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Table of Contents History of Microbiology Before 1600 1600-1699 1700-1749 1750-1799 1800-1849 1850-1859 1860-1869 1870-1879 1880-1889 1890-1899 1900-1909 1910-1919 1920-1929 1930-1939 1940-1949 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 2000-2009 Pre-1600 Before 1600 1215 King John of England signs the Magna Carta (the first set of written, democratic laws) 1096 Holy Roman Empire begins the Crusades 1120 First restaurant (China) Ancient Egyptians Ancient Roman Empire " B.C. Ancient Egyptians develop methods of embalming 1596 First flush toilet 1429 Joan of Arc leads the French army against British invaders A.D. ! 1000 600 A.D. Mayans make fermented beverage from cacao (chocolate) Ancient Romans develop ideas about contagious particles. They also perform first recorded acts of biological warfare--they dumped rotting corpses into the water supplies of their 4300 B.C. Babylonian enemies. clay tablets have beer recipes 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1348 Black Death Kills 1/3 of European population 1590 Janssen Develops compound microscope 1600 1600 1600-1699 1603 Shakespeare publishes Hamlet 1620 The Mayflower lands at Plymouth Rock 1666 Newton describes The Law of Gravity 1610 Galileo says the Earth revolves around the Sun 1600 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1692 Salem Witch Trials 1670 1680 1690 1700 1665 Robert Hooke views cork through a microscope-coins the term “cell.” 1668 Francesco Redi performs the first documented controlled scientific experiment. Covers meat with cheese cloth, and leaves other pieces of meet uncovered. Uncovered meat, exposed to flies, develops maggots. Covered meat does not develop maggots. Redi concludes that adult flies are necessary for the production of maggots. This is the first major blow to the theory of spontaneous generation. 1674 Anton von Leeuwenhoek becomes first person to view living microorganisms. This marks the beginning of Microbiology. 1700 1705 Edmund Halley uses Newtonian laws of motion to predict the return of the comet that bears his name. 1700-1749 1718 Blackbeard the Pirate is killed. 1712 An early steam engine is installed at an English coal mine. This marks the beginning of the First Industrial Revolution. 1700 1710 1726 Bartolomeo Cristofori develops the piano. 1726 Jonathon Swift publishes Gulliver’s Travels 1732 Benjamin Franklin begins publication of Poor Richards Almanac 1720 1730 1740 1735 Linnaeus develops a taxonomy and a naming system (binomial nomenclature) for organisms. 1745 John Needham shows that boiled broth that cools down overnight becomes richly contaminated with microorganisms. He forcefully argues the microbes must be borne from the broth. He publishes a formal presentation of the Theory of Spontaneous Generation 1750 1750 1750-1799 1789 Mutiny on the HMS Bounty 1756 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is born 1776 Declaration of Independence is signed 1789 French Revolution 1752 Benjamin Franklin flies a kite in a storm to investigate the electrical nature of lightning. 1750 1770 Ludwig von Beethoven is born 1760 1770 1787 U.S. Constitution is signed into law 1780 1767 Lazzaro Spallanzani performs experiments with boiled and unboiled gravy. He shows that boiled gravy will only spoil if exposed to air. He concludes that spontaneous generation cannot be correct. 1790 1800 1798 Edward Jenner performs the first vaccinations against smallpox. He collects the pus from cowpox blisters on the hands of milkmaids. He contaminates a lance with this pus and then cuts the skin of children. 1800 1800-1849 1800 Johnny Appleseed arrives in the Ohio River Valley 1800 Washington D.C. is established as the capital of the U.S.A. 1818 Mary Shelley publishes Frankenstein 1812 Development of the first canned foods 1800 1810 1848 Marx and Engels publish the Communist Manifesto 1844 Samuel Morse develops the first telegraph line. 1826 Photography is invented 1820 1830 1848 Women’s suffrage movement begins in England 1840 1829 England installs first municipal water filtration system 1835 Agostino Bassi proves that a fungus is the cause of silkworm disease. 1840 Ignaz Semmelweis puts forth the revolutionary idea that physicians should wash their hands when assisting in childbirth. 