Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
BUDDHISM 1. Abhidharma Pitaka - "basket" of philosophical arguments developing the Buddha's teachings; further teachings 2. Amitabha/ Amida - "Boundless Light." A Buddha of the Mahayana pantheon, he presides over the Western paradise, and is worshipped by Pure Land Buddhists. Calling his name with sincerity at the hour of death is sufficient to be reborn in the Pure Land. 3. Ananda - attendant of Siddartha Guatama; had the best recollection of the Buddha's teachings 4. anatman - there is no absolute or true Self; there is an empirical self knowable to the senses, a body-mind complex, made up of impermanent constituents; there is nothing permanent 5. anitya 6. Asoka - King of the Mauryan dynasty who ruled much of the Indian subcontinent from 273-236 BCE. After a bloody campaign for which he felt much remorse, he converted to Buddhism, helped to establish it throughout the empire, and to spread it to neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka. 7. avidya - ignorance; root of our suffering is ignorance of reality 8. bhikkhu - a fully ordained Buddhist monk and member of the Sangha; monks conduct their lives in accordance with the rules laid out in the Vinaya Pitaka 9. Bo/ Bodhi tree - enlightenment tree 10. Bodh-gaya - city where Siddhartha gained enlightenment under the bodhi tree 11. Bodhidharma - a semi-legendary Indian meditation master, who founded the Chan school of Buddhism in China in the sixth century; connected in legend to the martial art, kung-fu. 12. bodhisattva - "Enlightened Being." In Theravada, one who is committed to the attainment of Buddhahood, and for the liberation of all beings. Bodhisattvas may be earthly or transcendant. 13. Bon - animistic religious tradition in which many deities (both benevolent and malevolent) were worshipped with a rich array of rituals including sacrifice and spirit possession 14. Ch'an - Chinese word for zen 15. Chu-Hsi/ Zhu-xi - philosopher who melded Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism 16. Dalai-Lama - Ocean of Wisdom Teacher. Title and rulership of Tibet bestowed on the head of the Gelug Order of Tibetan Buddhism in the 16th Century. 17. dharma - teachings of the Buddha 18. dukkha/ duhkha - suffering 19. Eight-fold Path - these need to be developed simultaneously Leads to Buddahood 1) proper religio-philosophical outlook - question all assumed truths 2) proper intention/aspiration - have sincere determination to find truth 3) proper speech/ communication - don't deceive 4) proper action - actually do what is necessary and appropriate 5) proper livelihood - choose your occupation wisely 6) proper application/ effort - persevere in your practice 7) proper mindfulness (smrti) - utilize the right kinds of meditation 8) proper Samadhi - contemplative union - find potent insights/ realizations 20. First Sermon - Buddha preached in Sarnath to his 5 ascetic friends 21. Four Noble Truths (1) dukkha = sorrow and suffering (2) avidya causes dukkha (3) nirvana stops avidya and ends dukkha (4) the Noble Eight-Fold Path is a method to attain nirvana 22. Hinayana - Lesser Vehicle; anything that is not Mahayana 23. Jodo-shin-shu - Pure Land school in Japan 24. karma - principle of cause and effect; only pertains to "intentional acts" 25. karuna - compassion; bodhisattva ideal 26. koan - emphasized in Rinzai Zen; is an enigmatic question which can bring about insight (such as what is the sound of one hand clapping?) 27. lama - teacher 28. Lumbini - city where Siddhartha was born 29. Mahayana - "Great Vehicle" form of Buddhism that emerged in the first century and spread from North India to China and Japan. It is characterized by the ideal of the bodhisattva, one who strives to bring all things to nirvana. 30. Maya - mother of Siddartha 31. nembutsu - Japanese name for Buddha; chanting of Amitabha's name 32. Neo-Confucianism - by Chu Hsi; melded Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism 33. nirvana - ends all illusions about the self; thus freedom from both karma and rebirth (samsara or worldly existence) 34. Padmasambhava - 8th Century missionary; schooled in the Tantras, he emphasized elaborate rituals and magical practices, establishing the Vajrayana form of Buddhism in Tibet 35. parinirvana - after attaining nirvana, there is no death; passing from this world is "further nirvana" 36. Prajapati - Siddartha's foster mother who became the first Buddhist nun 37. prajna - wisdom; transcendental wisdom that is a bodhisattva ideal 38. pratitya-samutpada - Dependent Origination; reveals the origin of our sense of "self"; depends in part on our perceptions, ignorance, and desires 39. Pure Land - a school of Mahayana Buddhism characterized by faith in the compassion of the Buddha Amitabha. Adherents hope to be reborn in Amitabha's Pure Land, also known as the Western Paradise. 40. Rahula - son of Siddartha Guatama 41. Rinzai - Japanese school of Zen; 42. Sakya - clan inhabiting the foothills of the Himalayas; Siddhartha Gautama's family was a part of this clan 43. Sakyamuni Buddha - Siddhartha became this Awakened One; the historical Buddha. In most Buddhist traditions, he is not the first and only Buddha, but is regarded as the teaching Buddha of the current epoch. Shakyamuni means "Sage of the Shakya Clan." 44. samadhi - right contemplative absorption 45. Sangha - monastic society 46. Sarnath - city where First Sermon was given 47. Siddhartha-Gautama - founder of Buddhism 48. Silk Roads - trade route; means by which Buddhism entered China in the 1st Century 49. skilful means - developed by the Boddhisattva's to perfect qualities and rescue beings from suffering; wisdom and compassion 50. smrti - mindfulness; Right Mindfulness 51. Soto - Japanese Zen school 52. Sutra Pitaka - "basket" collection of the Buddha's discourses; general teachings of the Buddha 53. T'ang Dynasty - Buddhism gained most popularity in 7th and 10th CE 54. Tantra - high ritual; male and female (sexual) imagery 55. Tendai - Japanese form of T'ein-t'ai Buddhism based upon the Lotus Sutra 56. the Lotus Sutra - a Mahayana text, dating from the third century; forms the basis of Tiantai and Nichiren Buddhism. It promulgates doctrines on the value of faith and the possibility of universal liberation, because all beings share in the Buddha nature, which is transcendental. 57. Theravada - "Doctrine of the Elders" the only surviving branch of the nonMahayana Buddhist groups. It is the dominant form of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, Myanmar(Burma), Thailand, and other parts of Southeast Asia. It is characterized by the pursuit of nirvana. 58. The Three Jewels - Buddhists take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma (teachings), and the Sangha (the Buddhist community) 59. T'ien-t'ai - Chinese Buddhism based upon influential Lotus Sutra text 60. Tripitaka - "Three Baskets" collection of early Buddhist writings, written in Pali, and forming the canon for Theravada Buddhists. The Sutra section contains teachings attributed to the Buddha, the Vinaya contains rules of monastic discipline, and the Abhidharma contains philosophical and doctrinal arguments. 61. trsna - desire, cling, thirst after illusions 62. Vajrayana - "Diamond or Thunderbolt Vehicle" form of Buddhism characterized by Tantric practices, which became dominant in Tibet, and later spread to Mongolia and India. 63. Vinaya Pitaka - a collection primarily of teachings on monastic discipline; monastic rules 64. Yasodhara - Siddartha Gautama's wife 65. zazen - "sitting" used in Soto Zen meditation 66. Zen - Chan/Ch'an in China; it is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that emphasizes meditation in the attainment of nirvana. In Japan, two main schools of Zen emerged, the Rinzai and the Soto Chinese/ Japanese Religions 1. Amaterasu - the Sun Goddess 2. ancestor worship - deceased can affect one's life; founding ancestor or recently departed relatives get most attention; tablets with the ancestor's name would be placed on the home altar; incense burned daily; food offerings; prayers for blessings and to avoid punishment. 3. animism 4. bushido - Shogun samurai way 5. Confucianism - associated with the sage Confucius, Confucianism emphasized the study of certain literary classics in order to nurture human moral nature. The Confucian ideal is the cultivated person (junzi/ chun-tzu) who has perfected the quality of human-heartedness (ren/jen). 6. Dao/ Tao The Way; The Mysterious and Natural Way of Life; The Supreme Ultimate; Symbol of Absolute Reality, composed of Yin-Yang; (.S.); symbolized by a divided circle with an s-shaped line and two dots; firm yet yielding, soft and hard, heaven and earth, unmanifest mystery vs. manifest creation 7. Daoism/ Taoism - "nature mysticism" Philosophical: associated with the writings of Laozi and Zhuangzi, it is a form of nature mysticism. The Daoist ideal is the sage (sheng) who contemplates nature in order to return to an original state that is harmonious with the mysterious principle known as the Dao. Religious: developed from Daoist philosophy and older magical and ritual based traditions. It is characterized by a search for bodily immortality, alchemy, and a belief in a pantheon of immortal sages. 8. De/ Te Virtue; the power of the Dao; when heart and mind is empty/clear/receptive the it is most harmonious with the flow of Tao 9. divination - consultation of oracles; revealed hidden truths and predicted future probabilities; Yijing is a popular oracle system 10. Earth 11. Emperor Jimmu 12. Emperor Meiji 13. Emperor Yu 14. feng-shui - "wind and water" divination practice; special positioning of buildings, their structural layout, and their decor. 15. filial piety - the relationship of son to father is a model for such relationships as ruler-subject husband-wife, elder-younger; mutual obligations (such as protection/support vs. respect/obedience); hierarchical, deference to those older or in positions above you 16. Han Dynasty - prospering of Confucianism; after Han dynasty Buddhism causes Confucianism to decline 17. hara-kiri 18. Heaven 19. hexagram - diagram produced what consulting the Yijing/ I-ching oracle, consisting of six horizontal lines placed one above the other. The lines may either be solid or broken. Solid lines represent the Yang principle while broken lines represent the Yin principle. The hexagram is also viewed as the interplay of two three-lined trigrams which serve as another Yin-Yang polarity. 20. Izanagi - male creator; he who invites 21. Izanami - female creator; she who is invited 22. Jade Emperor 23. junzi/chun-tzu - ideal of a cultivated person, a model for others; gentleman/ sons of princes; don't have to be an aristocrat to act well: embody the best way to live; ideal of self-educating cultivating manners Four qualities in self-cultivation are: Li, Yi, Shu, and Jen (Ren) Li is formal, traditional external behavior that must be learned 24. kami 25. kami-dana 26. kami-no-michi 27. Kongfuzi /K'ung-fu-tzu /Confucius Confucius: "Master Kong" was the teacher and founder of a school of thought known as Confucianism, or the scholarly or Literati tradition. He promoted tradition but interpreted it in ways that made important reforms in Chinese thought and values. He is associated with the concepts of "filial piety," human-heartedness (ren/jen), and the cultivated person (junzi/ chun-tzu). 28. Laozi/Lao-tzu - "Old Master" semi-historical figure, credited with authoring the Daodejing/ Tao-te ching; he is the patriarch of Daoist philosophy. His teachings evoke the mysterious nature of the Dao, and the means of harmonizing with it. 29. Legalism - human nature is bad; people needs rules 30. li - propriety/ritual conduct/ proper behaviour origin in ancestor worship rites; these were expanded upon to include all forms of conduct in relationships; show others the same respect that you show your ancestors; formal behaviour 31. Mengzi/Meng-tzu/Mencius - 374-289 BCE "Master Meng" He contributed to what is sometimes called the idealistic wing of Confucian philosophy. He lived during a period of social and political turmoil in China, but built his teachings on the notion that human beings were intrinsically good. He promoted the idea that rulers should be benevolently disposed toward their subjects. He focused his teachings more on individuals than government. 32. Mohism (Mohists) 33. Mozi/Mo-tzu - "Master Mo" founder of Mohists, he offered a teaching that rivaled Confucianism. He placed great emphasis on Heaven, the hierarchy of divine spirits, and sacrificial rituals. He also was a pacifist who promoted universal love for all human beings. 34. oracle 35. Prince Shotoku 36. Qin/Ch'in Dynasty - extreme example of ancestor worship: offerings of imitation paper money, houses, clothes etc may be burned in outdoor rituals 37. ren/jen - humane disposition, human-kindness, and human-heartedness; it is a natural feeling of empathy and good-will towards other human beings; it keeps propriety (li) and principles (yi) from destroying the most subtle but most highly-regarded quality in human beings 38. samurai 39. seppuku - suicide 40. Shang Dynasty 41. Shinto 42. shu - a principle of reciprocity; when Li is not apparent, use the principle of Shu: the Golden Rule: "Do unto others what you would have done to yourself." 43. Taiji-chuan/ T'ai Chi Ch'uan 44. Tang/ T'ang Dynasty - Taoism and Buddhism gain prominence during T'ang; Neo-confusianism became popular after T'ang 45 The Analects The Analects of Confucius is a collection of dialogues in twenty chapters between Confucius and his students, probably compiled many decades after his death. 46. The Daodejing/ The Tao-Te-Ching "The Way (Dao) and the The Power (De)" also known as the Laozi/ Lao-tzu to whom its composition is attributed. It consists of about 5000 words arranged in eighty-one chapters. It is the foundational text of Daoist philosophy. 47. The Kojiki 48. The Laozi/ The Lao-tzu 49. The Nihonshoki 50. The Zhuangzi/The Chuang-tzu 51. Tokugawa Shogunate 52. torii 53. wuwei/wu-wei 54. Xia/Hsia Dynasty - from 2000 BCE - mostly legendary; ruled by Emperor Yu the Jade Emperor, descended from the sky 55. Xian/Chang-an 56. Xunzi/Hsun-tzu - 312-238 BCE "Master Xun" He belonged to the realistic wing of Confucianism, which taught that human nature was intrinsically selfish but could benefit from learning. He thus promoted education, traditional values, and rationality over superstition. 57. yi - righteousness; when external behavior (Li) begin to grow out of an inner attitude, based on principles of benevolence 58. Yijing/I-Ching - The Book of Changes; popular oracle system; incorporates Yin/Yang principles; ancient text was commented upon by Confucian and Daoist sages thus incorporating much wisdom. To consult the Yijing, 49 sticks are cast, divided, and counted. A hexagram of six lines is produced from Yin as broken and Yang as solid sticks. These reveal dominant forces in life at the moment, what changes are about to occur, and how a sage would harmonize with these forces/changes. 