Download Warfare and Religion

Rome at War
Warfare and the Gods
The nature of Roman Religion
cult (cultus) – religious action
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Cultus was central to Roman religion; not to be confused
with modern negative overtones
cultus – was the worship (the various practices and
rituals employed in worship); enormous range of
practices
Main forms of practices: 1. request for benefits
from gods, i.e. in prayers, sacrifices and other offerings
2. Divinations or interpretation of messages from the
gods (i.e. flight of birds – augury)
3. rituals – such as purifications and initiations which in
various ways transformed a person’s situation with
respect to the divine
Emphasis on correct repetitions of formulae
The nature of Roman Religion:
reciprocity
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Do ut des -” I grant you this, so that you will give me that in
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Quid pro quo idea - I offer you a benefit and ask for one in
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exchange.”
return – sacrifices are made to the gods and their protection, favour,
beneficence is expected (or rather hoped for) in return
Concept must be understood in the context of a culture (GraecoRoman) where social relationships are based on reciprocal benefits
(i.e. patron-client relationship)
Rome: when benefit (beneficium) given, the person who receives
the benefit owes - gratia - and can be called upon to return the
benefit
When gods did not deliver, Romans believed they were angry and
more public sacrifices were made to appease them
Politics and the gods
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Roman magistrates were considered to be closer to the
gods than ordinary Romans
It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying
out sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain
the pax deorum
Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the wellbeing of Rome, success of state dependent on common
purpose of human and divine leaders
until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to
one-year positions – no monopoly on close relationship
of one individual to the gods
In imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most
important priesthoods
Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)
performing a sacrifice
Roman Religion and Warfare
Before Romans commenced any hostilities, they
needed to obtain the favour of the gods
 Certain rituals had to be performed
 Often vows were made to gods by generals
before a battle/campaign in return for victory
 After victory sacrifices had to be made to the
gods; also after defeats to appease the gods
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Declaring War:
The duty of the fetiales
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72 The seventh division of his sacred institutions was devoted to
the college of the fetiales; these may be called in Greek
eirênodikai or "arbiters of peace." They are chosen men, from the
best families, and exercise their holy office for life; King Numa was
also the first who instituted this holy magistracy among the Romans
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It is their duty to take care that the Romans do not enter
upon an unjust war against any city in alliance with them, and if
others begin the violation of treaties against them, to go as
ambassadors and first make formal demand for justice, and then, if
the others refuse to comply with their demands, to sanction war.
5 In like manner, if any people in alliance with the Romans complain
of having been injured by them and demand justice, these men are
to determine whether they have suffered anything in violation of
their alliance;
(Dionyssius of Halicarnassus II.72)
Declaring war continued
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Numa had instituted religious observances
for times of peace, he would hand down
the ceremonies appropriate to a state of
war. In order, therefore, that wars might
be not only conducted but also proclaimed
with some formality, he wrote down the
law, as taken from the ancient nation of
the Aequioli, under which the Fetials act
down to this day when seeking redress for
injuries. The procedure is as follows: -
The formula
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The ambassador binds his head in a woollen fillet. When he has reached
the frontiers of the nation from whom satisfaction is demanded, he says,
"Hear, O Jupiter! Hear, ye confines" - naming the particular nation whose
they are - "Hear, O Justice! I am the public herald of the Roman People.