1850 1850 1850-1859 1857 U.S. Suprreme Court announces the Dred Scott decision: free (non-slave) states do not have the authority to deprive citizens of their property (slaves) 1851 The first YMCA opens in Boston 1852 Otis invents the elevator 1850 1859 Charles Darwin publishes the Origin of Species 1857 City of Vancouver, Washington is established 1852 1854 1856 1858 1860 1854 John Snow identifies contaminated water as the cause of a cholera epidemic in England 1857 Louis Pasteur determines that yeast cause fermentation of wine and develops the process of pasteurization that saves the French wine industry. This marks the beginning of the Golden Age of Microbiology--a period of explosive growth of knowledge of microbes (1857-1914). 1858 Rudolf Virchow develops the formal theory that life arises only from pre-existing life (later to be called “biogenesis”.) 1860 1860-1869 1865 President Abraham Lincoln is assassinated 1866 Gregor Mendel publishes a study on the inheritance of characteristics in pea plants 1861 Civil War begins 1869 The Transcontinental Railroad connects East and West U.S.A 1865 End of the Civil War 1860 1862 1864 1866 1861 Louis Pasteur, studying fermentation by yeast, coins the terms aerobic and anaerobic. 1861 Louis Pasteur provides the final disproof of the theory of spontaneous generation. He maintains boiled broth in a swan-necked flask, open to the air, for many days without contamination. 1869 Mendeleey develops the Periodic Table of Elements 1866 Given the discovery of microscopic organisms, Ernst Haeckel proposes a third Kingdom of Life: The Protista. 1868 1870 1867 Joseph Lister uses phenol (carbolic acid) to treat surgical wounds. This reduced infection from surgery dramatically and served as proof that surgical infections are caused by microorganisms. 1870 1870-1879 1879 Woolworth stores open 1871 Mrs.O’Leary’s cow knocks over a lantern and starts the Great Chicago Fire. 1876 Thomas Edison invents the incandescent light bulb 1872 Yellowstone becomes the world’s first National Park. 1876 Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone 1872 Jules Verne publishes Around the World in Eighty Days 1870 1872 1874 1876 1878 1880 1879 Neisser identifies the causative agent of gonorrhea (Neisseria gonorrhoeae). This may be the first case where a microbe is implicated as the cause of a chronic disease. 1872 Ferdinand Cohn describes the roles of bacteria in the cycling of elements in nature. 1870 Thomas Huxley, one of the most prominent biologists of the time, coins the terms “biogenesis” (life from pre-existing life) and “abiogenesis” (life from nonliving materials). He provides powerful support for Pasteur’s claim that spontaneous generation (abiogenesis) had been disproved. 1876 Robert Koch, studying the disease, anthrax, validates the Germ Theory of Disease--the idea that diseases are caused by infectious agents (not by other forces such as evil spirits). This is also the first use of the rigorous steps in pathogen identification known as Koch’s Postulates. 1880 1880-1889 1882 Bank robber Jesse James is shot and killed 1881 Clara Barton founds the American Red Cross 1880 1880 Pasteur develops a vaccine for chicken cholera. This is the first attenuated vaccine. 1882 1887 Sir Arthur Conan Doyle publishes A study in Scarlet (the first Sherlock Holmes book) 1889 Washington becomes the 42nd state in the Union 1885 Sir Francis Galton proves the individuality of fingerprints 1884 1886 1888 1885 Pasteur develops a vaccine for rabies. 1887 Petri develops the petri plate for use with soild culture media 1884 Elie Metchnikoff describes phagocytosis (ingestion of solid materials by cells) 1884 Escherich identifies Escherichia coli 1883 Koch identifies Vibrio cholerae as the causative agent of 1881 Koch develops the cholera. concept of achieving pure 1882 Koch identifies 1884 Hans Christian Gram cultures using solid media. Mycobacterium tuberculosis as develops the Gram Stain. the causative agent of 1882 The Hess’ working tuberculosis. 1884 Koch formalizes Koch’s Postulatesin Koch’s lab, develops -the set of steps required to identify the agar as a solid medium. causative agent of a disease. 1890 1890 1890-1899 1895 Roentgen discovers X-rays 1896 Chop suey is invented in New York City 1897 Bram Stoker publishes Dracula 1890 1892 1894 1896 1898 1900 1897 Buchner discovers that 1892 Welch and Nuttall identify fermentation can be accomplished Clostridium perfringens as the with a cell-free yeast extract. This causative agent of gangrene. launches the field of enzymology. 1891 Paul Ehrlich proposes that antibodies are responsible for immunity. 1892 Ivanowski launches the field of virology when he discovers the existence of the filterability of an 1899 Ross describes the “invisible” (not seen through a microscope) life cycle of the malaria pathogenic agent. 