60. Yin/Yang - harmony between differences Yin: dark, passive, cool, moist, female Yang: bright, active, hot, dry, male 61. Zhou/Chou Dynasty - 1122-721-221 BCE - often idealized as a glorious period in Chinese history 62. Zhuangzi/Chuang-tzu - "Master Zhuang/ Chuang" taught a form of nature mysticism that is characteristic of Daoist philosophy. He used stories and humor to promote a philosophy of freedom from social constraints and conditioning that could lead one back to an original undistorted state of being. His book is full of fascinating philosophical speculation and humorous anecdotes. 63. ziran/tzu-jan 64. Zhu-xi/Chu-Hsi - Most renowned Neo-Confucian philosopher. Drawing upon ideas from Daoism and Buddhism, he promoted meditation as a means to a Confucian end (the cultivation of one's moral nature). His interpretation of Neo-Confucianism became the norm in Chinese civil service examinations from 1300s-1900s. Christianity The Gospel of John: Film Gospel of John written 2 generations after Jesus Jesus and his followers were Jewish Roman Empire ruled Israel God sent John to tell people of the light of God John the Baptist Jesus' followers were God's children John spoke of Jesus: the glory that Jesus was given Out of the fullness of his grace, we are glorified John: I am not the messiah, nor Issiah, nor a prophet John still would baptize in Bethany I am the voice of someone shouting in the desert John saw Jesus coming to him There is the lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world Saw the spirit come down John baptizes Jesus John's disciples went with Jesus One was Andrew: Simon Peter's brother Andrew took Simon Peter to Jesus Jesus left to Galilee with Andrew and Simon Peter Jesus found Philip Philip found Nathanial Jesus said about Nathanial: there is nothing false about him, he is a true Israelite 1st Miracle At a wedding in Galilee Jesus asked for water He said to take the water to the man in charge of the feast, but the water had turned into wine. They said it was the best wine and rejoiced. Jesus' disciples then believed in him At the time of the Passover, Jesus went to Jerusalem A market was being held in the Temple Jesus drove the animals out of the Temple and overturned tables of the money changers and scattered their coins Jewish authorities demanded he prove what made him have a right to say this Jesus said tear down this temple and I shall rebuild it in 3 days: he was talking not of the building, but of his body No one can see the Kingdom of God without being born again For God loved the world so much that he gave his only son so those who believe in him may have eternal light Jesus himself did not baptize Jesus' disciples had begun to baptize more than John the Baptist Jacob's Well Jesus sat down by the well, being tired from his journey A Samaritan woman came to draw water. Jesus asked for a drink. (Jews and Samaritans do not share a cup). Jesus says the water he provides will make all no longer thirsty. Only by the power of God's spirit can people truly worship. Jesus said I am the messiah. The woman left her water jar and told her town of Jesus. The Samaritans begged Jesus to stay with him. They believed Him to be the Savior of the World Jesus left to Galilee: he said prophets are not respected in their own lands The peoples rejoiced Jesus returned to place of Kapan - - the place where he turned water into wine 2nd Miracle Jesus was asked to heal a man's dying son. Jesus says: Go, your son will live The man believed Jesus and went to find a healed son 3rd Miracle Jesus went to Jerusalem At a pool, sick people lay on the porches Jesus saw a man who had been sick for 38 years: do you want to get well? Jesus says: Get up, pick up your mat and walk Immediately, the man was well Jewish authorities said since it was the Sabbath, it was against the law to carry his mat. The man said his was told to by Jesus. Persecution: Jesus was persecuted for doing healing on the Sabbath. Jesus answered: my father is always working, and so I must as well They did not like the equality of God as Jesus' father Jesus says he is the truth -- the judgement is coming Jesus claims to be the Son of Man Jesus judges only as God tells him Jesus says that John was the one who also spoke truth and testified on his behalf Jesus says God testifies on his behalf Jesus also says he has been given gifts by God Jesus says none believe him that do not believe Moses Jesus left A large crowd followed him The Passover was near Jesus went up a hill and sat down with his disciples Jesus saw a large crowd coming near to him on the hill How would Jesus feed these people There were 5 loaves of barley bread and 2 loaves of fish, but 5000 men to feed 4th Miracle Jesus took the bread, gave thanks to God, and distributed to the people who were sitting there, and they all had as much as they wanted He did the same with the fish When they were all full, Jesus said to his disciples: Gather the left-over pieces, let us not waste our food Jesus went off to the hills by himself 5th Miracle Walking on Water Jesus' disciples went in a boat to cross the lake, but by nightfall a large storm had come. The disciples rowed 3 or 4 nights when they saw Jesus walking on the water coming towards the boat and they were terrified. Jesus said: Do not be afraid, it is I. They willingly took him into the boat The boat immediately reached their destination safely The crowd went to look for Jesus When the people found Jesus on the other side of the lake, the asked how he came Jesus said to not follow him because of his spoils Jesus says the real bread and real food you need comes from God Jesus: I am the bread of life I am the bread that came down from heaven Those who come to me will never be hunger nor thirsty I shall never turn people away It is not by my will, but by my father's that I am here You must seek His love Jesus: I will raise the people to life on the last day He who believes has eternal life The bread that I will give you is my flesh Those who eat my flesh and drink my blood will have eternal life They will live in me and I in them The living Father sent me, and I live because of him Whoever eats me, will live because of me and live forever The followers said: This teaching is too hard Jesus knew who would believe him, who would not, and who would betray him The followers that stayed were 12 The disciples believed in no one else Judas would betray him Not even Jesus' brothers would believe him Time of Passover: Jesus' family went to festival Jesus stayed on in Galilee However, Jesus went to the festival in secret Festival was half over when Jesus went to teach in the Temple Jesus says he cannot teach on his own authority Those who do, will teach for their own glory Bethany Mary washed Jesus' feet She poured expensive perfume and wiped it with her hair Judas was opposed to this, because he was a greedy thief and would have the perfume sold Jerusalem Palm fronds were laid before Jesus who rode on a donkey Do not be afraid city of Zion, your King comes riding on a young donkey His disciples only understood the meaning of this old scripture later Jesus had raised Nazarath from the dead, which made people follow him Some Greeks were at the festival and went to Philip and said they wanted to see Jesus. Jesus says it is time. If a plant does die, it will produce many grains Whoever wants to serve me must follow me, and my Father will honor anyone who serves me Jesus: Father bring Glory to your name From the sky: I have brought Glory to it, and I will bring it again Even though Jesus had performed miracles in front of the people, they did not believe Jesus. They did not understand, they had blind eyes. Many of the Jewish authorities believed in Jesus, but because of the Phrases they did not tell. The Last Supper Jesus rose from the table, took off his robe and wrapped himself in a towel. Jesus then washed the disciples feet Simon Peter: are you going to wash my feet Lord? Never will you wash my feet Jesus: if I do not, you are no longer my disciple Jesus: All of you are clean except one Jesus put his outer garment back on and returned to the table I your Lord and teacher have washed your feet, to set an example, no slaves are lesser than their masters, how happy you will be when you put it in practice Jesus: I tell you this now so that you will believe me: One of you is going to betray me. The disciples looked at one another. Simon Peter motion to a disciple to ask who it is. Jesus gave Judas a piece of bread. The devil entered Judas then Jesus: go now Judas and do what you must Now the Son of Man's glory is revealed My children, I will not be with you very much longer, you cannot yet follow me And now I give you a new commandment, "Love one another" Jesus to Simon Peter: Are you really ready to die for me? Before the rooster crows you will deny you know me thrice There are many rooms in my Father's house You know the way to get there: the truth and the life Now that you have known me you also know the Father When I go, you will not be left alone. Because I live, you also will live Peace is what I leave with you "Peace be with you" ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pontius Pilot Called Jesus into the palace Are you the King of the Jews? Jesus - my kingdom does not belong to this world I was born for the sole purpose to speak the truth Pilot said I cannot find any reason to condemn Jesus Pilot said to the people he would set one prisoner free The crowd did not call for Jesus The crowed wanted Jesus to be crucified Pilot released Jesus to the Jews but said he could not find a reason to be hurt Jews say he must die for claiming to be the son of God When Pilot heard this, he was even more afraid Jesus: you only have authority over me because my Father gave it to you Jesus was whipped Crown of thorns Was slapped Wore a purple robe TRIAL Pilot wanted to set Jesus free Anyone who claims to be a King is rebel against the Roman Emperor Pilot sat outside in his judging chair Pilot: Here is you King People: KILL HIM.. the only King we have is the Emperor CRUCIFICTION Jesus was made to carry his crucifixion cross Jesus was crucified with two other men Pilot put up a sign "Jesus of Nazareth: King of the Jews" in Hebrew Latin Greek Soldiers took Jesus' clothes and a robe Jesus saw his Mother and disciple and said to them: He is your son, she is your mother.. and the disciple took care of Mother Mary "I am thirsty" "It is finished" Jesus died A soldier plunged his spear into the side of Jesus Blood and water poured out "His bones will not be broken" .. "People will see him that they pierced" Jesus was wrapped in cloth and spices Nothing was done on the Sabbath Sunday Stone was taken from the tombs entrance Linen cloths were there Mary looked in the tomb and saw two angels there in white Woman why are you crying? RISEN Mary turned around and saw Jesus but did not know it was Jesus Jesus says to Mary, go to my disciples and tell them I am going to my Lord Jesus showed his disciples his hands and his side Jesus breathed on his disciples Receive the holy spirit If you forgive people's sins, they are forgiven Jesus came to the disciples many times FISHING The disciples did not catch fish In the morning Jesus stood on the shore and told them to throw the net out on the right side of the boat. The disciples caught many fish Jesus took the bread and fish and gave it to them After they had eaten, Jesus spoke Jesus asked Simon Peter if he loved him, and asked him to take care of his lambs, and his sheep, and asked THRICE CHRISTIANITY The Political History Leading to the Traditions of Christianity Apostles act as missionaries for the movement of Christianity Paul of Tarsus (5 BC - 67 CE) Was originally persecuting Christians Experienced Christ in the spiritual world Vision of Christ Became a missionary who drew many converts because he did not call on people to hold Jewish law. These laws are very demanding. Jesus himself was not obsessive about the law although he observed the law. Jesus embodied the spirit of the law. Paul was very important in the Jesus movement Paul himself was executed by beheading Never knew Jesus, but knew him through his vision Paul had an interpretation of Christ that became dominant Waves of Persecution Nero - killed Paul and Simon Peter Diocletian (244-311 CE) Pagan Emperor Takes office in 283 299 - Had Christians removed from army 303 - official wave of persecution begins Manakian persecution Mani - founded manakianism Roots in Persia Persian Empire posed threat to Romans Repressed Christianity Institutes an Edict (1) Churches are to be destroyed (2) Christians prohibited from gathering to worship (3) Scriptures to be burned Edict observed on pain of death 3,000 Christians killed in total This number was relatively insignificant Abdicates in 305 Leaves behind four leaders, a tetrarchy: Maximinus, Galerius, Constantius, and 4th leader continued policy of oppression Galerius relaxes policy before death Constantius has son Constantine Constantine becomes Emperor, and brings a complete turn of faith, converts to Christianity Constantine the Great Constantine has a vision Sees a sign of the cross etched in heaven In the sign you shall come Constantine sees he has a role to play Constantine paints this sign on his soldiers' shields Had his son and his wife killed for treason and adultery Very guilty, but was not absolved by pagan priests It is said he converted to Christianity to have absolution Edict of Milan Reverses the policies that repressed Christianity Returns property to Christians Gives EVERYONE freedom to worship Constantine Begins to financially support the church Abolishes more barbaric practices Abolishes crucifixion Allows Christian movement to gain momentum Played a role in the construction of churches Enabled Christians to worship openly Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem Constructed at the site where it is believed Christ was crucified Holy Sepulchre also called the Anastasis Draws many pilgrims Anastasis - church of the resurrection St. Helena Constantine's Christian Mother Used her wealth and influence to spread Christianity Travelled to Israel Helped with the construction of churches St. Peter's Bascillica Church of the Nativity Bethleham, site of Christ's birth Draws many pilgrims Grotto of Nativity Exact place of Christ's birth marked by a star Justin the Martyr Knew the site of Jesus' birth The Three Magi Wise Men from the East Most likely Persian priests majus - priest They have seen the star that marked the birth of the King of the Jews Star is the Symbol of Christ Celestial Body Connection between heaven and earth Christ is between divine and human Politics of these Churches Arab - Christians sensitive to the Yom Kippur War Banned political leaders such as George Bush, Tony Blair Roman-Persian Wars Persians left the Church standing because they were impressed with the painting of the three Magi St. Peter's Basilica Revered by all Christians as a Saint 12 Apostles of Christ First bishop of Rome The first pope was a successor of Peter Peter did not want his