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Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing
Networks of Communication and
Exchange
 Describe the degree of
global “interconnection” after
1500 CE compared to before
1500. What were the overall
effects of this change in
global interconnectedness?
This is meant to be a general
answer here.

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
How did the global trade
network after 1500 affect the
pre-existing regional trade
networks?
What technological
developments made
transoceanic European travel
and trade possible? Where did
those developments originate?
Discuss the major notable
trans-oceanic voyages
between 1450-1750.
Answer
Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline
“Facts”
Before 1500 CE, the Western Europeans had not yet rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and
the Indian Ocean was not directly linked to Europe by any trade routes. After 1500 the
Europeans had established influence and control over much of Sub-Saharan Africa and
the Indian Ocean system, and they became globally dominant. Prior to 1500 CE, the two
hemispheres also had little to no contact or connection with one another. Only the Vikings
had traveled between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas, and their voyages had no lasting
impacts or influence on the Americas. After 1500 CE, the Europeans discovered the
Americas once again, uniting the two hemispheres. The Columbian Exchange brought
new animals, crops, technology, and diseases to the Americas, as well as people. All of
these occurrences and events led to an overall heightened global interconnection resulting
in new social and economic aspects as well as altering trade and ideas.
The global trade network, or interconnection between the entire world, greatly altered and
increased after 1500. Europeans discovered a route to the Indian Ocean around the Cape
of Good Hope, causing them to consequently gain some control over the Indian Ocean
trading network. The Europeans desired Indian goods but had little to offer in return, so
that they used force to acquire these commodities, thus beginning colonialism within India
and Africa. However, the Europeans already had access to these goods through less direct
routes, and therefore few aspects of trade were drastically altered in this region.
Colonialism and imperialism did increase. Little changed in the Mediterranean trading
network or the interior of Africa, so that Trans-Saharan and Mediterranean trading
networks remained prominent even after 1500 CE. The interconnection globally caused a
decrease in the importance of overland trade, such as the Silk Road, for maritime trade
was more efficient and allowed access to a greater variety of goods.
European travel and trade was simplified by the development of new navigational
instruments. These new tools include the astrolabe from the Islamic world, and improved
maps drawn up by the Europeans. New ship innovations, including the caravel, a highly
maneuverable ship, made trade easier. The Portuguese invented this. A new understanding
of weather and wind made global ocean navigation faster and easier.
Zheng He led seven voyages throughout the Indian Ocean. He had over 300 large ships,
which could transport many materials. He visited the Middle East, Africa, and India. The
purpose behind his sailing was the pursuit of respect for China by foreign civilizations.
Prince Henry, Dias, and da Gama were all Portuguese explorers trying to discover a route
to the Indian Ocean. Da Gama came across this route in 1498, around the Cape of Good
Hope. This new route gave Portugal the opportunity to create a trading post empire.
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Indian Ocean
Mediterranean
Trans-Saharan
Silk Road
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Maps, navigational
instruments, ship
building?


Zheng He
Prince Henry,
Dias, and da
Gama
Columbus
Magellan
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Columbus traveled through uncharted waters and eventually discovered present-day
America. He is famous for the linkage of the Eastern and Western hemispheres. Magellan
was a Portuguese explorer who routed the Spice Islands after navigating a route around
the entire globe.

What originally motivated
Europeans to travel across
the northern Atlantic?
Europeans were originally motivated to cross the Atlantic in search of a Northwest
Passage. This passage would make trade throughout the Indian Ocean much simpler. In
reality, the passage is a route through North America and the Arctic Ocean. In search of
this passage, Britain and France were the first major powers to send multiple explorers.
These explorers discovered cod, a species of fish that became well desired. It is found in
Greenland and the Eastern Atlantic.

What areas of the world were
largely unaffected by the new
global connections during
this period?
Oceania, or Australia and New Zealand, remained unaffected by global connections
during this time period. This is because they were islands now directly involved in any
major trading networks, and this area had not yet been viewed as valuable for colonization
in the eyes of the Europeans.