1890 Sergei Winogradsky performs the parasite. definitive work on the microorganisms responsible for nitrification in nature. 1899 The Society of American Bacteriologists 1890 von Behring and Kitasato (later renamed the American Society of develop a process for producing Microbiologists) is organized. This is the diphtheria antitoxin. This is the first oldest scientific society in America. directed approach to therapy of infectious disease. 1900 1900-1909 1900 Sigmund Freud publishes The Interpretation of Dreams 1906 Kellogg’s Corn Flakes is introduced 1903 Orville and Wilbur Wright fly the first airplane 1901 Marconi develops the wireless radio 1900 1902 1907 Leo Baekeland develops plastic 1905 Albert Einstein publishes the Theory of Relativity (E = mc2) 1904 1906 1906 Sohngen shows that bacteria can use methane as an energy and carbon source. 1908 Henry Ford develops the automobile assembly line. 1908 1910 1907 Smith and Townsend discover that the bacterium, Agrobacterium, is responsible for the plant 1905 Schaudinn and tumor disease called 1901 Wildiers discovers that a water-soluble Hoffman identify crown gall. extract of yeast is needed for the growth of yeast. Treponema pallidum as This is the first evidence of an essential growth the causative agent of 1909 Ricketts shows that Rocky factor (later found to be a B vitamin). This syphilis. Mountain spotted fever is caused discovery launches the filed of vitamin research. by Rickettsia, an organisms 1905 Ishiwata discovers that 1900 Walter Reed and colleagues intermediate in size between silkworm disease is caused by show that a virus, transmitted by viruses and bacteria. Ricketts later the bacterium Bacillus mosquitoes, causes Yellow Fever. dies of typhus, another rickettsial thuringiensis (now an This is the first human disease for disease. important insecticide). which a virus is implicated. 1904 Koning suggests that fungi play important roles in the decomposition of organic matter and the formation of humus (topsoil). 1910 1910-1919 1918 World War I ends 1912 The Titanic sinks on its maiden voyage 1914 World War I begins 1914 The Panama Canal is completed. It connects the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans 1910 1912 1917 The Russian Revolution ends the reign of Czars and begins the Communist regime. 1914 1912 Paul Ehrlich announces the discovery of an effective cure (Salvarsan) for syphilis. This is the first specific chemotherapeutic agent. 1911 Rous discovers that a virus causes cancer in chickens. This is the first evidence that an infectious agent can cause animal cancer. 1919 The 18th Amendment to the Constitution begins the Prohibition of alcoholic beverages. 1916 1918 1920 1919 Blood agar is used for the first time. Hemolytic ability is used to separate three types of Streptococcus species. 1915 McCrady develops the fecal coliform test as a method for bacteriological analysis of water quality. 1918 Worldwide influenza epidemic kills more than 20 million people. 1910 Nicolle shows that typhus fever is transmitted from person to person by body lice. This information is used to reduce incideence of typhus in both world wars. 1920 1920-1929 1920 The 19th Amendment to the Constitution guarantees women the right to vote. 1927 Charles Lindbergh becomes the first person to fly solo across the Atlantic Ocean. 1925 The Scopes Monkey Trial focuses public attention on the teaching of evolution in public schools. 1920 1922 1924 1928 Mickey Mouse is born 1928 The first television broadcast 1929 The stock market crashes initiating the Great Depression 1926 1928 1930 1928 Frederick Griffith discovers Transformation in bacteria. This is the founding event in the field of Molecular Genetics. His discovery leads to the eventual understanding that DNA is the genetic material. 1923 D.H. Bergey publishes the first definitive manual on the characterization and classification of bacteria. 1929 Alexander Fleming discovers the first antibiotic, penicillin. Fleming makes this discovery by accident. He is searching for antimicrobial chemicals and uses Staphylococcus cultures to test these chemicals. He leaves some of these bacterial cultures on the lab bench when he goes on vacation. Upon returning, he sees that some of his cultures are contaminated with a fungus called Penicillium. He notices that there are no bacteria growing near Penicillium. 