death to be compared to that of Christ Peter was crucified upside-down Died 64-67 CE under rule of Nero Paul was also killed at this time Christ > Peter > Pope The Spread of Christianity Gradual Transition to Christianity Evident even in Constatine's own life Had pagan symbols on coins even after his conversion Constantine not baptized until his death Could have made sense as a political ruler to wait for cleansing of sins Eusebius baptizes Constantine Constantine begins a process of transition to Christianity Many powerful pagan rulers were resistant Julian "the Apostate" The last pagan emperor 332-363 CE His mother and father were Christian, raised him Christian Julian left Christianity Drawn to pagan Neoplatonism neoplatonism - widespread in Hellenistic world fused teachings of Plato and Aristotle both pagan and Christian expressions Drawn to divination, magic, and superstition Tried to restore paganism (1) Targeted wealthy powerful Christians (2) Restored pagan temples (3) Prevented bishops from practicing private courts Repeated stipends given to Christians Repression actually helps spread of a religion Julian, instead of repression, provided complete freedom Julian tolerated Christians in order to intensify their divisions Julian dies early Julian succeeded by those who want Christianity Theodosius Established Christianity as the formal religion of state 347 - 395 CE Nicene Creed Theological History if Christianity All denominations can agree on the Nicene Creed Creed - statement of one's belief refers to religious beliefs credo - to believe Credo Questions pertain to Theology (study of God) Judaism Orthopraxy - correct practice Emphasis on the law Islam - creed has only three principles Christianity's Emphasis on Creed Understanding of God: conception of God is different than Islam and Judaism God appears in the flesh and blood Jesus is God becoming man Incarnation Orthodox Church ortho - correct, restore doxy - opinion, dogma Orthodoxy is the correct docterine Heterodoxy - Other or different docterine Heresy - Incorrect docterine Nero Diocletian Tetrarchy (Constantius) Constantine Edict of Milan - Christianity Julian pagan emperor tolerated Christians Theodosius officially makes Christianity the state religion Western Roman Empire crumbles Then the empire becomes the greek empire: Byzantine Empire Church Fathers Patristic Period The period of the Church Fathers runs for 6th to 8th centuries In Eastern Orthodox tradition, a prominent figure can emerge: Holy Father In Catholic tradition they are known as Church Father One does not have to be a saint to be a Church Father, they must make an important theological contribution to the religion All Church Fathers were pious and holy men Earliest of the Church Fathers were known as the Apostolic Fathers They were the successors of the Apostles themselves CHRIST Apostles 50CE - 150 CE Apostolic Fathers Church Fathers Simon Peter - important apostle The rock on which the church was to be built He himself is crucified upside down Pope is the successor of Peter Origen: Father of Fathers Early Church Father born in Egypt (185-254CE) Among first major philosopher of Christianity Sought martyrdom, but mother convinced otherwise Origen's father died, must provide for family Had a good education Taught as occupation Wealthy woman provided for Origen Left philosophy - was associated with paganism Returned to philosophy Articulation of Christian doctrine through philosophy Drew Pagan intellectuals to Christianity Origen developed Biblical Exegesis hermeneutics Science of interpretation Brought from literal text to the intended meaning Origen developed allegorical interpretation example: story of Adam and Eve should not be read literally Origen seemed to believe in reincarnation Seemed to articulate a belief in pre-existence of souls These views were rejected by church Apocatastis - doctrine of universal salvation Universalism belief that everyone will be saved everything that was brought into world by God, will be saved by God philosophical and logical basis God is a God of love, who embraces all Rejected by church Origen did not deny existence of hell For Origen, hell was a place of purification by fire It was possible to accept Christ after death in the next world Christianity has been exclusivistic, although Christians are divided on this belief. If you believe everyone else is damned then you must do missionary work to save people. Christianity has some denominations that adhere to this. Exclusivism - must be apart of that religion to be saved Council of Nicea (325) During reign of Constantine A council was held to determine Christian doctrine Established orthodoxy Established Divinity of Christ Established the Nicene Creed Came about because of Arius Arius (250-336) Early theologian from Libya, North Africa Ordained priest in charge of church in Alexandria Denied the Divinity of Christ Believed divinity of Christ went against monotheism "The Son had a beginning; there was a time when he was not" Whereas God does not have a beginning, and himself is pre-eternal, and was not ever created Christ may have been the best creation, but was still created Christ was an intermediary, Christ was the word of God Christ is Logos or "word" of God that has come to the world Arianism - belief that Christ was not divine Philosophical and theological view Athenasius Agreed with Arius that Christ was an intermediary between God and world However, opponent of Arius Christ was divine, and uncreated the same as God Christ took on the sins of the world: only a divine can carry these sins Understood the logic of the resurrection Council of Nicea Ecumenical Council - universal council that brought together theologians, bishops, priests across the empire State was called in on this dispute State became involved to preserve the Christian community = unified Empire About 300 bishops attended the council First gathering of its kind Resolution of Council: Nicene Creed was denied Nicene Creed unites all Christian denominations Greeks believed in God, but not as a creator Below and outside of God is the cosmos Both are uncreated Cosmos was derived from God, but was uncreated Greek axiem: something cannot come out of nothing Creation Ex Nihilo - creation out of nothing View of Ambrahamic traditions Nicene Creed begins with unifying statement articulating that God IS the creator of all things visible world - present on Earth invisible world - spiritual world that exists above our world and below God o every major religion believes in a spiritual world o only invisible to five senses o people that claim to know the spiritual world access the faculty of perception ("Sixth Sense" or "Eye of the Heart") o workings of subconscious begotten of the Father: reiteration of monotheism o The Lord is also Christ o Son is the same as the Father o Child is replication of parent o God and Christ are one of the same substance Substantial unity Direct criticism of Arianism "begotten not made" o Christ is not created, he is begotten o Son emerges from the father World literally brought into creation through Christ o God not only creates world directly o Repetition of God's power to create heaven and earth o Reference to Christ being an intermediary o All things were created through him and for him Who for us men and for our salvation came down and was incarnate and was made man judge living and the dead o Belief in the resurrection of Christ o Through resurrection Christ overcomes death o Whether bodily or spiritual resurrection And in the Holy Spirit o Affirmation of Trinity o God the Father, God the Son, and God the Holy Ghost o All divine o Mode of manifestation o We experience certain aspects of God in different ways o The Father - transcendent o The Son - manifestation of God o The Spirit - immanence of God o When you "receive Christ" you receive the Holy Spirit in your life and you can receive him through your affiliation with the Catholic Church. Protestants emphasize receive Christ directly and individually. o Substantial unity where God is one, but has three elements to his divine reality Judaism - shehinah - receiving God in immanent and transcendant forms Christians define this in a different language Refutation of Arian heresy But those who say: "There was a time when he was not;" they are condemned by the holy catholic and apostolic Church o This section was removed when Arianism was no longer a threat Baptism of Constantine by Eusebius the Arian Even though Arianism died out, in modern times some believe Christ is not divine Christological Controversy How is one to understand the revelation of the Divine and Human Nature of Christ?? 4th Century Council of Nicea Trinitarian Controversy 5th Century Christological Controvery understanding of how Christ the human and divine meet Debate on Christology : Three Responses (1) Christ is two separate persons, one divine and one human person The Response of Nestorius (d. 451) Nestorianism How is this incarnation possible? Two elements in being of Christ that did not mix or mingle at all The human Christ was a vessel for the divine Christ It was not God who suffered, but the human Christ It was the human Christ that Mary gave birth to The emotions and suffering we saw were that of the human vessel Incarnation Nestorianism was rejected by Romans, Persian Empire accepted them (2) Christ is one person, with only a divine Nature (Monophysite position) Monophysite Christianity The divine completely embraced and enclosed the human Christ When infinite and finite meet, only the infinite remains One entity or nature •(3) Christ is one person, but with both a divine and a human nature. Both of these natures are united, so that Christ is both fully man and fully God (Views of the Latin and Greek Churches. [Majority view]). Orthodox Response Divine and human co-mingle Both exist and both come together, interpenetrating and overlapping Accepted by Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism The Three Divisions of Christianity Catholicism, Orthodoxy, and Protestantism Councils held to come up with an Orthodox Doctrine 4th C - Arianism rejected 5th C - Monophysite and Nestorianism rejected 11th Century Debate on the nature of the Holy Spirit Split in Catholic and Orthodox Churches East and Western regions of Empire split 16th Century Split occurs that leads to Protestant movement Martin Luther led Against institutionalization of doctrine Protestant Christians want an individual relationship with God Now there are a whole range of opinions and denominations in Protestant section About 900 denominations in USA Evangelical Lutheran Anglican Documentary DVD The Wisdom of Faith Centrality of Christianity: God is love Textbook Definitions Major Texts Bible - two collections: Hebrew bible called the "Old Testament" and the new Christian writings "New Testament" Church History - by Eusebius, written as Roman Empire shifted to Christianity, outlining the history of the religions first 300 years The City of God - written by Bishop Augustine, as the Roman Empire was beginning to fall to the barbarian tribes. It outlines a view of church and state. Summa Theologica: work of Thomas Aquinas The Ninety-Five Theses (1517): short debating points by Luther regarding abuses of indulgence system. Sparked the Protestant Reformation Institutes of the Christian Religion: Provides the basis for the development of much of Protestant theological reflection CANON Bible: "books" New Testament: early Christian writings: four gospels, thirteen letters from Paul, etc. written 50 CE Gospels: The first four books of New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John). Mainly consisting of stories/sayings about Jesus. Septuagint: greek translation of Hebrew Bible Vulgate: Jerome's Latin translation of Bible Apocrypha: "hidden" books in the vulgate but not in the present Jewish canon. Authorized Version: King James Version REVIEW Early History: Christ - Jewish teacher crucified by Roman authorities after betrayal by Judas. A religious movement begins which eventually gains enough momentum to become a concern for the Roman Empire. Christians accused of all kinds of gross indecencies to justify persecution. Nero - responsible for early persecutions. Paul and Peter executed for their role in the spread of early Christianity. Diocletian - responsible for initiating final wave of persecutions against Christians, though Christians are not the only group targeted. Manicheans also bear the brunt of his suppression of non-pagan religious beliefs. Constantine - experiences conversion on battlefield which leads to eventual establishment of Christianity as official religion of empire (though not in his lifetime); issues of Edict of Milan; baptized on death bed; late baptism leads some to question sincerity of his conversion. Constantine's mother - responsible for building many important churches. Julian the Apostate - tries unsuccessfully to reverse Christianization of empire; killed in battle against Persians. Theodosius - Makes Nicene Creed official religion of Roman Empire. Empire splits in two shortly after his death, with the eastern regions becoming the Byzantine Empire. Christianity is now a major political player. Doctrine: Paul - important in shaping early Christian understanding regarding purpose of Christ's ministry Church Fathers - Responsible for the theological formulation of early Christian doctrine. Although important as leading intellectual figures, they were not necessarily "saints." Apostolic Fathers - Earliest of church fathers, some of whom met the apostles of Christ directly. Origen - An important church father, born to pious Christian parents; seeks martyrdom after father's death but dissuaded by his mother; important figure in the development of biblical exegesis and Christian philosophy; some of his ideas are later rejected by the church (such as his doctrine of universal salvation [apocatastis], preexistence of souls, a form of reincarnation). Arius - In the forefront of a theological perspective that led, through its rejection, to the Nicene Creed; denied that Christ was pre-eternal because he sought to preserve divine unity. The controversy of the 4th century came be known as the "Trinitarian controversy" Nicene Creed - Establishes Christian "orthodoxy." Know this very well. There are a number of specific questions on creed in the test. Christological Controversy - Develops in the 5th century and centers on determining the exact nature of Christ: to what extent was he human and to what extent was he divine? Monophysite Christianity and Nestorianism branch off from "mainstream" or "orthodox" Christianity. Both of these communities become established in the Near and Middle-East (Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Syria). Orthodox Church - Break between the Catholic and the Orthodox Church Break between Catholicism and Protestantism; led by Martin Luther. Know the internal divisions within Protestantism (p. 91 of text). TERMS Orthodoxy - correct belief. The essential beliefs and practices by which a religious community