Rightly and duly authorised do I come; let confidence be placed in my
words." Then he recites the terms of the demands, and calls Jupiter to
witness: "If I am demanding the surrender of those men or those goods,
contrary to justice and religion, suffer me nevermore to enjoy my native
land." He repeats these words as he crosses the frontier, he repeats them
to whoever happens to be the first person he meets, he repeats them as he
enters the gates and again on entering the forum, with some slight changes
in the wording of the formula. If what he demands are not surrendered at
the expiration of thirty-three days - for that is the fixed period of grace - he
declares war in the following terms: "Hear, O Jupiter, and thou Janus
Quirinus, and all ye heavenly gods, and ye, gods of earth and of the lower
world, hear me! I call you to witness that this people" - mentioning it by
name - "is unjust and does not fulfil its sacred obligations. But about these
matters we must consult the elders in our own land in what way we may
obtain our rights."
consulting the senate
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With these words the ambassador returned to Rome for
consultation. The king forthwith consulted the senate in
words to the following effect: "Concerning the matters,
suits, and causes, whereof the Pater Patratus of the
Roman People and Quirites hath complained to the Pater
Patratus of the Prisci Latini, and to the people of the
Prisci Latini, which matters they were bound severally to
surrender, discharge, and make good, whereas they
have done none of these things - say, what is your
opinion?" He whose opinion was first asked, replied, "I
am of opinion that they ought to be recovered by a just
and righteous war, wherefore I give my consent and vote
for it." Then the others were asked in order, and when
the majority of those present declared themselves of the
same opinion, war was agreed upon.
War commences
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It was customary for the Fetial to carry to the enemies' frontiers a
blood-smeared spear tipped with iron or burnt at the end, and, in
the presence of at least three adults, to say, "Inasmuch as the
peoples of the Prisci Latini have been guilty of wrong against the
People of Rome and the Quirites, and inasmuch as the People of
Rome and the Quirites have ordered that there be war with the
Prisci Latini, and the Senate of the People of Rome and the Quirites
have determined and decreed that there shall be war with the Prisci
Latini, therefore I and the People of Rome, declare and make war
upon the peoples of the Prisci Latini." With these words he hurled
his spear into their territory. This was the way in which at that time
satisfaction was demanded from the Latins and war declared, and
posterity adopted the custom.
(Livy 1.32)
devotio
Roman Blood Sacrifice
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Roman religious ritual included blood sacrifices s in
exchange for goodwill of the gods; usually these would
be farm animals; large sacrificial victims such as bulls,
etc., would be sacrificed by the community/town/state.
Under exceptional circumstances victims could include
humans - devotio
devotio could be a self-sacrifice – a vow made by a
commander before a campaign in return for a victory.
It could also be captive enemies: Three times in the late
Republic 228, 216, 113 BCE, Romans buried two Gauls
and two Greeks alive in the Forum Boarium
Execution of Christian martyrs were also described as
sacrifices
devotio – a general vows himself to
the gods
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[Livy 8.9]The battle took place near the base of Mount Vesuvius,
where the road led to Veseris. Before leading out their armies to
battle the consuls offered sacrifice. The haruspex, whose duty it
was to inspect the different organs in the victims, pointed out to
Decius a prophetic intimation of his death, in all other respects the
signs were favourable. Manlius' sacrifice was entirely satisfactory. "It
is well," said Decius, "if my colleague has obtained favourable
signs.“They moved forward to battle in the formation I have already
described, Manlius in command of the right division, Decius of the
left. At first both armies fought with equal strength and equal
determination. After a time the Roman hastati on the left, unable to
withstand the insistency of the Latins, retired behind the principes.
During the temporary confusion created by this movement, Decius
exclaimed in a loud voice to M. Valerius: "Valerius, we need the help
of the gods! Let the Pontifex Maximus dictate to me the words in
which I am to devote myself for the legions." …
Devotio continued
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The Pontifex bade him veil his head in his toga praetexta, and rest
his hand, covered with the toga, against his chin, then standing
upon a spear to say these words: "Janus, Jupiter, Father Mars,
Quirinus, Bellona, Lares, ye Novensiles and Indigetes, deities to
whom belongs the power over us and over our foes, and ye, too,
Divine Manes, I pray to you, I do you reverence, I crave your grace
and favour that you will bless the Roman People, the Quirites, with
power and victory, and visit the enemies of the Roman People, the
Quirites, with fear and dread and death. In like manner as I have
uttered this prayer so do I now on behalf of the commonwealth of
the Quirites, on behalf of the army, the legions, the auxiliaries of the
Roman People, the Quirites, devote the legions and auxiliaries of the
enemy, together with myself to the Divine Manes and to Earth."