1930 1930-1939 1931 The Empire State Building opens 1939 The movies, Gone with the Wind and The Wizard of Oz are released 1933 The 21st Amendment to the Constitution ends Prohibition 1933 Adolf Hitler ascends to 1937 The Hindenburg power in the Nazi Party in explodes over New Jersey 1935 Social Security Germany is established 1930 1932 1934 1936 1934 The electron microscope is invented. 1931 van Niel shows that some photosynthetic bacteria use reduced compounds, for example H2S, as a source of electrons. He posits that plants use H2O as an electron source. He also begins the first General Microbiology course. 1938 1940 1938 Theiler produces a successful vaccine against yellow fever. 1935 Domagk discovers the antimetabolic antibiotic, Prontosil, as a treatment against Streptococcus. 1940 1940-1949 1941 Pearl Harbor is bombed drawing the Unitedd States into World War II 1942 Japanese-Americans are relocated to internment camps. 1944 D-Day: the invasion of Normandy by Allied forces. 1940 1942 1945 U.S.A. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki ending World War II 1945 President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies 1944 1942 The term “antibiotic” comes into existence. 1947 Jackie Robinson becomes the first black player in Major League Baseball. 1946 1948 1950 1947 Selman Waksman publishes a comprehensive definition of the word antibiotic: “a chemical substance produced by microbes that inhibits the growth of and even destroys other microbes.” 1941 Beadle and Tatum publish studies on the relationship between genes and enzymes. This leads to the understanding that genes encode enzymes (more generally, proteins). 1940 Chain and Abraham describe a substance, produced by E. coli, that inactivates 1944 Avery, MacLeod, and penicillin. This is the first evidence that McCarty show that Griffith’s antibiotic-resistant bacteria can develop. (1928) transforming factor is 1940 Florey and Chain DNA. This discovery causes produce an extract of penicillin. most biologists to accept that Along with Fleming, they win DNA is the genetic material. the 1945 Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology. 1946 Lederberg and Tatum show that bacteria can reproduce sexually (conjugation). Thus, bacteria can exchange genes. 1950 1950-1959 1950 Senator Joseph McCarthy begins an anti-communist campaign that ruins the lives and careers of dozens of American citizens. 1955 The first McDonalds opens 1959 Alaska and Hawaii become the 49th and 50th States. 1955 Rosa Parks refuses to give up her bus seat to a white man. This is a defining moment in the Civil Rights Movement. 1950 Korean War begins 1954 Racial segregation in schools is declared unconstitutional. 1959 Fidel Castro rises to power in Cuba. 1950 1952 1954 1952 Lederberg and Lederberg develop the method of replica plating. 1956 1958 1960 1953 Jonas Salk begins preliminary testing of a polio vaccine. 1959 Finland, Jones, and Barnes comment on the potential for antibiotic resistance. 1958 Matthew Meselson and Frank Stahl show the semiconservative nature of DNA replication. 1953 James Watson and Francis Crick develop the three-dimensional model of DNA structure. This molecular structure immediately causes biologists to understand that DNA is the genetic material. The publication of these results ignites an explosion in growth of knowledge and application of genetic principles. 1960 1960-1969 1961 Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin, becomes the first human in space. 1965 The Beatles hold the Top Five spots on the rock and roll top forty. 1962 Rachel Carson publishes Silent Spring 1968 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is assassinated 1963 President John F. Kennedy is assassinated 1960 1962 1961 Nirenberg and Matthaei synthesizea poly-U RNA. They find this RNA directs the synthesis of a protein containing only phenylalanine. They conclude that UUU encodes phenylalanine. This is the start of the efforts to decipher the genetic code. 1961 Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod develop the lac operon model. This is the first determination of a mechanism by which an environmental cue turns on/off a gene. 1964 1969 Neil Armstrong becomes the first human to walk on the moon. 1966 1968 1970 1965 Linus Pauling suggests that DNA can be used to understand evolutionary relationships and to identify microorganisms. 1964 Epstein, Achong, and Barr show that a virus (EBV) can cause cancer in humans. 1968 Prokaryotae, proposed by Murray, is accepted as fourth Kingdom. 1969 Robert Whittaker proposes the five-kingdom system with the addition of the Kingdom Fungi. 1970 1970-1979 1970 Four students are killed during an antiwar protest at Kent State University. 