defines itself Heresy - beliefs or practices that are rejected as destructive to the essence of a religious tradition Heterodoxy - Other or different doctrine Incarnation - "in flesh" belief that God took on real human characteristics in Jesus Trinity - God as the Father, Son and Holy Spirit Pharisees - non-priestly group whose concern about religious purity and the study of the Torah and oral traditions gave them popular influence in society. They did not approve of Jesus. Holy Spirit Edict of Milan - issued by Constantine returned property to Christians, reversing the previous persecution; gives everyone the freedom of worship Beatitudes - Ethical teachings of Jesus Catholic = "universal" Calvin - French theologian opted for reform of belief, practice, and church structure. Eschatology - "study of last things;" a term for concepts related to the end of the world and of human order; often related to the second coming of Jesus and "Final Judgment." Exegesis Hermeneutics Science of interpretation, brought from literal text to the intended meaning Asceticism Ascetic - one who rejects ordinary social life for exceptional religious discipline, which often involves poverty, celibacy, and seclusion. Monasticism - the practice of asceticism and poverty in order to devote life to constant religious service (know who accepts and rejects it) Martyrdom - one who dies for a cause, usually voluntarily Easter - The primary and oldest Christian festival, celebrating the death and resurrection of Jesus, connected to the Jewish Passover. Lent - West: forty-day period of fasting or self-denial and penance. East: period is longer from their forty-day calculation with rigorous fasting rules. Christmas - "Christ's mass" celebration of the birth of Jesus first celebrated under Constantine Vatican City - residence of the Bishop of Rome (Pope) and headquarter of the Roman Catholic Church. Smallest country in the world in the center of Rome. Hagia Sophia - Built by Emperor Constantine and rebuilt by Emperor Justinian in Constantinople (Istanbul) was once the largest domed building in the world. IHS - old abbreviation for Greek name Jesus "in this sign" or "Jesus Savior of Men" IHC - Abbreviation for Jesus from Latin name INRI - abbreviation of Latin words for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" Fish - An early symbol of Jesus, often associated with the Eucharist Lamb - view the death of Jesus as a final sacrifice for sin Chi-Rho - a monogram formed by two Greek capital letters XP superimposed on each other. They are the first two Greek letters in word "Christ." Sign became associated with Constantine. Dove - represent Holy Spirit Byzantine Church - Eastern church of Byzantine Empire Monophysite - Christ had one nature (the divine); this left it open to the charge that Jesus was not really human, but appeared to be, accepted by Eastern Christians. Nestorian - Distinction between Jesus the man born of Mary, and the Christ the Son. Left it open to the charge that God did not really become human but merely dwelt and inspired the human Jesus PROTESTANT Anabaptists - Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish "Radical Reformation" because of their rejection of state ties, their pacifism, and their requirement of adult baptism Pentecostal - The most recent and largest Protestant group emphasizes baptism in the Holy Spirit (often with speaking in tongues) and the Second Coming of Jesus Lutheran - (1517) The first group of Protestant Reformation, led by Martin Luther. It became the state church in most areas of northern and central Germany and in Scandinavia Anglican - (1534) The Church of England, formed as a result of King Henry VIII's break from the authority of the Pope. Became a "middle way" between Catholicism and Protestantism. Puritan influence in 1600s gave is a more Protestant character. Vulgate - Jerome's Latin translation of the Bible (in 400s CE) Septuagint - Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, used by Greek-speaking Jews. First Bible of early Christians Gospels - The first four books of the New Testament (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John), mainly consisting of stories and sayings of Jesus Old Testament - Tanakh - the Jewish Bible Apocrypha - "hidden" books in the Vulgate but are not present in Jewish canon St. Peter's Basilica (note that the text says this was built during the Renaissance; it was actually built over the same foundations of a church built by Constantine, as mentioned in class) HINDUISM Early Beginnings 2500 - 1500 BCE: Indus Valley ( Harppan ) Civilization - widespread culture; major city centres at Mohenjo-daro & Harappa. - archeological evidence of Hindu-like practice. - e.g., bathing tanks in centre of town; clay "goddess" figurines. - also clay tablets /seals with possible "proto-Shiva" and goddess images. - I.V.C. perhaps transforms into "Dravidian" (southerner) civilization. 1200 BCE : The Aryan Migration - nomadic Aryans ( Noble Ones) entered the Indian subcontinent. - had the war chariot and hard metal weapons. - brought with them The Vedas, their religious texts (originally oral ). - language was Sanskrit ("cultured /perfected"). - intermingled with the Dravidians, and a class/caste system emerged. Modern Hinduism is a blend of religious beliefs and practices which developed through the mixing of Aryan, Dravidian, and tribal traditions. The Vedas: four collections of eloquent hymns addressed to Vedic deities. - the oldest collection is the Rg Veda (over 1000 hymns). - Vedic deities (mainly male) are personified powers of nature. e.g. Agni - god of fire (transports sacrificial offerings to other gods). Indra - god of thunder and lightning. Soma - sacred (hallucinogenic) plant. Dyaus - pitr - sky god. Prithivi - Earth goddess. Surya - the Sun. The Vedas demonstrate henotheism: each god when worshipped is elevated to the highest position (no clearly defined heirarchy among the deities). Scripture Vedic scripture is not only made up of the four hymn collection. It includes other texts on sacrificial ritual performance and philosophical speculation. Yajna: Vedic sacrifice (offerings into a ritually constructed square fire pit). - Vedic hymns would be recited at appropriate points in the ritual. - Brahmins (the priestly class) were skilled in Vedic hymn and ritual. - had high purity, so only they could perform ritual worship of the gods. - did so on behalf of the other classes (e.g., kings & other laypersons). - ritual exactitude (a science) would compel the gods to respond. - there was a reciprocal relationship between gods and humans. - yajna nourished the gods, who in turn maintained cosmic stability. The Upanisads_: the last portion of the Vedic literature ( Vedanta ). - philosophical texts speculating on Absolute Reality and the individual. Vedic literature from the four hymn collections and the ritual texts, to the Upanisads, enjoy a very special status in Hinduism. - They are regarded as _Shruti _ (divinely heard; i.e., revealed). - They were composed by the _Rishis_ (_seers_); semi-divine sages. - All other scripture is regarded as _smrti__ (traditional, remembered). The Four Classes of Hindu Society - these are socio-economic divisions ( reinforced by religious beliefs). 1. Brahmins ( priestly , educated class) 2. Kshatriyas/ ksatriyas_ ( nobility, warriors, landlords, kings: Maharajas, Maharani) 3. Vaishyas/vaisyas (commoners, merchants , artisans) These upper three classes are know as the twice born . 4. Shudras ( servants, menial workers, labourors). Below the four classes, there is the untouchables or out-caste group. 5. The Untouchables (barbarians/foreigners, offspring of mixed classes). - performed the most "polluting" jobs (i.e., cremating dead). - the ritual pollution which would pass from this group to the purest brahmins, made them untouchable. ORTHODOX HINDU VALUES The Vedas reveal a belief that the cosmos operates in an orderly manner. - rta : term for the cosmic order; later replaced by dharma. - dharma : (duty, righteousness) behaviour aligned with the cosmic order. The Dharma_ Sastras/shastras: large tratises on what is dharmic behaviour. - there are many such texts. One famous one is The Laws of Manu. - generally describe dharmic principles for the four classes. - these include descriptions of cosmogony (creation of the cosmos), the duties of the classes, the four stages & goals of life, daily rituals, rites of passagy, purity & pollution, rules concerning the lives of women, etc. The Four Stages of Life and the Four Goals of Life. - prescribed for males of the "twice-born" classes. - the stages would traditionally begin with the "sacred thread ceremony". - the boy (8 - 14 yrs.) is given a special thread, and enters "religious life". Student Stage and the First Goal: 1. Student (formal boarding school education [12-24 yrs] with a guru) - expected to refrain from sex. 1) the student begins to pursue the goal of understanding dharma. - girls traditionally learned at home from their mothers, etc. - nowadays most boys and girls go to public schools. The Second and Third Goals: 2. Householder (marked by the marriage ceremony and beginning of work). - marriage is the most important rite of passage for men and women. - for women, it functions like their sacred thread ceremony. - marriages are generally arranged; should be within one's class/caste group. - during this stage, husband & wife pursue the next two goals: 2) kama: love/pleasure (erotic, sensual); spouse, have in-laws and children family. 3) artha: skill/know-how/money: develop one's professional abilities. - provide for one's family; live within one's means. - conduct household and public religious rituals. The Retirement Stage 3. Forest-dweller (retirement from work and householder's life) - prescribed for grandparents; wealth is transferred to children. - one begins to read scripture and think about the meaning of life. - most Hindus don't retire to the forest. The Fourth Goal: 4. Sannyasin (renouncer) - prescribed, but not a common stage. - in this stage, one has one's death rituals performed. - one puts on a saffron coloured robe, takes a staff and begging bowl. - becomes a wandering seeker, renouncing all social ties & obligations. - seeks to attain the final and highest goal: 4) moksa/moksha (release/liberation). What is Moksha? Hindu Cosmology Hindus believe that the cosmos arises, exists, and dies, time and again. - time scale of these cosmic cycles are vast (e.g., modern science). - living beings, too, endure cyclical birth, existence, & death (reincarnation). - various types of beings inhabit the three realms (heaven, earth, underworld). [gods, titans, humans, animals, ghosts, demons, etc.] - all are subject to the nearly endless cycles of rebirth, wandering through worldly existence ( samsara ) controlled by karma. Karma: a moral principle of cause and effect which determines our present and future circumstances. - class, appearance, dispositions, & experiences are all caused by karma. - each thought, word, deed is the fruit of a karmic seed planted earlier. - each thought, word, deed plants a seed for future karma. - good seeds lead to good karmic effects; bad seeds lead to bad karma. - karmic seeds may be dormant for long periods, fruiting after many lifetimes . - ignorance of the nature of ourselves and reality leads us to karmic error . - dharma is a guide to enable us to reduce bad karmic consequences. - ultimately, however, only discovering our true nature will grant us freedom/liberation from karma and samsara (which grows tiresome). - this freedom, which comes from self-realization, is known as moksha/moksa. - Self-realization does not come from faith, dharma, or even good karma. - it is the result of freedom from all false views about the self and reality. Hindu Religious Philosophy VOCAB 1. Advaita - radical non-dualism. Absolute Reality in Sankara's Advaita Vedanta is known as Brahman 2. Agni - god of fire (transports sacrificial offerings to other gods) 3. ahimsa - nonviolence 4. ananda - unbounded bliss 5. arati - fire; flame of an offertory fire 6. Arjuna - greatest Pandava warrior in the Epic of Mahabharata 7. artha - one of the Four Goals of Life; the pursuit of wealth, power, and attainments through the development of one's potential 8. Aryans - Noble Ones from Europe who entered Indian subcontinent bringing with them the Vedas, which were religious texts 9. Atman - our true self beyond all illusions To know the Atman is to attain moksha. The Atman is Brahman. 10. avatara - incarnate being of a God/Goddess 11. Bhagavad-Gita - song of the lord - most important book in Hinduism, taken from the Epic of Mahabharata, contains lessons on the meaning of life, facing choices, existential life crisis, and dealing with oppression and justice. It is from a conversation between Arjuna the warrior and Krsna the god Visnu in human form. Krsna teaches Arjuna the three yogas (Jnana Yoga, Karma Yoga, and Bhakti Yoga). 12. bhakti yoga - liberation through devotion; introduced through the Bhagavad-Gita; loving devotion in forms of worship: puja, prayer, song, and pilgrimage 13. Brahma - the Vedic creator god; depicted with four heads, seated on a lotus flower which grows out of Visnu's navel 14. Brahman - the one and only thing in existence; cannot be explained because it is the source of explanations; it is sat (being/existence), cit (consciousness), and ananda (bliss). Atman is Brahman. 15. brahmin - priestly, educated class 16. cit/chit - absolute consciousness 17. darsana - going for an audience with a deity 18. Devi - goddess 19. dharma - duty, righteousness; behaviour aligned with the cosmic order; one of the Four Goals of Life, one is expected to understand the meaning of duty or righteousness, and apply it in one's life 20. Dharma Sastras/ Shastras - texts on the laws of what is dharmic behaviour 21. dhyana - practice of meditation in yoga 22. Divali - a festival of lights celebrated on the new moon between mid-October and mid-November. Homes are painted and decorated with lamps, firecrackers are set off, and people buy new clothes and feast. The festival marks the victory of light over darkness, and begins the new-year for many communities 23. Dravidian - Indus Valley Civilization, non-Aryan, Sanskrit language 24. Durga - Great Goddess; is Sakti, the power which animates all of the cosmos, all goddesses are aspects of her 25. Dyaus-pitr - sky god (Jupiter, Zeus) 26. forest-dweller - third stage of life prescribed for grandparents; often involves retiring to live a simple life dedicated to religious study 27. Ganesh/ Ganesa - popular, elephant-headed, potbellied deity; leader of Shiva's forces who presides over obstacles 28. Ganga - River goddess 29. guru - one's teacher; generally used to designate the most important guide and mentor in one's spiritual development 30. Hanuman - the monkey god; he is protector 31. Harappa - Indus Valley Civilization 32. Hare Kr.s.n.a movement - bhakti-oriented Hindu group; public dancing and chanting of Krsna's name to publically show loving devotion 33. henotheism - tendency in a polytheist system of many gods, to raise whichever one is being adored to the highest position 34. Hindu 35. Hinduism 36. householder - the second stage of life, marriage and work; one is expected to conduct the household rituals, contribute to society, and raise children, particularly a male heir 37. Indra - Vedic deity, warrior god 38. Indus Valley Civilization 39. jnana yoga - realization/liberation through transcendental knowledge, prescribed for the intellectual person 40. Kali - goddess of destruction, female counterpart to Shiva 41. Kalki - 10th avatara of Visnu; still to come 42. kama - one of the Four Goals of Life; knowledge of love, sexual and sensual pleasure, joy, and happiness 43. karma - moral principle of cause and effect 44. karma yoga - liberation through action, example Gandhi 45. Kauravas - evil cousins in the Epic of Mahabharata 46. Krsna/ Krishna - god Visnu in human form; symbol of soul's yearning for the Divine 47. ksatriya - second class in Hindu society; kings, nobility, warriors, landlords 48. Laksmi - beautiful goddess in red sari; consort of Visnu; symbol of good fortunes, luck, wealth, and fertility 49. linga - erect phallus; Shiva is worshipped in this form 50. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948) - Proponent of active, but non-violent resistance to oppression, used in the struggle for Indian independence from British rule; endorsed Karma Yoga, "do the right thing, without a psychological fixation on theoutcome." 51. mala - prayer beads 52. mantra - sacred utterance, sound, or phrase 53. marriage rite - most important rite of passage for men and women; usually arranged; functions as a sacred thread ceremony for women; during marriage the householder stage and goals of kama and artha can be pursued 54. maya - the power of illusion, because of maya we do not know Brahman nor our true natures. Maya is dependent on Brahman, but shaped by our egos. 55. Mohenjo-daro - major city in the Indus Valley Civilization 56. moksa - self-realization; one of the Four Goals of Life; liberation from the bondage of worldly existence, and the cycles of reincarnation through self-realization 57. non-dualism/monism - Brahman proposed by Hindu philosopher Shakara/Sankara 58. Pandavas - five heroic brothers who fight to regain their kingdom in the Epic of Mahabharata 59. polytheism - belief in a divine world of many gods and spiritual forces 60. Prithivi - earth goddess 61. puja - devotional worship of deities with offerings of flowers, incense, flame, food, and a prayer 62. raja yoga - Royal Yoga, which centers on stopping the "turnings of thought" and offers eight aspects (limbs) that need to be developed in order to perfect it 63. Rama - the prince in the Epic of Ramayana who wins back Sita with the help of the monkey Hanuman 64. Ramana Maharsi - modern Hindu sage who promoted inquiry (vicara) 65. Ravana - the evil demon in the Epic of Ramayana who kidnaps Sita 66. rsi/rishi - seers; semi-divine sages 67. sacred-thread ceremony - marks the beginning of the four stages of life for a Hindu boy (age 8 - 14) who is given a special thread and enters "religious life" 68. Sankara 69. Sakti - the power which animates the entire cosmos; possessed by the Great Goddess Durga 70. samadhi - the highest states of meditative absorption; in the highest state of Samadhi, one attains oneness witht the true self (moksha) 71. Sanskrit - cultured/ perfected, was the language of the Aryans 72. samnyasin - renouncer; leaves behind society; becomes a beggar; wears a saffron robe; seeks to attain moksha 73. Sarasvati - Brahma's female counterpart. Is the goddess of creativity, arts, and learning, worshipped by students and educators 74. samsara - worldly existence 75. sat - being/ existence itself 76. Sita - Rama's wife in the Epic Ramayana, who is kidnapped but remains chaste for her husband and serves as a model of the ideal Hindu wife; Sita's Fire Ordeal exemplifies her devotion 77. Siva/ Shiva - Great God; animal skins, great yogi, possess third eye, bull as a mount, controls cosmos 78. smrti - traditional, remembered 79. student - boy receiving education from ages 12-24; formal boarding school education with a guru; pursues the goal of understanding dharma 80. Soma - hallucinogenic plant, Vedic deity 81. sruti/ shruti - divinely heard; revealed 82. sudra - servants and menial workers; lower class above the untouchables 83. Surya - the sun 84. The Mahabharata - Hindu epic of the five Pandava princes 85. The Ramayana - Hindu epic of the adventures of Rama 86. The Laws of Manu - text on dharmic behaviour; describes dharmic principles for the four classes; include descriptions of cosmogony (creation of the cosmos), the duties of the classes, the four stages and goals of life, daily rituals, rites of passage, purity and pollution, rules concerning the lives of women, etc. 87. The Upanisads - the last portion of the Vedic literature (Vedanta) including philosophical texts speculating on Absolute Reality and the individual 88. The Vedas - religious texts of the Aryans; originally oral; include four collections of eloquent hymns addressed to Vedic deities 89. The Rg Veda - oldest collection of Vedic hymns 90. twice-born - upper three classes of Hindu society: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas 91. untouchables - lowest class in Hindu society; performed the most polluting jobs; were the outcaste group 92. vahana - mount/vehicle that gods ride 93. vaisya - third class; merchants; twice-born 94. Vedanta - Vedic literature; philosophies that develop from philosophical speculations 95. Visnu/ Vishnu - Great God periodically incarnates (avatara) to preserve cosmic balance; was Rama and Krsna 96. yajna - Vedic sacrifice (offerings into a ritually constructed square fire pit) 97. yoga - Yogas are paths of physical and psychological practices whose goal is liberation (moksha). There are numerous types of Yoga in Hindu practice. 98. yoni - stone receptable into which a linga is often place. Effigy of the female procreative organ and symbol of the Devi, it is regarded as the source from which creation emerges. The linga/yoni conveys that the Absolute embodies, yet transcends, male and female principles Yogi - a person who is wholly committed to the discipline of yoga, a philosophy promulgating the complete integration of oneself with the Absolute, through specific, often austere, psycho-physical practices Islam If we look at the Medieval West: Pagan Christian The modern west 18th Century Post-Christian Secular world Scientific worldview Christian civilization was threatened by Islam Islam is deeply rooted in the Middle East It is difficult for Christian/Muslims to see eye to eye There is some social acceptance of criticism to Islam Prejudices even stronger in Europe Many prejudices show Muslims as terrorists In the West there are a range of opinions on Islam We should treat them the same as communists and fascists Islam is the root of evil The History of Islam From Pre-Islamic Arabia to the Death of Muhammad The Near East on the Eve of Islam On the dawn of Islam, Arabia stood immediately south of two conflicting empires The Roman Empire and The Persian Empire The Eastern Roman Empire became the Byzantine Empire Byzantine Empire adheres to orthodox Christianity The Arabian Peninsula No empires attempted to conquer the Arabian Peninsula Arabia occupied a strategic position in trade However, Arabia itself was seen as a barren desert Terrain and heat of Arabian Peninsula is desert, plateau, valley: no rivers Most Arabs before Islam were Polytheists In language of Koran: polytheists were called Mushrikin Mushrikin = "associaters" associating deities with one God Cardinal Sin of Islam is to compromise divine unity of God "Shirk" ARABIA Christian North Two Arab kingdoms in the north Ghassanids - northwest Monophysites Lakhmids - northeast Nestorians Conflict was an extension of the larger powers Persian empire on good terms with Nestorians Monophysites allies with Byzantine Empire Jewish South Himyarite Kingdom Prior to Judaism this kingdom was pagan Central Arabia Polytheists - before Islam Pre-Islamic Religion of Polytheists (1) not a structured religion (2) no sacred texts (3) belief in spirits (4) no belief in afterlife Centered on the "twin existential poles" of war and love, life and death, the sword and the beloved. This is reflecting in the poetry of the Pre-Islamic Arabs. Worldly religion focused on joys of life Men had the 3 W's: Wine Women War Fascination with Language Oral culture Power of spoken word Poet was held in high esteem Poetry filled with warrior, desert, love, and the tribe Tribal Solidarity Fervor of identity Tribalism was important because of social structure whether nomadic or settled Tribe - an extended family A community based on blood ties The tribe itself is subdivided into clans Clan - smaller unit A part of a larger tribe Different tribes were allied with each other Based on common values/political goals Based on family ties eg.) inter-tribal marriage No centralized political authority Tribes enforced the laws Tribes protected own members Put tribal solidarity above justice Asabiyya - tribal solidarity If you wanted to be protected in Arabian society, you would have to affiliate yourself with a tribe. Foreigners living in the Arabian Peninsula could be protected. No one expected primitive Arabian society to emerge within a half century and change the face of the Middle East. The Life of Muhammad Mecca Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Bekka (today called Mecca) Mecca was important because of trade routes Mecca had ties to neighboring empires through economics, but politically neutral The prophet Muhammad belonged to the tribe Quraysh Quraysh Tribe named after the man Fihr who was nicknamed "little shark" Patriarchal society Rulers of Mecca Keepers of the Kaba Kaba - the cubical shrine in Mecca Symbolically represents the house of God Muslims turn to the Kaba's direction in Mecca when they pray Islam places great emphasis on the transcendence of God The Divine being cannot be contained in any finite form The Kaba is empty On the Kaba is a black stone Referred to as the right hand of God At the time of Muhammad the Kaba was filled with idols Mecca drew pilgrims from all over the Arabian Penninsula Polytheism was not restricted to any one God A tribe could put any idol in the Kaba In Mecca's best interests because then tribes would come to the Kaba in pilgrimages Pagans resisted the prophet Muhammad for economic and theological reasons The Life of Muhammad (570 - 632 CE) (1) From birth to Revelation At age of 40 in year 610 CE (2) From Revelation to Hejira The emigration to Medina in 622 CE (3) From the Hejira to death Death in 632 Orphaned at a young age Raised by his uncle: Abu Talib Took up vocation of a merchant Was able to travel See different faiths Khadija Wealthy woman who hired Muhammad to trade for her She was 15 years older Asked her to marry him Had 8 children together Boys died, numerous girls survived Al-Amin: the trustworthy Muhammad was given this nickname Muhammad turned away from idolatry and polytheism Instead opted for the way of the Haneefs Haneefs Pure Ambrahamic monotheists Haneefs felt monotheism had been corrupted over time and was no longer present in Christianity (lost in trinity) and Judaism (lost universality in community) Rituals that they believed in had Abrahamic origins Performed pilgrimage: Kaba was built by Abraham and Ishmael Muhammad retreated to cave Cave of Hira where the prophet would go for meditation and spiritual retreat At age 40 Muhammad has a vision of an angel Angel recites the first verses of the Quran The First Revelation Angel embraced Muhammad to imprint the word of God on his heart Angel says "Muhammad I am Gabriel and you are the messenger of God" "Recite in the name of thy Lord who created! He created the human being from a clot of blood. Recite! And your Lord is most Bountiful, He who has taught by the pen, Taught the human being what he knew not." Waraqa Muhammad goes to Waraqa to seek advice on his vision Learned Christian who recognizes "Namus" He says Muhammad was visited by the same angel who visited Moses Muhammad goes on to have many similarities to Moses • community began to grow from those who heard of Muhammad's experience Muslim theologians find it very important that those who knew Muhammad best held him in such high esteem Appeal of Muhammad's message: People were drawn to monotheism Paganism had lost its vitality Social egalitarianism Equality of sexes, ages, slaves Movement drew many converts from weaker members of society Resistance: Power-holders of Mecca did not approve of message Reasons for Quaraysh rejection: (1) message appearing to common Meccan Muhammad not a tribal leader (2) attracting lower members of society slaves, women, weak (3) Threatens Mecca's economic status no more pagan pilgrimages (4) Abandon religion of their forefathers Resulted in persecution Tried to publically humiliate Muhammad The Quran/ Koran -Primary reason of how Muhammad was able to draw so many converts -Had significant impact on the Arabs Arabs were an oral culture, extremely sensitive to the power of words If you couldn't express yourself poetically you generally did not speak Arabic language was intrinsically poetic - absent in other languages The Quran loses poetic qualities in translation Muhammad's message was beautifully worded A sacred language can invoke emotions that other languages cannot Quaraysh came up with explanations for where Muhammad's words had come from: Muhammad was a poet However, there was a miracle of Muhammad's poetry Before revelations, Muhammad was articulate, but not poetic Muhammad was a sorcerer When he recites the Quran he bewitches his listeners However, even today people are moved by the message An attempt was made on Muhammad's life 10 years after revelations Muhammad's uncle Abu Talib dies Abu Talib was the leader of his clan Bani Hashim Abu Talib offered Muhammad protection, so Quaraysh didn't hurt him The new leader Bani Hashim did not give Muhammad true protection Muhammad is open for attack Quaraysh begin to plot against Muhammad MEDINA Yathrib (old name for city of Medina) A community of Muslims grow so large in Medina that they invite Muhammad and his whole community to seek asylum in Medina They ask Muhammad to assume leadership of the city Aws Khawray The pagans of Medina were locked in a civil conflict, which was tearing Medina apart. They realized that a neutral third party was needed to solve their conflict. They also invited Muhammad to come rule Medina and help solve the internal disputes of the city. THE HEGIRA Marks beginning of Muslim calendar Marks beginning of the third time of Muhammad's life The community in Medina is established when Muhammad fled to Medina Muhammad invited into city by notable members of city, but Muhammad lets his camel roam and the place where the camel stops is Muhammad's place A Mosque is built at this place: Mosque of the Prophet in Medina Trademark dome and minaret Established