewn wooden blocks, or alternatively, in sturdy five-sided boxes bound
by metal bands. This would have saved
weight. As the anvil and tools could be
stored inside, it would also have saved
space. The Roman anvils fit for use in a
mobile smithy are not all that big, weighing only several kilograms each. The
T-shaped anvil has a hole to be able to
© Robert Wimmers
A hypothetical mobile smithy
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MOvEMENt AND SUPPlY
long logistic lines. Ballista points and
arrowheads could both easily run low, as
could caltrops and ‘lilies’ (barbed points
stuck on stakes in pits for perimeter
defence), although it is very likely that a
good few casks or crates of these would
have been part of the armourer’s stock.
These were mass-produced in fabrica,
and then oiled and packed in the thousands.
Closing remarks
© Stichting Romeinenfestival
Although we have no hard evidence for
mobile smithies, it stands to reason that
such a vital service would have been part
of the Roman army on the move. The
practical advantages of such an imbedded
craftsman are just too great to be ignored.
The maintenance services he provided would have ensured that the army
could keep on the move and that their
equipment would stay in good working
order. •
The author at work.
of iron. This would have consisted not
only of various billets but also of assorted
scrap iron. The advantage of scrap iron is
that as it has already once been worked,
it is often of a better quality than the raw
billets, having had the impurities further
hammered out. In the Newstead hoard,
it is evident that the smith kept a stock
of iron in the shape of worn out tools,
broken fittings and such. Baskets or sacks
would have held a store of charcoal. This
could be replenished on the way. This
entire array could be transported on a
two-wheeled cart.
Actual field use
It is my belief that the main function of
the mobile smithy was to provide maintenance for equipment, tools and weapons. The baggage train itself, with all the
wagons and carts, would have had a lot
of iron parts subject to heavy wear and
tear. Axel pins, harness trappings, bonding irons, supports and yoke pole joins
are some of the great variety of bits and
pieces prone to breakage or distortion.
Then there was the army itself, with
cooking pots, grates, tripods and a whole
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bunch of utensils which may have needed mending or banging back into shape.
There was also the mundane task of
sharpening all sorts of knives and blades.
As the soldiers cared for their own weapons, this could have been a handy source
of income on the side. Having your
sword expertly sharpened in a matter
of minutes beats having to sharpen the
blade with a whetstone by hand. The soldiers would also have been a good outlet
for objects such as utility knives and
various small tools (for instance those
used for leatherwork). Any smith with
an enterprising nature was sure to have a
steady production of such items at times
when his services were not required for
army business.
It is unlikely there would have been
any real production of arms. Most smithing dealing with armament would have
consisted of refurbishing snapped points,
straightening bent swords and rehafting
spears. Shield bosses would have been
replaced and mended at a later moment.
However, there may well have been
need to replenish stores of ranged weapons during any protracted campaign with
Robert Wimmers started forging
as a hobby in 2006. His interest in
the Roman period stems from his
previous involvement as an amateur
archaeologist. He occasionally gives
demonstrations at reenactment
fairs. For more information on
Roman forging or doing historical
reproductions, feel free to contact
the author at r.p.wimmers@
hotmail.com or visit the site of www.
ferrumantica.eu
Further reading
- Gert
Weisgerber
and
Christoph Roden, ‘Römische
Schmiedeszenen
und
ihre
Gebläse’,
Der
Anschnitt,
Zeitschrift für Kunst und Kultur
im Bergbau 37 (1985), pp. 2-21.
- Marianne Pollak, Stellmacherei
und
Landwirtschaft:
zwei
Römische materialhorte aus
Mannersdorf am Leithagebirge,
Niederösterreich (Vienna 2006).
- Christian Koepfer and Florian
Wulfgang Himmler, Die römische
Armee im Experiment (Berlin
2011).
- James Curle, A Roman frontier
post and its people. The Fort
of Newstead in the Parish of
Melrose (Glasgow 1911).
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