After this prayer he ordered the lictors to go to T. Manlius and at
once announce to his colleague that he had devoted himself on
behalf of the army.
Into the midst of the enemy
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He then girded himself with the Gabinian cincture, and in full
armour leaped upon his horse and dashed into the middle of the
enemy. To those who watched him in both armies, he appeared
something awful and superhuman, as though sent from heaven to
expiate and appease all the anger of the gods and to avert
destruction from his people and bring it on their enemies. All the
dread and terror which he carried with him threw the front ranks of
the Latins into confusion which soon spread throughout the entire
army. This was most evident, for wherever his horse carried him
they were paralysed as though struck by some death-dealing star;
but when he fell, overwhelmed with darts, the Latin cohorts, in a
state of perfect consternation, fled from the spot and left a large
space clear.
(Livy 8.9.1-10 – Samnite War)
Roman ambivalence about devotio
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“why was it that, when Romans discovered that a barbarian tribe
called the Bletonesii had sacrificed a human being to the gods, they
sent for the leaders of the tribe, intending to punish them, but when
it became clear that the tribe had acted in accordance with some
native custom, they set the leaders free, though forbade the
practice for the future? Yet the Romans themselves, … had buried
alive two men and two women ..in the ‘Forum Boarium’, two Greeks
and two Gauls. ..Did they think it impious to sacrifice human being
to the gods, but necessary to sacrifice them to the spirits? Or did
they think that men who did this by tradition and custom did wrong,
while they themselves acted according to the instructions of the
Sibylline Books? For it is said that a young woman, a virgin called
Helvia, was struck by lightning as she rode a horse, and that the
horse was found lying stripped of all its trappings, and the woman
herself was found stripped too - her tunic pulled up above her
(continued)
ambivalence continued
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private parts as if on purpose, her shoes, rings and
headdress scattered in different directions, her tongue
sticking right out from her mouth. The soothsayers
declared that this was a dreadful disgrace fro the virgin
priestesses which would become notorious; and that
some outrage would extend to the knights also. Then a
barbarian slave ..laid information against three Vestal
Virgins, Aemilia, Licinia and Marcia ..that they had all
been corrupted ..for a long period ..sleeping with men.
The women were convicted and punished, but as it was
such an appalling business, it was decided that the
priests should consult the Sibylline Books. They say that
oracles were discovered, prophesying disaster and
prescribing that two Greeks and two Gauls should be
offered to strange foreign spirits, buried alive on the spot
(Plutarch, Roman Questions 83).
Votive games (munera) held on the
occasion of a military triumph
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Ludi magni votivi games vowed to Jupiter by generals
before they set out on a military campaign
During games in addition to regular gladiatorial contests,
executions of captivi (captured enemies) and criminals
took place; the blood of gladiators (who stood outside
Roman society) criminals and war captives was
considered offerings to the gods
Regular ludi votivi put on after 82 B.C. in honour of
Sulla, after 46 B.C. in honour of Julius Caesar = ludi
Caesaris
The evocatio – seducing the gods to
change sides
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“Whether you are a god or a goddess who hold under your
protection the people and the city of Carthage, and you also,
almighty god, who have taken under your protection this city and
this people, to you I pray, you I implore, you I respectfully ask to
abandon the city and people of Carthage, to desert their structures,
temples, sanctuaries, and urban area, and to leave them. I ask you
to instill in that people and city fear, terror, and oblivion, and to
come to me and to my people when you have left these. I ask that
our structures, temples, sanctuaries, and urban area may be more
acceptable and more agreeable to you, and that you may take
under your protection me and the people of Rome and my soldiers
in such a way that we may know and perceive it. If you will do this,
I vow that I will build for you temples and celebrate your games.”