shortly after Muhammad is invited into the city Significant Shift Persecuted for 12 years by Quaraysh Then assumed political authority of his own city-state Community begins to grow because of the power of Muhammad's message While the Quaraysh had driven Muhammad out of Mecca, Muhammad was gaining power WAR Three major battles between: Mecca (old social order) and Medina (new vibrant monotheistic religion) Muhammad had laid down very specific rules of war Do not cut down trees Do not use fire/ no fire bombs or burning Forbade mutilation Do not kill: women children senior citizens clergy/ monks livestock/animals unnecessarily Three major battles between: Mecca (Quaraysh) and Medina (Muslim) (1) Battle of Badr 300 Medinans - Muslims 1000 Meccans - Quaraysh Before the armies fight, a dual occurs where Muslims defeat Quaraysh Muhammad concentrated his men around him, drawing the Quaraysh into repeated waves of attacks to exhaust them, and Muhammad was military strategist. Muslims win (2) Battle of Uhud 1000 Muslims 3000 Meccans Quaraysh win battle because archers left their post (Muhammad specifically told the archers not to leave their post) Temporary loss for the Muslims Someone yells Muhammad dies - of course he did not (3) Battle of the Trench 10,000 Quaraysh Muslims dug a trench around the entire city of Medina Quaraysh were not prepared to lay siege Two and a half weeks into siege a hurricane-like wind uproots the tents Quaraysh take this as an omen that they must leave Moral victory for Muhammad: prevented Quaraysh from capturing city even though they had the largest army they had ever seen Solved with the Treaty of Hudaybiyya 10 -year truce Worked against the Muslims Muhammad's disciples against treaty Any resident of Mecca could not join Islam, but Medinans were More people join Muhammad's cause in the 2 years following the treaty than in Muhammad's 18 years of preaching because prior to the treaty, tribes did not want to become enemies with Quaraysh Muhammad the Prophet Poet of the Quran Political Strategist Military Strategist Islam grows rapidly, drawing many converts The Quaraysh realized the treaty was working against them They could not aid an ally of theirs in an attack against the other side Quaraysh violate treaty Muhammad asks Quaraysh to pay blood money so treaty can resume Quaraysh say the treaty is null Muhammad mobilized an army so big in size that it matched the size of Quaryash. The army splits into four and approaches city on all sides Quaryash ruled by many chiefs The chief Abu Sufyan was primary leader Standard bearer said to Abu Sufyan today is day of blood Muhammad says to Abu Sufyan that today was the day of mercy Muhammad grants Amnesty to the city Abu Sufyan's wife Hind had been hostile and ate Muhammad's relative's liver Muhammad pardons Hind but asks her not to come to him, it is too hurtful for Muhammad to look at her There were 365 idols in Kaba Muhammad recites Quran as he destroys the idols and erases images Muhammad re-consecrates the Kaba Restores Abrahamic purity Muhammad dies 2 years later in the year 632 Death of Muhammad "If it is Muhammad you worship then know he is dead. If it is God you worship, then know that God lives and cannot die. Muhammad is but a messenger, and messengers have passed away before him. If he die or be slain, will you then turn upon your heels? Whoso turns upon his heels will thereby do no hurt to God; and God will reward the thankful." - Abu Bakr (Muhammad's political successor) Islamic Caliphate Caliph = successor Period of Four "Righteous Caliphs" (1) Abu Bakr Rules for 2 years and dies 634 (2) Umar (also Omar) Becomes an Islamic Empire under Omar Dies 644 (3) Uthman (also Uthan) (4) Ali - the last of the Caliphs Dies 661 Helping the Islamic Empire Monophysites were heretical according to Byzantines Jewish communities allied themselves with polytheists, but then preferred Muslim rule over the Byzantine world Non-Muslim communities paid a tax "jieya" to exempt them from the military and paid for their religious freedom All Persian Empire fell to Islamic Empire Islamic Differences of: Suunis - 85% - majority which is generally all over Islamic world - they see all 4 caliphs as legitimate - political and religious succession are not fused - religious: scholars "ulema" - political: caliphs - community decides who will rule the people "democracy" Shi'ites - 15% - "party Ali" - located mostly in Iran and Lebanon - minority view: similar to Christian succession - only Ali is accepted as legitimate caliph - political and religious succession are the same - Imam is the political and religious successor - First Imam: Ali - Prophet did not designate a successor because it was only Ali - Ali was succeeded by his son ISLAMIC BELIEFS Shahada - Declaration of one's faith - Similar to Shema in Judaism "Hear O Israel, the Lord is Our God, the Lord is One." - Shahada: "There is no deity but God and Muhammad is the prophet of God" - Emphasis on Creed: between Judaism and Christianity More emphasis on orthodox than Christianity Less emphasis on orthodox than Judaism Islamic Testimony of Faith 3 propositions drawn from the Shahada both implicit and explicit The articles of faith: (1) Affirms belief in divine unity Explicitly stated in the Shahada (2) Belief in prophecy A prophet serves as an intermediary between God and human being God chooses a prophet, one cannot choose to become one (3) Belief in the return Return of the soul after death Implies pre-existence of the soul Returns to God after life on earth This is implied in the Shahada with prophecy Divine Unity Tawhid - the belief in divine unity of God - Islam is centered on this belief - God is the starting point of Islam - God has a dimension of transcendence and immanence - Islam believes other religions are articulating universal truths Transcendence - God is too great for humans to understand Stresses otherness Ineffable: no concept we know can describe him Infinity: cannot understand more than the fact that it is unlimited Nothingness: difficult to understand except for a lack of something Pure Being: what is what is? what can be said of such an inclusive concept that is so general, it encompasses all pure existence? Immanence - Likeness between God and human Implies similarity God is kind, loving, and generous which are human qualities God must be immanent for human to have relationship with God The Quran: Transcendence: He is God, the One. God, the Eternal, the Absolute. He begets not, nor is He begotten, and there is none like unto Him. Immanence: Call upon God, or call upon the Compassionate, Both: There is nothing like unto Him, and He is Seeing, the Hearing God and the Cosmos in Islamic Domes Picture existence as a circle Circumference is the cosmos Many circles signify levels of the universe At the center of existence there is God God has a relationship with himself: which is transcendent God also has a relationship with humans: which is immanent This immanence extends the radii of the circle In the same way that the circumference is no more than an expression of the center point: all are qualities of the center The rays that extend from the middle of the circle are names for God Mother Names: 99 names for God in Islam A name is a quality of God There are infinitely many names for God, because He is infinite There are infinitely many radii in God Existence is infinite Gender In relation to transcendence, God is neither male nor female In relation to immanence, God is both genders Muslim theologians divided names of God into masculine and feminine In scripture, God is "He" out of convention Immanence of God is female to describe nearness Bond of love between parent and child is most close in mother Hadith - sayings of Muhammad Muhammad speaks of God as a Mother God created 100 mercies, giving one to the Mother for her child Similarities in concept of God: Jewish and Islamic concepts of God almost identical Islam differs because God is not of a community Jewish tradition has God of Israel: God of a people Islam tradition: God is God of all, not just community Christian and Islamic concepts view a universal God Islam rejects concept of Trinity, which compromises unity, and reject incarnation because while God is capable of all things, God is infinite and cannot be contained in the finite. Christianity: God is fully divine and fully human in Christ. Prophecy in Islam Muhammad's Nocturnal Ascent Prophets appear with revelations from God Prophets are necessary to show human beings to reach their full potential in life, giving them purpose and knowledge about human existence. Socrates: "An unexamined life is not worth living" What separates the human being from animals is the ability to ask fundamental questions about existence. In Islam, a prophet comes to help people answer their questions. Since they are necessary for human guidance, prophets have appeared throughout history into every nation. Muslims accept that every civilization has received a prophet of some kind. Muslims accept that Buddha, Confuscius, and Greek Philosophers were all different messengers and therefore prophets. The prophet speaks in the language of the community for which he was sent. Muslims believe that prophecy ended with the prophet Muhammad. Islam believes no new religion will be introduced. A prophet must come with a message of divine unity/ monotheism. For example, Hinduism was founded in monotheism and the different deities are different expressions of God. Biblical Prophets are mentioned most often in Islam: Abraham Moses Jesus Islam is a continuation and correction of Christianity and Judaism Islam feels that it is fulfilling Prophets are divinely guided, but not themselves divine This is the Islamic view of Jesus Death and the "Return" Nature of the Soul, Life, and Death Return to God, to one's origin, suggests pre-existence of spirit Body is from Earth and returns to Earth Soul is from God and returns to God The soul comes from the spiritual world to enter a human body The body is the temple for the soul The body dies in the physical world The soul then returns to the spiritual world Out-of-body Experience Research by Charles Tart Real or hallucinatory? Feel like you are outside of your body, often looking down on it Near death experience Person is clinically dead Often have a life review: see and experience your life See and experience how you impacted others Encountering of deceased relatives Images of religious figure of your own tradition Encounter with angelic beings Encounter with demonic beings Often a description of God Divine being is a light in the distance They begin to go to the light Person is brought back to life before going to the light Near death experience of the blind Research by Kenneth Ring "mind-sight" Blind have sight with out-of-body experiences Near death experience of children Children meet deceased relatives that they did not know on Earth A hallucination would have children meet parents, who are alive and close to them to help them cope with the bodily termination. Resistance to belief in near death experiences Materialists Religious exclusivists One man's near death experience Conversation with an angelic being What religion is the correct one? Whichever religion brings you closest to God is the right religion ISLAM AND THE AFTERLIFE Death in Islam is a (1) Transition between modes of existence Word for death: Intiqal "to move" (2) Time of reckoning (3) Birth - rebirth of the soul (4) Inversion of one's being - soul that is hidden becomes manifest (5) Awakening Sufis - mystics of Islam According to Sufis, it is possible to experience this in the physical world You will become enlightened with death Prophets, such as Buddha, are awake and enlightened TEXTBOOK TERMS Leaders Muhammad (570 - 632) Muslims believe that Muhammad was the last in a long series of prophets God sent to reveal his will. Muhammad experienced a twenty-two year period of mystical encounters, during which the Quran's content was given Rightly-Guided Caliphs After the death of Muhammad, the Muslim community was led by four contemporaries of Muhammad (Abu Bakr, Umar[Omar], Uthman[Uthan], and Ali). These had converted to Islam early. In succession, these four led the community from 632 to 661, by which time much of the southeast Mediterranean was brought under Muslim control. Ali Cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, he is considered by Shiite Muslims to have been the proper successor to Muhammad. Al-Ghazzali (1058-1111) A leading intellectual who became a Sufi convert. He challenged the independence of philosophy, emphasizing the need of revelation. He also helped to synthesize Sufism with Sunni orthodoxy. Major Groups Sunni The traditional form, making up about 85% of Islam. They consider that valid leadership of Islam lies in a caliph of Muhammad's tribe. Shiite Meaning "party" it is the largest minority, they maintain that valid leadership lies in the imam, a direct descendent of Muhammad, through his daughter Fatima and her husband Ali. "Twelvers" - believe in twelve imams Sufis - mystical movement Symbols Hijab - the scarf or head-covering worn by most Muslim women Minaret - the tower of a mosque Prayer Al-Fatihah - "The Opening" Shahida 99 Names for God Places Mecca The pre-Islamic center of trade and religion for Arabs, which Muhammad reformed into a center of monotheism. Muslims who are able are expected to make a pilgrimage there at least once during their lifetime. Medina Originally Yathrib, it was renamed Medina to honor Muhammad, who established the first Islamic government there. Jerusalem The third most holy city of Islam, the Dome of the Rock, a mosque built in 692 on the site of the Jewish temple, is particularly special. Kaba "Cube" a pre-Islamic cube-shaped building in Mecca, rebuilt several times. Believed by Muslims to have been built by Abraham. The Black Stone (meteorite) is embedded in it. It is the center of Muslim pilgrimage and the place toward which one prays Mosque "place of prostration" Quran/ Koran "recitation" The Islamic scripture by Muhammad Hadith Stories of what Muhammad did or said Western Religions - Introduction Judaism Biblical history Theology / beliefs Practice (Torah) Christianity Life of Jesus: Film Formative political history (conversion of roman empire) Theological divisions and construction of orthodoxy (up to council of nicea) Islam Life of Muhammad Theology/ Beliefs Practice (pillars) Film: Arab stereotypes Judaism 6 million Jews killed in Holocaust - 13.3 million population in 2008 - 375 000 in Canada - 0.22% of world population - 40% lives in North America - Has been a minority religion since beginning, but has continued to exist until now - despite anti-Semitism and hostility, Judaism has resilience - Judaism is crucial to understanding Islam (21%) and Christianity (33%), which make up more than half of world population * know denominations * Jew - "Yehudi" - Judean One who lives in the Kingdom of Judah Kingdom of Judah 930 - 586 BCE Hebrew To cross over Nomadic nature of group Only after coming of Moses that