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Chapter 2: Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (5000-1200 BC) -Mesopotamia (“btw. the two rivers” [Tigris & Euphrates]) *first cities were in the southern region -Uruk, urban settlement. Different architectural styles, connected to many trade routes -Ur (city in Sumer) had an elaborate tax structure ~Epic of Gilgamesh * irrigation allowed for civilization and diversification of labor - large scale agriculturepermanent settlementsstable, complex societies (w/division of labor, social hierarchy and centralization of political power)states or civilization -large settlements depended on large scale agricultural surplus -earliest writings were cuneiform in clay…Sumerian King List - Warka Vase, procession of gifts to a goddess. Showed the figure of a king, implying that these early settlements had established leadership w/in the community -Akkadians: *highly centralized peoples in southern Mesopotamia * Sargon, emperor of Akkade -Naram-Sim, grandson of Sargon, under whose rule the empire reached its height -Old Babylonian Period: *Hammurabi, king of Babylon -legal code, inscribed on a large cylinder -state= confined space backed up by force and enables by agricultural surplus Chapter 3: Egypt, the Gift of the Nile (3200-1500 BC) -Irrigation was key *Nile flooded twice a year, allowed a crop yield 3-4x normal amount *Fayum Depression, fertile area south of the Delta - Geographically isolated, considered outsiders to be enemies -Many raw materials in Nubia -Narmer (first king), unified Upper and Lower Egypt *NARMER PALETTE -kings considered descendant of gods, specifically Ra * only kings could travel to the other world ~when they died their spirit, ka, went after death *tombs contained all they needed for the afterlife ~many pyramids at Valley of the Kings, outside of Thebes -during First Intermediate Period, there was a decline in the power of the king b/c administrative posts became hereditary and afterlife was not longer reserved for the kings *provincial power increased, nomarchs -Middle Kingdom considered classical period * ma’at= harmony achieved through justice and right living ~political ideology of the kings *hieroglyphsallowed for a higher degree of social complexity. Used mainly for sacred texts -Hyksos= chiefs for foreign lands *invaders who began to take over delta Chapter 4: Egypt as an Imperial Power (1500-1000 BC) -New Kingdom, empire has most power and wealth - Hatshepsut, first ruling queen -Imperial empire with a permanent army -Akhentaten (Amenhotep IV) attempted to create a religious cult to worship the sun, Aten -19th century, Hittites invaded *Battle of Quadesh, no decisive victory for either side *Ramses II made a treaty with them ~also remembered for huge building projects Chapter 5: Daily Life in New Kingdom -family was the main social unit -much of what we know is from descriptions in tombs or papyrus -Mantho developed a chronology for the kings *corroborated by the Turin King List from the 13th century Chapter 6: The Ancient Near East (1200-500 BC) - Many city-states went into decline - Nebuchadnezzar II was the greatest king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire -some scholars think that the Israelites were always present as roaming tribes * no other documentation to confirm Bible, specifically the first 5 books known as the Pentateuch *settled in Canaan during the period of the Judges * conquered and exiled by Nebuchadnezzar ~Persian king, Cyrus the Great, defeated Babylonians and allowed Israelites to return *David considered the great unifier -Phoenicians had control of all important trade/shipping centers -Persian Empire *(Achaemenid Empire) *Stable government for 200 years (550-323 BC) *founded by Cyrus II -CYRUS CYLINDER *522 Darius I took control and created his lineage to connect to Cyrus ~had 20 satrapies = administrative regions -generally were in the area of their previous state/central city - high degree of local autonomy (govt’s used language of local region) *- NEAR EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS CAN BE CHARACTERIZED BY USE OF MILITARY POWER TO SUPPORT ROYALTY Chapter 8: The Early Greeks (2000-700 BC) -terrain very mountainousseparation between citiesdivision and rivalries, autonomous -Minoans lived on island of Crete *wrote in Linear A *earthquakes destroyed many of the palaces, except Knossos -Mycenaeans, invaders who took over after Minoan palaces destroyed *wrote in Linear B script, ancient form of Greek *palaces were more like fortresses -Homer’s stories thought to have originated as songs or oral poems *focused on heroism and kleos (“fame & glory”) * historically accurate accounts in reflecting Bronze