(Macrobius, Saturnalia Conversations 3.9.7, 8.
evocatio
was a common practice in which one or
more of the enemy’s gods were evoked to
change sides, and in return Romans would
bring the cults of these deities to Rome
and would build shrines or temples to
honour them.
 In short, the idea was to offer the gods
more honours: better houses (temples)
and bigger sacrifices.
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The Roman Triumph
God for a Day
God for a Day
Military Triumphs, granted (by the senate) to victorious
commander who had killed at least 5000 of the enemy
 Roman triumph greatest achievement for a Roman noble
 The general became god for a day – triumphant general
dressed up like Jupiter: all in red – cloak and crown, face
painted red; procession of general, his troops, captives,
loot through city to centre. Temporary reversal of
things: normally army was prohibited from entering
Rome
 Some sources claim a slave stood next to general,
whispering into his ear: “remember you are a man.”
 Soldiers were allowed to shout insults and obscenities at
general in order to prevent jealousy of gods
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The Roman State and the Gods
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Roman magistrates (senators) were closer to the gods than ordinary
Romans
It was their duty to communicate with gods by carrying out
sacrifices on behalf of the community to maintain the pax deorum
Magistrates and gods cooperated to ensure the well-being of Rome,
success of state dependent on common purpose of human and
divine leaders
Chief magistrates were also the priests, i.e. Caesar was pontifex
maximus; Cicero as consul was also an augur, etc.,
until last century BCE – magistracies were limited to one-year
positions – no monopoly on close relationship of one individual to
the gods
In the Imperial period, the emperor had monopoly on most
important priesthoods
Republican Generals and the
Gods
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Great Republican generals managed to extend or repeat offices and
special commands that gave them power for long periods
They now claimed long-term association with the gods
Symbolized by: triumphs, displaying themselves (or had them treated by
others) as favourites of gods, or even like gods
Clear elevation of powerful figures: Scipio Africanus (late 2nd century BCE) is
accused of having claimed a close association with Jupiter Optimus
Maximus
Aemilius Paullus after defeating Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BCE was
granted a triumph and allowed to wear triumphal dress at all Circus
games; same honours given to Pompey in 63 BCE
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Marius (7 times consul, was given triumph for victory over African
king Jugurtha and over the Germans), entered the Roman senate in
triumphal outfit; offence to senators, but loved by populus
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Iulius Caesar topped them all – when he was allowed to wear the
triumphal costume on all public occasion – serious break with tradition
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Military Conquest and the Gods
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Rome’s success was also the success of gods
Divine allegiance was important for a successful Roman politician; in
Republican era connection with gods, alienation of gods from rivals
had to be constantly paraded
For example: Octavian claimed success with the support of Apollo,
in his capacity as healing god, against his final opponent Antony
who had likened himself to the god Dionysos (god of wine,
fertility)
By the late Republic – Dionysos represented all the decadence and
luxuria of the eas
Military and political success brought men into close association
with gods (triumphant general became god for a day)
In late Republic, the status of successful politician moved
increasingly closer to the status of the divine
Culmination of trend: Iulius Caesar who was declared a god after his
death
Restored arch of Titus
Victory Arch of Titus
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SENATVS
POPVLVSQUE ROMANVS
DIVO TITO DIVI VESPASIANI F
VESPASIANO AUGUSTO
“The Senate and people of Rome (dedicate this)
to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of
the deified Vespasian.” This is the Arch of Titus:
a tribute felt to a man who was a hero, an
emperor, and a god of Rome
Arch of Titus
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spoils of the First Jewish War
on their way to be displayed
for the satisfaction of the
Roman mob. Chosen to
represent the vast wealth
brought back from Judea are
the most sacred artifacts of the
Jewish faith: the sevenbranched menorah, the silver
trumpets, and the table of
showbread, all plundered from
the innermost sanctum of the
Jewish temple