1973 U.S. troop evacuation of Vietnam ends in the fall of Saigon 1971 The 21st Amendment to the Constitution lowers the voting age to 18 years old. 1970 1976 The United States celebrates its bicentennial. 1976 The Pet Rock 1978 Jessica Louise Brown, the world’s first test tube baby is born. 1974 Richard Nixon resigns the Presidency in the wake of the Watergate Scandal. 1972 1974 1977 Star Wars is released. 1976 1978 1971 Nathans, Smith, and Arber discover restriction enzymes. This discovery sets off the age of genetic engineering. 1980 1979 Smalllpox is declared officially eliminated. 1975 The Asilomar Conference gathers the top geneticists to discuss the ethics of the developing technologies of genetic engineering. 1973 Berg, Boyer, and Cohen produce the first geneticallyengineered organisms. 1979 Professor Kibota obtains his drivers license. 1978 Using genetic analysis of ribosomal RNAs, Woese discovers unusual procaryotes called Archaea (or Archaeobacteria). He finds these organisms to be so genetically distinct (compared to other procaryotes and to the eucaryotes) that he suggests a new taxonomic grouping above Kingdom, The Domain. 1977 Bishop and Varmus discover retroviral oncogenes (cancer-causing genes) 1977 Sanger develops a method for determining the nucleotide sequence of DNA 1980 1980-1989 1980 Mount Saint Helens erupts. 1984 Geraldine Ferraro becomes the first female 1980 John Lennon is Vice Presidential shot and killed. candidate. 1980 The Cabbage Patch craze. 1986 The space shuttle, Challenger, explodes after lift-off. 1989 The Berlin Wall is torn down. 1983 The internet is established. 1980 1982 1984 1982 Prusiner discovers a new type of infectious agent--an infectious protein called a prion--that is responsible for the sheep disease, scrapie. 1981 Margulis formalizes the Endosymbiotic Theory of Organelle Evolution. 1986 1988 1990 1988 Kary Mullis develops the method of DNA amplification called Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). 1984 Marshall demonstrates that a bacterium, Helicobacter pylori, causes peptic ulcers. 1983 Montaigner and Gallo identifies the Human Immunodeficiency Virus as the cause of AIDS. 1986 Beachy and Fraley show that when plants are transformed with the gene of a coat protein of tobacco mosaic virus, the plants become resistant to the virus. This opens the new field of plant immuno-genetics. 1990 1990-1999 1990 The invasion of Kuwait by Iraq leads the U.S.A. into 1995 The Federal Building in 1999 The U.S. Senate holds the Persian Gulf War. 1994 O.J. Simpson is Oklahoma City is bombed. impeachment hearings against arrested for the murders of President Bill Clinton. Nicole Brown Simpson 1992 Riots break out in Los and Ronald Goldman. Angeles after a not guilty 1996 Scottish scientists produce verdict in the trial of police a cloned sheep they name Dolly. officers charged in the beating of Rodney King. 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 1999 Schulz identifies largest bacterium Thiomargarita. 1998 Giovanoni finds a gene from an unknown organism in sea water. Upon further searching, this unknown organism is ubiquitous and may be the most abundant organism on Earth. 1993 Schopf demonstrates that cyanobacteria-like organisms had evolved 3.46 billion years ago. 1995 Venter and colleagues elucidate the first complete genome 1994 Cano cultures sequence--Haemophilus influenza. bacteria from endospores in 40 million year old 1996 Kibota and Lynch estimate the E. coli material. genomic rate of deleterious mutations at 1993 W. French Anderson leads about 1 in 10,000 cell divisions. This leads first successful gene therapy. the world’s biologists to re-think the meaning of life. 1996 NASA scientists find bacteria-like fossils in rocks from Mars. 2000 2000-2010 2000 Al Gore wins the popular vote but George W. Bush wins in the electoral college to become President of the United States. 2002 The U.S. goes to war in Afghanistan and subsequently in Iraq. September 11, 2001 Terrorists hijack airplanes and crash into the World Trade Center buildings, the Pentagon, and a field in Pennsylvania. 2000 2000 Artnzen and colleagues develop the first edible vaccine--a genetically-modified potato containing part of the Norwalk virus. 2002 2003 Krispy Kreme comes to Portland-Vancouver 2004 2003 After 10 years of work, the first phase of The Human Genome Project--the sequencing of the entire human genome--is completed. 2003 A new, mysterious respiratory disease (SARS) that kills healthy young adults becomes epidemic. 2006 2008 2010