What new financial and
monetary means made the
new scale(s) of trade
possible? What previously
established scale(s) of trade
continued? a more general
answer here
New joint stock companies were established by the Dutch, which increased trade to new
levels. A joint stock company is one whose stock is partially owned by multiple countries
and shareholders. This encouraged trade, then causing the increased trading volume. It
also decreased the financial risk of overseas trade. Royal charters were in charge of
facilitating joint stock companies. Monarchs issue royal charters, which give individuals
and corporations specific rights and privileges. Due to the presence of royal charters, areas
gained the rights to coin money and establish armies. This sped up trade and made it
easier, and this continued throughout the Indian Ocean in this time period. For example,
trading routes, including the Hellenistic League in the Baltic Sea, remained.
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
Northwest
Passage
Cod?

royal charters—
joint stock
companies

Potosi
With newfound connections to the New World, European goods became unimportant and
lost value, which made the role of European merchants decrease. Because they did not
have their own goods, they became middlemen. Middlemen transported goods from
region to region. These European merchants also turned to colonization in order to allow
their own goods to compete in the Silk Road, for they were interested in possible profit
gain from them. Merchants would spend excess amounts of silver on goods, so that
Europeans had to find new sources of silver in order to pay for commodities.

Describe the overall trade
role of European merchants
c. 1450-1750.

What role did silver play in
facilitating a truly global scale Silver played a major role in the global development of commerce. After Europeans
discovered silver in Brazil, they tried to mine it quickly and effectively. Natives were
of trade?
exploited, and African slaves were traded to mine in dangerous environments in order to
be the most effective in silver production. The most well-known and productive mine is
Potosi, where the Spanish gained most of their silver, which was then traded globally.
Brazilian miners sent silver to Spain, where it was in turn traded to the Chinese. The
global scale of trade increased due to the role of silver.

What new mercantilist
financial means develop to
facilitate global trade?

What were the economic and
social effects of the Atlantic
trading system?

What were the effects of the
Columbian Exchange?
The unintentional biological
effects?
The idea of mercantilism had a prominent role in Spain. The concept was utilized to
increase exportation and decrease importation. This made Spain need to regularly monitor
their economy. It then caused countries to engage in the colonization of other areas so that
they could then engage in trading relations. An example from Spain was Brazil. Spain,
ruling its colonies in Brazil, could prohibit other countries from utilizing Brazil’s natural
resources, such as sugar. Dutch and British East India Companies facilitated trade for their
respective countries, and were successful in doing so.
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mercantilism,
Dutch and British
East India
Companies
Economically, the Atlantic trading system connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas. It
even influenced as far as China, for silver flowing from America created high demands
worldwide. In Europe, many cash crops were in demand, such as sugar and tobacco. In
Brazil and the Caribbean Islands, Europeans established many sugar plantations. These
plantations demanded large amounts of labor of labor at little cost, but because European
disease had killed the majority of the natives, slaves were imported from Africa. With
increase in crop demand and industrial size, more and more slave labor was needed. These
slaves were forcibly migrated to the Americas across the Middle Passage, during which
many died. The Europeans came to the Americas as colonists, and to run plantations. The
migration of slaves and Europeans into the Americas also created a new social order and
formed new hierarchies. Mestizos and mulattos were new races in the Americas, and the
lack of female slaves often led to interracial relationships. Peninsulars, or Europeans born
in Europe, were at the top of the social hierarchy, for they were considered the purest.
Whites born in the Americas were ranked just below the peninsulars, and were called
Creoles. Social relations also changed in Africa, as well as economic factors. Slaves,
mainly men, were largely exported from Africa. This slave trade involved increasingly
more African involvement, for Africans had to capture and sell slaves to the Europeans.
Socially, the loss of men to slavery led to increased polygamy, primarily in Western
Africa.
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Migrations
including the
Trans-Atlantic
slave trade

Smallpox, measles
The effects of the Columbian Exchange are the transferal of food and diseases between
the Old and New Worlds. It essentially connected the two hemispheres, leading to
population increase. However, American natives’ populations drastically fell due to
smallpox, which was introduced by the Europeans. Europeans contracted and were
affected by the American disease called measles.
Unintentional biological effects included the introduction of foreign species and diseases.
These species were accidentally introduced, for they may have boarded ships docked in
the Americas or in Europe. Also, diseases unintentionally were introduced to Africans and
Europeans, who were not naturally immune. The natives gave the Europeans syphilis.

European settlers wanted wood and farmland, which led to deforestation over time. They
desired to acquire this land for agricultural purposes and the cultivation of more crops,
which eventually caused soil depletion. This occurred due to the loss of soil nutrients due
to the constant use of the soil itself. Environmentally, Europeans negatively impacted the
Americas.
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Deforestation
Soil depletion
The Columbian Exchange altered the spread of religion in that Europeans brought with
them their beliefs. The Europeans came to America with three valuable things in mind:
God, gold, and glory. As these values were imprinted upon the natives, Christianity also
was. The Europeans, however, were not influenced by the Native American religions. The
main religious effect of the Columbian Exchange was the spread of Christianity to the
New World. Christianity was primarily spread and taught by missionaries from Europe.
Jesuits lived in the Americas as well, and further imprinted their religion upon the native
population. Syncretism helped the spread because it enabled further religious beliefs to
synthesize with Christian ideals. Vodun and Candomble were African religions brought to
the Americas across the Middle Passage by slaves.