became secretary The Drama of Biblical History Judaism is self-conscious of their history Hebrew Bible is largely a historical text of teachings from experiences Begins with act of creation Jewish understanding of history identical to Christian understanding - also called the Old Testament in Christianity Hebrew Bible - Tanakh 1) Torah - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy 2) Nevi'im - "prophets" 3) Ketuvim - "writings" Biblical Narrative of the Creation Story God creates the world, then the human being "And God created man in His own image, in the image of God created He him; male and female created He them." -Genesis 1:27 Anthropomorphism - conceiving God in terms of humans anthropos - "pertaining to human being" morphology - "the study of form" Jewish and Christian Theologians "ImageofGod" vicegerent of God humans are a representation of God on Earth not that God is a human objective knowledge is possible from the divine image refers to free will - human beings have choice Adam and Eve Can also refer generically to the human race "ha'adam" - word for human being "eve" - word for life The Fall Adam and Eve do not have moral sense as a consequence of eating forbidden fruit, acquire knowledge of good and evil, right and wrong, human beings will then suffer consequences In Christianity, The Fall highlights original sin Original Sin - condition of sinfulness into which humans are born Christian Theology believes that humans are born tainted It is the death of Christ that liberates people In Judaism No original sin Metaphor of exile of Jewish people from promise land for violating laws of God because there is consequence for disobeying Chronology - story must be read metaphorically Adam's birth at 4000 BC Homo sapiens are at least 5000 BC years old The Legacy of Abraham We must understand the figure of Abraham to understand Jewish history Everything we know of Abraham, we know from the scriptures - born in land of Ur (Iraq and Turkey region) born 1813 BCE dissatisfied with superstitious beliefs of community conflict with father forced to leave and goes to Canan with his wife Sarah as they grow old, Sarah lets Abraham have Hagar, who bears son Ishmael is born of Hagar Ishmael becomes father of Arabs - 15 years after Ishmael, Sarah becomes pregnant and has son Isaac is born of Sarah Isaac becomes father of Jewish people Abraham's Covenant God demands Abraham's obedience, and in turn will make his descendents continue, and promises the land of Canan The Promised Land is Canan 1) leave land of Ur 2) obey laws Jewish continue this covenant through heredity The Patriarchs and Twelve Tribes of Israel Patriarchs of Judaism: Abraham and Isaac Isaac has two sons, Esau and Jacob Isaac gives legacy to Jacob Jacob has twelve sons Jacob's name is changed to Israel ("to struggle") Fathered twelve tribes of Israel Jewish Biblical Stories Tanakh The Torah - Patriarchs Abraham was chosen God would give Abraham many descendents and promised Land Abraham had Jacob and Esau Jacob > Israel > moves to Egypt after drought Israelites grow in Egypt Pharoh enslaves Hebrews Covenant - if Hebrews follow God, then God will look out for them Exodus Moses - God tells Moses to return to the Pharoh and say to "Let my people go" God shows his power to the Egyptians 12 plagues - Pharoh will not let Hebrews go Kills first son of every Egyptian Family Pesach/Passover Seder meal Embodies emotions of Exodus: pain of slavery and joys of freedom Kosher food Religious ritual that builds community After wandering for 40 days, come to Mount Sinai Moses climbs up mountain and talks to God Sinai Covenant becomes The Ten Commandments Tradition calls it: The Ten Words However, the bible is larger than just the Ten Commandments Torah - Law for instructions that embody the covenant Tells stories that explain the rules in detail with examples Rules of your life, economics, social property, purity, etc Shavout - means "Weeks" About 50 days after Passover Celebrate God's giving the Torah Stay up all night and study Torah Also agricultural festival - in the spring - offerings to God Sukkah/ Sukkot Bible says one week in fall live in a small hut called a Sukkah like you did The festival of Sukkot, Jews will eat meals in humble harvest home Israelites wandering desert End up in Jordan about to cross the Jordan river about to cross into Israel Moses dies before they cross Keep this law and you will keep this land Exodus ends Conquest and Exile Israelites told to go into promised land and execute all people there Purify promised land Tribes set up a monarchy in Jerusalem Kingdom breaks up into two - one falls, then the other "Canaan" invaded "Israel" David is the King of Israel God promises He will build David a dynasty David's son Solomon builds God's house Temple built on the mount Zion Temple "Holy of Holies" was a place of sacrifice where women and foreigners were not allowed in. Tablets of the law were kept. Ark in Synagogue Synagogue is a social institution Place of prayer The Ark is like a niche in the wall, facing Jerusalem Copy of Torah scroll in Ark Israel - Samaria (top of current-day Israel) Judah - Jerusalem (bottom of current-day Israel) Solomon disobeyed God God punishes Solomon, but remembers promise to David Kingdom breaks Top separates Solomon's son can rule Judah *There is no factual evidence of the history of the Hebrew people *What there is: evidence of Eastern Mediterranean economic upheaval, a city hit by earthquake 1200BCE that was abandoned. Evidence of spread out warfare. Citystates collapse and are abandoned. People took to a rural lifestyle for a while, then slowly return to cities. Reference to state called Israel - Egyptian King document: brag destroying Israelites 800s BCE references to Israel and Samaria then later to Judah and Jerusalem * No evidence of David and Solomon's rule of a unified land Bible traces history of Israel and Judah Eventually the story recounts how key parts of the covenant are broken This is the setting for the Bible's prophets Assyria gains control of Israel 722 BCE Current day Syrians Bible says they fell under Assyrian control, but didn't like their taxes Finally Assyria wipes them out - all of Samaria gone "Lost tribe of Israel" Bible loses interest in them Bible says it was because God was angry at them Judah was miraculously spared from the Assyrians Assyrians are defeated by Babylon (current-day Iraq) Babylon gains control of Judah 587 BCE Same things happen Depopulation, deportation of people in Judah Judians are exiled "The Great Exile" The Bible says the Babylonians destroyed all Jews This is the judgment of God on them Babylon finally defeated by Persia 538 (current-day Iran) Persian King let Israelites go home 330s Alexander the Great - Hellenisism Foundations of 2nd Temple Judaism - Jerusalem - Davadic dynasty: "Messiah" - Increasing accent on texts People began to spiritualize the concept of the dynasty of David that a new king would come to rule the Jews Hasmonean dynasty/ "Maccabees" 167-164 BCE Mattathias the priest and his son Judas Hanukkah declare war on Assyrians to recapture the Temple and begin to run Israel "Maccabee" - means Hanna The festival to celebrate became Hannakah Roman Empire Conquers - political upheaval occurs Rebellion 68-73 ce Rebellion against the Romans Romans sacked and destroyed the second Temple of God Jews are scattered all over world Temple was the center of Jewish life, but the Temple was destroyed Old priesthood wiped out, no more power "Jerusalemwas so thoroughly razed to the ground by those that demolished it to its foundations, that nothing was left that could ever persuade visitors that it had once been a place of habitation" F. Josephus Jews recovered with symbolic temples = synagogues Finish their bible - Tanakh Oral traditions were written down over centuries Priests - took a new name called Rabis It doesn't matter where you are as a Jew, you can worship Created Synagogues Post 70 ce Rabbinic Reinvention - new literature Mishnah Talmud - quotes from Mishnah and discussion commentators Behind all of this law, is the idea that one CAN approach God You are never truly free without rules Jews follow in order to be free The whole Torah: Do under others as you would have done to you The rest is all commentary -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Patriarch: (1)Abraham Sarah Hagar (2)Isaac Ishmael (3)Jacob 12 Tribes of Israel Arabs Judaism Islam Moses David Jesus Christianity God in Judaism The Jewish Understanding of God and the Human Being Theology - the study of God - the study of religious doctrine Monotheism - belief in the divine unity of God The bedrock of Judaism "monos" - singular or one / "theos" - God Polytheism - the belief in many Gods Atheism - belief in no God Pantheism - everything is God, nature is God Shema- prayer - declaration of monotheism Closest thing to a "creed" in Judaism Recited daily by observant Jews "Hear O Israel! The Lord is our God, the Lord alone. You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might." (Deuteronomy 6:4-5) Theologians - Philosophy of Monotheism Aristotle - Intellect was the supreme being Plato - supreme being is the extreme good Thomas Aquinas - important theologian, very Aristotelian Two Dimensions of the Divine Being God - the Divine Transcendence God is so complex and different from us and cannot be conceived of anthropomorphically Otherness: 1) God is beyond human comprehension 2) God is entirely different from everything that we can be thought 3) God does not have human qualities While the ancient polytheist Gods were amplified human beings, the God of Judaism is not. Humans have made their Gods in their own image. However, Western Traditions believe in a transcendent God. We cannot understand the absolute beauty and absolute greatness, ie. God is a being that transcends our understanding. Moses says "I pray, show me Your Glory!" God responds "You cannot see My face, for man may not see Me and live" Exodus 33:18,20 If the human being were to encounter the reality of the divine, we would be blinded by the light of His greatness. God says "I am what I am" "My thoughts are not your thoughts, nor are my ways your ways" Therefore, humans cannot understand any more than this Only the divine being can embrace the infinity of His existence The only knowledge you can have of God, is that you cannot understand Him "Even the heavens to their utmost reaches cannot contain you, how much less this house that I have built!" (1 Kings 8:27) - King Solomon upon completion of Temple Negative Theology - God is other than everything that can be thought. Divine Immanence The flip side of transcendence Implies similarity God reveals himself to people, He cannot be entirely transcendent when he shows himself to Moses and Prophets. Immanence is the reason we can communicate. Shekhinah The indwelling presence of God Refers to the self-revelations of God Exists everywhere God spoke to Moses through a thorn bush to show that the presence is even existent in something so small. People do not know God's presence if their heart is closed off. Paradox of Monotheism Logical Contradiction simultaneous affirmation of transcendence and immanence What is the Human Being? The Nature of the Human Being in Judaism is relevant to Christianity and Islam (1)Human being created in the image of God Does not have to be understood anthropomorphically Human can be a representation of God (ie his representatives on Earth) Means the human being has -intellect -free will -morality Creative Command - Divine Fiat Whenever God brings something into existence, he does so through this Speech "Let there be light" Breathes the human being to give man life - God pours himself into man In Jewish tradition, the soul has origin in breath of God The soul is divine life At the core of every human being is goodness "God formed the man from the dust of the ground and He blew into his nostrils the soul of life; and man became a living being" -- Genesis 2:7 (2) Humans have a soul The body is the temple of the soul The soul is the divine life of God, which gravitates upwards, turns by nature to the divine life The human being also has an animalistic side that pulls downward, which turns to evil instincts Because of this unique combination, the human being has free will, he or she has two potentials: angelic -- subject self to saintly, or demonic -- worse than an animal (3) Free Will - the capacity to make choices Every human being is a fully responsible moral agent Human choices of thought and action are held accountable by oneself (ie one can control their own thoughts) Jews believe it is your choice of what you will do with what you are given Human being is in control of own destiny Predestination - the opposite of free will The belief that everything you do has already been determined All of your actions and choices were created by God A person only has the illusion of autonomy - we are simply characters acting out our scripted roles God's will is so pervasive, that He wields everything (3a) We are responsible for actions (3b) We are responsible for controlling our thoughts (3c) We are NOT responsible for inclinations - we do not have control over them The Divine Commandments How is it that free will should be exercised? -- For the good Gentiles - non Jews There is one set of rules for gentiles: To live according to the 7 Laws of Noah One does not have to be Jewish to have eternal life Olam Haba - paradise or afterlife The Seven Laws of Noah for Gentiles and Jews 1) Prohibition against Idolatry 5) One cannot blaspheme God - astrology, divination etc 2) prohibition against murder and suicide 3) sexual immortality (pre-marital and extra-marital relations or homosexuality) 4) prohibition against theft 6) prohibition against eating flesh of an animal while still alive 7) Need to create a form of government that enforces these laws Mosaic Commandments The Laws of Moses for the Jews Mitzvah - " a command " Decalogue - word for the Ten Commandments There are a total of 613 commandments 365 - prohibition commandments - correspond to days of year 248 - positive commandments, or things to do - correspond to human parts At age 13 Boys become "bar mitzvah" - one to whom the commandments apply Ceremony entails boy reading a section of the Torah at the synagogue At age 12 Girls become "bat mitzvah" The bat mitzvah is a modern ceremony that includes girls The Commandments: The Sabbath One must keep the Sabbath day holy, work for six days and rest on the seventh Begins on Friday evening and goes until Saturday evening What is work? Rabbis developed a list of 39 things that cannot be done: Cook Write Clean Sew Wash Jobs It is a time for prayer and to spend time with the family A day to experience the state of paradise It is said that God gave each day of the week a mate, but gave Saturday - the Sabbath to the Jewish people. Therefore, Jews approach Sabbath with love. Purity Cleanliness - Hygiene Food - No pig/ pork/ bacon Seafood without scales and fins - no bottom eaters, no lobster Animal must be killed with