Age in the Iliad and the Dark Age in the Odyssey -in both Homer’s and Hesiod’s accounts, the gods play an active part in the story *”Works and Days”-move through five phases in human history (gold, silver, bronze, heroic, iron [current phase, unhappy and morally lax]) -polis, social and political unit w/in Greek life *community living in a city drawing on the surrounding lands *gave the citizens a common identity Chapter 10: Hoplites and Tyrants, the Emergence of City States -cities obsessed with their survival *could not afford standing armies, so farmers also acted as hoplite soldiers * fought in phalanx, cooperation was vital *most important virtue was courage used in service to the community -Tyrants: *after 650 BC many cities were overthrown by ambitious men who exploited common resentments w/ aristocracy to seize power ~ defended the people from aristocrats and took power unconstitutionally (often part of the aristocratic class themselves…) ~Sparta never underwent tyrannical rule *tyrant= an individual who exercised absolute rule contrary to customary law in the interest of the ruler himself * Persia would align itself w/ tyrants during wars * Tyrant of Corinth Cypselid tyranny= Cypselus and his son, Periander *tyranny ended in about 550 BC b/c it could not be sustained (never succeeded in created lasting loyalty that spanned generations) ~could not break down cohesion of citizenry ~taken over by oligarchies or democracies -Sparta: *dual kingship, gerousia (council of elders) and citizen assembly ~oligarchic constitution ~elected 5 ephors annually *took over nearby lands, perioikoi (“those living around”) ~those living in Messania became the helots, had their land taken away and became serfs for their Spartan masters (and soldiers during war) ~always concerned about helot revolts… *extreme paranoia and isolation, everything was in service to the state -Athens: * surrounding area, Attica * ruled by a monarchy, replaced by an aristocracy ~3 annually elected officials (archons): eponymous archon, polemarch and archon basileus *Draco made legal reforms, which were deemed to be too harsh by Solon (archon) ~Solon abolished all debt, reformed law code and class structure *Peisistratid Tyranny -regional association, men from beyond the hills -Peisistratus made many attempts to take over Athens ~finally succeeded on third try w/mercenary army -sons, Hippias and Hipparchus continued tyranny after P death *aristocracy took back power, Cleisthenes worked to establish democracy -reorganized Attica into demes, groups of villages within trittyes ~provided men for the council of 500 -demes were locally autonomous -introduced ostracism - Cleisthenes is important b/c he has a plan for a fairer society, which was successfully implemented and sustained Chapter 11: Cultural Changes in the Archaic Age - Increasing wealth as a result of trade * a city’s wealth was best shown through their ornate temples - use of coins, first by the Lydians - in art, statues (kouroi) were made with more natural and relaxed poses *immortalization of a hero at the height of his powers and represents the aristocratic male at his most confident -Ionian Revolution: (Presocratics) *logos= word, speech, discourse * new ideas as a result from exposure, through trade, to different cultures *emphasis on finding truth through nature -believed that the human senses were untrustworthy -sought to explain the natural world through observation *Thales & Anaximander single substance of which the universe was made of -T= logos (measure, proportion) -A= apeiron (boundless, infinite) *Heraclitus explored the contradictions in natural world and their overall coherence -SocratesPlatoAristotle *All of S works written down by P * S put to death for corrupting the youth of Athens * Socratic Method, enclenchos (“cross examination”) *P emphasized the immortality of the soul ~forms: perfectly conceptualized things that prove the existence of afterlife (ex. Perfect circle) ~cynics did NOT believe in an underlying truth, like forms, but agreed w/Platonian idea of dependence on senses for perception of reality *A was a student at P Academy ~moral and scientific approach to truth -Religion: *no such thing as orthodoxy or correct beliefs (no central organ.) *Homer & Hesiod est. geneologies of gods *approached gods through prayer or oracles (to test if the gods agree with intended plans) ~oracle at Delphi (believed to be the center of the world) * communal religious practices that relied heavily on ritualsbound communities together ~important celebrations: Panathenaea, Anthesteria Persian War: -described in Herodotus’ Histories (historia= inquiry/research) ~seen as first real historian, did not emphasize the gods’ role ~underlying propaganda: victory of Greeks and consequences of unrestricted pride ~moral victory for the Greeks *Ionian cities under Persian rule (through the manipulation of tyrants) came together to get rid of tyrants and Persians * Athens and Eretria came to help, destroyed the Persian capital Sardisrevolts in Greek cities in Hellespont - Persians regained control after quelling the revolts * Persians pushed into Greek mainland, with help of Hippias, and landed at Marathon -Battle of Marathon: Greeks outnumbered 2:1, yet they were victorious b/c use of hoplite soldiers, also managed to destroy Persian navy when it tried to escape… *Xerxes (Darius’ son) planned revenge, assembled huge army & built a bridge across Hellespont -Sparta was the first to call the Greek cities into action, had control of land and sea forces - Battle of Thermopylae: Persian victory as a result of Greek treachery. Small defensive Greek force withheld huge Persian army for 2-3 days - Battle of Salamis: Greek naval victory -Battle of Plataea: Spartan victory over Xerxes’ general Mardonius -Persian Wars helped define Greek culture and revived old aristocratic values * arête=glory, manliness and valor Chapter 13: Everyday Life in Classical Greece -erosion of the political power and status of aristocrat challenged by development of middle class as a result of trade *aristocrats had to prove their worth through participation at games -symposia= drinking parties of the elite in formal, ritualized settings - relationships between older men and younger boys (pederasty) *eromenos= the loved one, young boy * erastes= the lover, older man -household was the primary unit for production, specifically agricultural (“oikos”) *soil was poor and rainfall was unpredictable -Slavery was widespread, usually war captives and their families * (ex.) helots in Sparta *use of slaves reinforced Greek social identity, emphasized their status as free citizens and allowed them to participate in political life * element of racism - Citizenship was a highly guarded element of social identity *seen through a range of communal activities, like participation in Assembly ~Assembly: mainly landed elite participated, male citizens, passed legislation & elected 10 military generals (only elected position in Athens…all others were drawn randomly) * defined as ownership of land in Sparta, in Athens those whose parents were citizens could only by citizens (could then participate in gov’t or own land). ~Athenian women were citizens, but stayed mainly in the home ~Spartan women had more control over household activities -Demokratia “the people” + “rule/power” *Athens is the world’s only example of a successful and sustained direct democracy. Chapter 15: Athens, Democracy and Empire - Athens was destroyed by Persians, rebuilt slowly -Aegean city states came together to form the Delian league in 477, under the leadership of Athens *alliance was intended to be permanent and the members would provide ships or cash (held in treasury on island of Delos) *Athens used the league to further its own interests ~wanted to dominate the Isthmus and keep the Peloponnese closed off (thus protecting herself from Sparta) ~Leader, Cimon, successfully attacked Persians and left them w/out offensive forces in Aegean -Battle of Eurymedon ~held tight grip over fellow members (when Naxos tried to leave league forced back into joining by Athens) - hostility between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta -democratic coup when Cimon was not in Athens, supported by Pericles *P became the leader of the democratic party ~elected general 15 years in a row - all male citizens had the right to participate in the Assembly (but only 1/5 could fit) * made laws on all subjects, raise taxes and conduct foreign policy * attendance was biased, only rich/slave owners could participate - Council of 500 (Boule) was comprised of representatives from each of the 10 tribes *prepared business for the Assembly -most valued political skill was rhetoric *Demosthenes - during second half of the 5th century, Acropolis was transformed and Parthenon was built under the supervision of Pericles *used League $ to pay for it… -446/445 Athens and Sparta made a formal peace: Thirty Years Peace -Athens begins to act like and imperial power (had control over Aegean) Chapter 17: The Struggle For Power (431-338 BC) -Thucydides recorded the events of the Peloponnesian War as a documentary account *gods play no part in his understanding about how events unfolded -Peloponnesian War: * began after Sparta (olagarchic, proto-communist) declared war on Athens (democratic, proto-capitalist) - Spartan troops raided Attica annually for 6 yrs ~ Athens was safe b/c long walls, protected