Christian
missionaries
Jesuits
Vodun,
Candomble
syncretism
What effects did American
food crops have on the diet
of Afro-Eurasians…and what
demographic impact
ultimately? Why?
Manioc from America was beneficial to both Europe and Africa. Because of the high
calorie count in this crop, it was healthy and good to eat. Additionally, manioc was simple
to grow, causing an exponential population increase within Africa. Secondly, American
potatoes easily grew in Ireland. They became so common that they were regarded as the
staple crop for lower class citizens. All in all, American food crops benefited the diets of
Europeans and also caused a population increase. American foods became staples in
Europe.
How did the actions of
European settlers in the
Americas affect the region
environmentally?

How did the Columbian
Exchange affect the spread
of religions?
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Transfer of foods and animals increased exponentially throughout this time period in both
the Old World and the New World due to the Columbian Exchange. Cattle, horses, pigs,
sheep, grapes, okra, and bananas were some of the few crops carried from the Old World
to the Americas. The transfer of livestock made it simpler to grow food, which then
caused famine to decrease due to the fact that food became plentiful. This caused a
population increase. Because of the new availability of livestock, or beasts of burden, long
distance trade was simplified. From the New World to the Old World, turkeys and guinea
pigs were traded. Also, manioc, potatoes, and maize, as well as sugar, became widely
available to the Europeans from the Americas.

Overall—where did the
“universal” religions of
Buddhism, Christianity, and
Islam spread in this period?

Potatoes, maize,
manioc
Okra
Sugar
Horses, cattle
Turkeys, guinea
pigs
The transfer of foods/animals
to new geographic regions?
Discuss “new” world to “old”
AND “old” world to “new”
The universal religion of Islam was present in the Mughal Empire, which was centered in
India and ruled by Muslims. This spread Islamic influence to India. The Europeans spread
Christianity to the Americas. However, the final universal religion, Buddhism, was not
spread consistently throughout this time period. Janissaries in the Ottoman Empire were
converted to Islam at a young age.
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What other syncretic religion
developed during this
period—why?
Sikhism came about in India as a mixture of Hindu and Islamic beliefs. In came about
from the Mughal Empire, which was ruled by Muslims in India. It developed because the
Mughals governed over the majority population in India, comprised mainly of Hindus.

What major developments
occurred in the arts during
the period?
In Mughal India, the state sponsored artistic developments under Akbar, such as miniature
paintings, which were painstakingly created in schools. In Japan, woodblock moveable
type was invented, so that woodblock prints developed. Also, kabuki, a form of drama or
theatre, became prominent within Japan. A Spanish writer named Cervantes wrote one of
the first novels, entitled Ron Quixote. Additionally, writing further developed in
Mesoamerica after its conquest, for codices allowed the explanation of Aztec culture. In
Africa, griots recorded and passed down history orally so that it may be remembered by
the younger generations, such as the African Sundiata legend. Sundiata was the Lion
Prince and the founder of Mali. The Renaissance was a major arts movement in Western
Europe during the early modern period. After the Middle Ages, people started using and
experimenting with new styles, such as Greco-Roman. Artists tried to portray life more
realistically in their works. Realism and perspective were innovations of this period.
There were multiple prominent artists during the Western European Renaissance,
including Shakespeare and Michelangelo. Art shifted away from religious influence,
which had previously been very prominent, demonstrating the increase in humanistic
thinking. Humanism focused on one’s current living conditions and their individual wellbeing. This influenced art, for artists during the Renaissance started to sign their works.
The state began to use taxes to sponsor art, called the Northern Renaissance.