quick stroke of knife Blood of Animal must be drained Meat must be salted Kosher meat is some of the healthiest meat you can have Eat milk and meat separately • goat should not be eaten after being boiled in its mother's milk "building a fence around the Torah" Elaborate set of rules What happens when you sin and do not live up to the commandments? In Christianity - Christ is the atonement for your sins In Judaism - you are responsible - you must atone for your own sins Teshuvah - "repentance" To turn or to return to God It's about doing something to atone Must turn to the Torah In this way, you return to yourself, you violated your inner core so must go back to your soul after admission of the sin (1) admission (2) regret (3) resolve to not return to sin (4) take steps to ensure you don't return to sin If Teshuvah is done properly, you will be forgiven by God High Holy Days Rosh Hashanah (New Year) Yom Kippur Day of Teshuvah "day of atonement" communal confession of sins forgiveness of others Israel People and the Promised Land Beth Israel - the house of Israel - the Jewish people Eretz Israel - the land of Israel - the holiest of lands on earth because it was promised to Abraham Jewish people hold a nation in the eyes of God that no other people or nation hold because of their covenantal relationship with God "For you are a holy people to the Lord your God; the Lord your God has chosen you to be a people for His own possession out of all the peoples who are on the face of the earth" Deuteronomy 7:6 Problems: Required expulsion of Cananites when Israelites were promised the land 1948 modern state of Israel established - displacement of Arabs Zionist movement - to establish a land for the Jewish people Anti-Semites supported this to expel Jews from Europe The way that the Palestinians are portrayed in the media is similar to the way that Native North Americans were shown during colonization. Jewish Sacred Writings The Hebrew bible is NOT to be referred to as the "Old Testament" which is the Christian name. The Hebrew bible is full on its own, not requiring a "New" one. Tanakh (1) Torah a. Pentateuch - 5 books b. Humash (2) Nevi'im a. prophets b. 8 books (3) Kethuvim a. Writings b. 11 total There are different meanings of the Torah Can be all of Jewish teachings Can refer to all of the Tanakh Can refer to first section of Hebrew bible The Torah scroll is sacred Sofer Torah is kept in the Aron Kodesh (Holy Ark) Kept in possession of entire congregation/ community Great deal of time and energy taken to produce a Torah scroll Sofer - scribe 10 adult members must be present for the Torah scroll to be read Telmud: Mishnah and Gemara Mishnah Halakha Jewish Law Commentary on Torah referred to as an oral Torah written down in year 200 CE Midrash Tefellin Gemara Commentary on Mishnah 2 kinds: Palestinian and Babylonian Aramaic Exegesis - commentary Scripture is central to Jewish tradition Judaism is exegetic Commentary is very important Rabis for years have written down their commentary TEXTBOOK DEFINITIONS Texts of the Torah Torah: The first five books of the Hebrew Bible, the primary source for Torah. Also called Pentateuch Tanakh: The three parts of the Hebrew Bible: Torah[law], Neviim[prophets], and Ketuvim[writings]. Commonly called the Bible (or "Old Testament") Mishnah: "repetition" or oral Torah which complements the written Torah Gemara: commentary on the Mishnah Talmud: "study" the Mishnah and Gemara combined Responsa: collections of written replies from rabbis to questions about the Torah, after the completion of the Talmud Shulchan Aruch: "The Prepared Table" used as a guidebook for Torah observance Biblical Leaders Abraham: the father of the Hebrews, who with his son Isaac, his grandson Jacob (also called Israel), and Jacob's twelve sons are the Patriarchs Moses: Law-giver who presented the Torah and covenant to Israel and founded the nation David: the idealized king, whose dynasty is featured as one of the key elements in the restoration of Israel Maimonides (1138-1204 CE) A Spanish Jewish philosopher and commentator on the Talmud, he formulated the thirteen principles of Judaism Rashi (1040-1105 CE) French rabbinic commentator on the Bible and the Talmud Ancient Groups Maccabees: The Hasmoneans, a priestly family who led the revolt against the Seleucid Greeks and liberated Palestine for a few decades before the Roman conquest of the East Essenes: Often identified with an apocalyptic sect, discontent with life under the Maccabees, who formed an isolated ascetic, scribal, and priestly community near the Dead Sea at Qumran. Had the Dead Sea Scrolls. Pharisees: A non-priestly group, whose concern about religious purity and the study of the Torah and oral traditions gave them popular influence in society. Their traditions influence rabbinic Judaism. Sadducees: The religious elite, controlling the Jerusalem temple and its economy. They rejected the oral Torah and some of the newer ideas in Judaism. Samaritans: A group in central Palestine, with obscure Jewish ancestry. They used the Pentateuch and expected a prophet-like messianic figure. Zealots: A collection of diverse discontents and apocalyptic militants, who led the revolt against Rome. Kabbalist - Jewish mystic Ashkenazi - Germanic Jews who spoke Yiddish Sephardic - Spanish Jews Festivals Rosh Hashanah: "beginning of the year" Jewish New Year ends with Yom Kippur Yom Kippur: "Day of Atonement" The holiest day of the Jewish calendar, marked by fasting, prayer, and repentance Sukkot: "Tabernacles" or "booths" A seven-day harvest festival, linked to the wandering of the Hebrew exiles in the desert after their escape from Egypt. Pesach: "Passover" celebrates Exodus, the ancient Hebrew escape from Egypt. A seder meal is eaten Hanukkah: "dedication" celebrates the victory of the Maccabees over Syrian Greek overlords, who had outlawed Judaism. A special 18-branch candlestick is used Purim: "Lots" Persian Jews saved: costumes and boisterous plays Shavout: "Weeks" or Pentecost to commemorate giving of the Torah Sabbath: Saturday rest and reflection Judaism Abraham - the father of the Hebrews, God would bring Abraham many descendents and would give them the Promised Land. Abrahamic Genealogy Abraham, who with his son Isaac, his grandson Jacob (Israel), and Jacob's twelve sons are the Patriarchs. Moses came from this lineage, followed by David, then Jesus. David - the idealized King of Israel, whose dynasty is featured as one of the key elements in the restoration of Israel Mosaic Law - laws given from God to Moses, who presented the Torah and covenant to Israel and founded the nation. Noahide Laws Torah Tanakh 10 Commandments 613 Commandments Transcendence and Immanence Predestination Canaan - The Promised Land; Hebrews came into possession of Canaan (Palestine/ Israel). The Promised Land CANON - bible Mitzvah Kosher Olam Haba - "Paradise" or the "World to Come" Bar Mitzvah Zionism Orthodoxy Conservative Reform Yom Kippur - atonement Sabbath - seventh day of week: rest Sukkoth - harvest festival, linked to the wandering of the Hebrew exiles in the desert after their escape from Egypt Pesach - "Passover" celebrates Exodus, the ancient Hebrew escape from Egypt. A seder meal is eaten Hanukkah - "dedication" celebrates the victory of the Maccabees over Syrian Greek overlords, who had outlawed Judaism. A special 8-branch candlestick is used Mishnah - oral Torah Midrash - Jewish literature Talmud - Mishnah and Gemara Menorrah - 7 branched candlestick Teshuvah - repentence "return" *** Christianity Early Christians (their fate, charges made against them, etc.) Nero Diocletian Logos - term borrowed from Greek philosophy for Son of God Christ is the "word" of God Christ Beatitudes - ethical teachings of Christ Constantine Churches built under Constantine's rule St. Peter's Bascillica in Rome, Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem, Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem (also Anastasis - church of the resurrection), Hagia Sophia in Constantinople/Istanbul Arians - Christ not divine, there was a time when he was not Nestorians - Divine dwells inside human Christ Monophysites - Christ is fully divine Nicene Creed (know in detail) Protestantism Catholicism Pope Vatican City Rome Hagia Sophia - once largest domed building in world, church built by Constantine Orthodox - correct Epiphany - January 6 - celebrate visit of Three Magi Pentecost - 50 days after Easter, connected to Jewish Shavout ("weeks") Easter - The primary and oldest Christian festival, celebrating the death and resurrection of Jesus, connected to the Jewish Passover. Eucharist - communion Lord's Prayer Confession Baptism Confirmation BC/AD - dating system IHC - abbreviation for Jesus from Latin name INRI - abbreviation of Latin words for "Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews" IHS - old abbreviation for Greek name Jesus "in this sign" or "Jesus Savior of Men" Chi-Ro - a monogram formed by two Greek capital letters XP superimposed on each other. They are the first two Greek letters in word "Christ." Sign became associated with Constantine. Canon Clergy Caroligian Empire (time span= over a thousand years) became known as Holy Roman Empire *** Islam Early History (lecture review) Pre-Islamic Near East - The Byzantine Empire and Sassanian Empire are in conflict shortly before the rise of Islam; this latest war is part of an extended conflict between the Roman and Persian Empires, which goes centuries. Pre-Islamic Arabia - Arabs organized along tribal lines; most of them identify with a form of paganism. The Kaba is a place of worship which the Hanifs believe to be of Abrahamic origin, originally monotheistic. When Muhammad is born, it houses 360 idols. Muhammad - Born and raised in Mecca in 570 CE; orphaned at a young age, raised by his grandfather, then his uncle Abu Talib, who later gives him protection. Hanifs - Muhammad is a monotheist prior to his experiences of revelation, and identifies with a form of Abrahamic monotheism present in the Arabian peninsula. Revelation - Has an experience of the Angel Gabriel while meditating in a cave at the age of 40. Personal doubts and the immensity of the experience lead him to seek comfort in his wife, Khadija. The verses he receives come to be known as the Quran. The message of the Quran stresses monotheism, social equality, and warns of the dangers of a final resurrection and impending Day of Judgment Meccan Reaction - The power holders of Meccan society are resistant to Muhammad's message; weaker members of society are drawn. Hegira - Flight from Mecca to Medina shortly before an attempt is made on Muhammad's life. Muhammad establishes a mosque in Medina, now known as the Mosque of the Prophet (with trademark green dome). Muhammad eventually assumes a position of political power in Medina, partly at the behest of two Arab tribes that felt an outsider was needed to settle their own disputes. Conflict with Mecca - Medina and Mecca are set on a course of conflict with Medina as the representative of a new, vibrant religion, and Mecca as a representative of an older, pagan order. A number of battles fought (Badr, Medina victorious; Uhud, Mecca victorious; Trench, stalemate but moral victory for Medina). Relations with Jews turn sour when Jews begin to ally themselves with Mecca; their "closed canon" and Muhammad's Arab (i.e. Ishmaeli) background prevented them from accepting him as a prophet. Treaty of Hudaibiyya - Mecca and Medina agree to a 10-year truce. The new religion grows more in the following two years than in the previous 18 years of Muhammad's preaching. Conquest of Mecca - Breach of Treaty by Mecca leads to conquest of the city. Muhammad grants amnesty to its citizens, but does not spare the idols of the Kaba, which he then reconsecrates as an Abrahamic house or shrine of worship. Muhammad sees this cleansing of the Kaba as a culmination of his mission, which is to restore Abrahamic monotheism. Death - Muhammad dies of natural causes and is buried in Medina. Succeeded by four "caliphs" or "successors" (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, Ali). Sunnis - Accept legitimacy of four successors, who are the "four rightly guided caliphs"; make up 85% of Muslim population today. Shi'ites - accept as legitimate only Ali, who is the first "imam" or leader of the community. Shiah/Shi'ite = "party (of Ali)" Later Dynasties - the four caliphs are succeeded by the Umayyads (661-750: 90 years capital is Damascus), who are then succeeded by the Abbasids (750-1258: 500 years capital Bagdad), after which the Islamic empire begins to fragment into competing dynasties Theology/Beliefs The three principles - Islamic beliefs center on these principles, at the heart of which stands the concept of Divine Unity. God (Arabic: "Allah", from ['al' ('the') + ilah ('god') = Allah ('the god')] - God in Islam is both transcendent and ineffable, and immanent and near; he is conceptualized through Attributes or the "Divine Names." The relation between God and the cosmos can be illustrated through a circle (see class notes). The Islamic concept of God is, within the Abrahamic religions, more similar to Judaism. Prophecy - An experience of revelation by a human being to guide a community or communities to God and ultimate salvation. Not restricted to a genealogical line; some theologians do not restrict it to gender either (Mary is considered by some to be a prophetess). Begins with Adam and ends with Muhammad, the "seal of prophets". Islam accepts the major biblical figures as prophets; every prophet taught a message of Divine unity, even if that message was later corrupted or lost. A prophet is never an incarnation of God because the human and divine orders are considered separate. The Return - Death is considered a separation of the body from the soul; the body returns to the earth, which is its origin, and the soul returns to God, which is its origin. Death leads to an eventual judgment of one's life. Islamic theology presents a vivid and detailed description of the afterlife, of the joys of Paradise and the suffering of Hell. Practice 5 Pillars (1) Creed: Shahadah (2) Prayer - 5 times a day (3) Alms - tax for poor relief (4) Fasting - for Ramadan (5) Pilgramage Shariah - Law Terms Quran Hegira (AH = After Hegira) Abu Bakr Umar Uthman Ali Sufis - mystics Kharijites - caliph need not be family or of tribe of Muhammad; any pious Muslim can lead Shiites Hijab Prayer Beads Al-Ghazali - a leading intellectual who became a Sufi convert. He challenged the independence of philosophy, emphasizing the need of revelation. He also helped to synthesize Sufism with Sunni orthodoxy. Minaret - tower Umayyads (know capital and time span) Abbasids (know capital and time span) Islamic Spain Halal Haram Shahadah - creed Shariah - Islamic Law Sources of Islamic Law Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem Kaba Blue Mosque - Istanbul SLM/Islam - letters of consonantal roots of Islam, peace, shalom "surrender" Hadith - sayings of Muhammad Al-Fatihah - prayer; "The Opening" first surah in Quran