provisions -Athens captured Spartan soldiersPeace of Nicias in 421 BC * Athenian aristocrat, Alcibiades, began to provoke Sparta, ended up being a crushing Spartan victory -A supported idea for Athens to expand into Sicily…BAD IDEA (Pericles tried to keep the war defensive, but once he died (429 BC), Alcibiades turned it into an offensive war) ~defected to Sparta after defeat in by Syracuse ~Athenian defeat led to overthrow of democracy (oligarchic revolution) govt of Four Hundred, oligarchic. Thirty tyrants ~morale still remained strong * Persia intervened several times between A & S ( both city states vied for Persia’s support) * under Lysander’s command, Spartan navy crushed Athenian forces and forced them to surrender ~Sparta now had control of the Hellespont…difficult to maintain (no cultural links) -Corinthian War: (395-386 BC) *Persians stimulated a revolt against Sparta by Thebes and Corinth *series of inconclusive land battles, continuation of Peloponnesian War * King’s Peace (386BC) between Sparta and Persia, no decisive victor *Peace was short lived… Sparta crushed an uprising in Thebes ~spurred many city states to form Second Athenian League, in which Thebes, not Athens, had most of the power ~Battle of Leuctra, Thebians destroyed Spartan forcescollapse of Spartan rule in Peloponnese -with Sparta no longer a threat, Second Athenian League ceased to exist (Athens was not happy…) *use of mercenaries became more commonneed for booty and treasureruthless warfare after material possessions instead of territory -Macedonia: *lots of resources, cultural hybrid *not considered Greek by Greeks -kings claimed Greek lineage * Philip II came to power in 360/359 BC -used mercenary soldiershighly disciplined and flexible lineups - defined the borders of his country and began to expand down the coast to take Athenian dependencies ~Athens eventually entered into an alliance -Demosthenes argued vehemently against Athenian surrender to Phillip Chapter 18: Alexander of Macedon & The Expansion of the Greek World - Battle of Chaeronaea- Athens declared war against Macedonia. Felt their survival (grain supply) was threatened -Phillip crushed the Greek forces and forced them (except for Sparta) to join an alliance with him; League of Corinth - Phillip’s monarchy resembled a feudal system, where troops and nobles pledged their alliance to him *power depended on military successes * strengthened empire by taking wives from other nationalities/ethnic groups -Alexander was often jealous of his father’s victories *legitimacy as heir threatened b/c was not of pure Macedonian blood -became king @ 18 when Phillip was murdered - had to immediately quell a rebellion -Conquest of Persia: *Darius III was king of Persia -empire was not as strong as it used to be…but still formidable *Alexander claimed that his invasion of Persia was to avenge the Greeks (personal conquest) -offered sacrifices to Homeric heroes at advent of invasion *Alexander was ambitious, petulant and impatient- took risks and was prideful *Victory at Granicusaccess to Ionian coastline *Gordium….wagon yoke/knot myth * Alexander had many military victories and Darius was willing to negotiate - Offered A empire to the west of the Euphrates -Many Asian cities welcomed Alexander as a liberator and did not put up a fight *Went into Egypt…oracle at Temple to Ammon led Alex. to believe that he was part divine *HUGE Persian defeat at the Battle of Gaugamela, A could claim himself to be the ruler of Asia -moved into Babylon and then Persepolis (spiritual center of Persian empire and also had a lot of treasure) - Darius fled to Ecbatana where Bessus, a local satrap, killed him ~A. then went after Bessus as the avenger of Darius * As Alex moved eastward, his campaign began to crumble - execution of Philotas& Parmenion b/c assassination plot - death of Cleitus & Haphaestion - erratic behavior by Alexander ~decision to move into India…troops disgruntled ~march across Makram desert - cultural differences w/in empire (ex. Prostration) *after death of Alexander, empire was politically unstable & split into three kingdoms - Egypt, ruled by Ptolemy - Asia, ruled by Seleucus - Macedonia, ruled by Antigonus Gonatas Chapter 19: The Hellenistic World - Monarchs carved kingdoms from conquests of Alexander * boundaries between kingdoms remained fluid * had to be military commanders -lots of internal and external fighting -Altar of Zeus at Pergamum was one of the great sculptural pieces of the period - Ptolemies of Egypt were successful at exploiting surplus resources for propaganda - Alexandria= capital of Ptolemaic empire * Extravagant and intellectual capital of Hellenistic world * Library was the largest in the ancient world