How did public literacy as
well as literary and artistic
forms of expression develop
during this period?
Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of
Social Organization and Modes of
Production

How and where did peasant
labor intensify during the
period?
Christianity grew and spread throughout this period, leading to increased literacy because
followers needed to be able to read the Bible. The invention of the printing press made
books more widely available and accessible to the majority of the public population, so
that literacy expanded largely. This widespread availability of books led to increased
reading, which in turn encouraged more writing of all sorts, including that of novels,
plays, and poetry. These artistic forms of expression greatly expanded in this period.
Basic education became more accessible.
Answer
Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline
Peasant labor increased in Russia, India, and China during this period. This was because
commercial agriculture had become drastically popular. This expansion directly impacted
the population growth. In India, peasants cultivated cotton, which multiple empires or
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Sikhism
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Renaissance
Mughal miniatures
Japanese
woodblock prints
Post-Conquest
codices in
Mesoamerica
Shakespeare,
Cervantes,
Sundiata, kabuki
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civilizations desired. Chinese silk production required peasants for labor, so that hard
labor was required in order to pay off inflation that was caused by the silver influx in
Spain. There was tighter control over peasants and less freedom for the workers.
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Discuss the labor system of
slavery in Africa during this
period. Traditional slavery in
Africa as well as exports of
slaves—what were the patterns
of the exportation of slaves
during this period?
Slavery has continuously been seen in labor systems of African societies. Tribes had
rivals, and when these rivals fought, prisoners of war were sold into slavery. Then, slave
trade to the Americas began during this period. In East Africa, slaves were traded through
the Indian Ocean Network. In Trans-Saharan networks, African slaves were traded
throughout the Mediterranean Sea. In West and Central Africa, slaves were sent to the
Americas through triangle trade. Many slaves were taken here before being exported to
the Americas in exchange for European guns, as well as other commodities.
How did labor systems
develop in the colonial
Americas throughout this
period?
Pay attention to
chronological development
here
After Europeans had made their home in Latin America, they started using the
encomienda labor system. This is where conquistadors and European settlers were given
land grants with natives living on it as workers. After this system failed, the hacienda
system was put into place. After this, commercial agricultural increase caused the mit’a
system to be established. This was a similar system, which was utilized before the
Europeans settled in Latin America. As this system began to disappear, indentured
servitude began to play a prominent role in the new labor system. Foreigners could not
immigrate without selling themselves for a certain period of time in order to be able to
pay to live in Latin America. Wage labor developed, in which workers sold their work via
a contract for a certain period of time. Slavery was present in the silver mines, especially
those of Brazil, as well as on many plantations.
How did the post-1450
economic order affect the
social, economic, and
political elites?
See below
After 1450, increased trade caused the merchant class to gain importance, especially in
port cities, such as Genoa. Merchants in prosperous trading cities gradually displaced the
aristocracy as influence and prestige was transferred away from the aristocracy. The
nobles lost even more power as the monarchs consolidated rule, although monarchs were
increasingly susceptible to the desires of the merchants. Wage gap continued to grow, for
the rich gained money while the poor continued to sink further into poverty.
Who were NEW elites? How
did they become so?
In China, the Manchus overtook the Ming Dynasty, therefore gaining social and political
power. The Manchus displaced the ethnic Chinese as the top of the social hierarchy.
These new elites gained power by political conquest of China. Creoles rose to become
social elites, for they were direct relatives of Europeans who had settled in Latin America.
By taking advantage of economic opportunity, the Creoles established plantations and
became economically superior. In trading cities, merchants rose to take power from the
aristocracy, partly due to increase in trade. They could pursue their own economic
interests in the urban market, and didn’t have to succumb to the demands of the
aristocracy. Monarchs also gained power from the aristocracy, and were largely
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Trans-Saharan
West/Central
Africa
East Africa
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encomienda
hacienda
wage labor
mit’a

indentured
servitude (the first
round)

slavery

Manchus in
China
Creoles in Latin
America
Urban
commercial
entrepreneurs in
trading cities


influenced by merchants in cities such as Venice.
How did the pre-existing
elites react to changes?
Discuss notable gender and
family restructuring during
the period.
Discuss the new social
hierarchy that developed in
Latin America.
Key Concept 4.3 State
Consolidation and Imperial
Expansion
 Discuss the overall role of
each--Africa, the Americas,
Asia, and Europe—in the
development of empires in
this period. An overview
here.

How did political rulers use
visual displays of power to
legitimize and consolidate
their rule. The easiest
example here is monumental
architecture. Provide at least
three specific examples of
rulers using it.
In the Mughal empire, the pre-existing elites wanted to keep power, so they attempted to
resist change. Zamindars were the aristocratic tax collectors of India, and they rebelled in
order to try to maintain power. In Europe, the nobility also tried to rebel or resist, and was
against the new elites. Daimyo in Japan, the warlord class, had been united under the
Tokugawa Shogunate, and therefore worked together in order to try to maintain political
power over the new Japanese elites.

Zamindars in the
Mughal empire,
Daimyo in
Japan, nobles in
Europe
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Peninsulars
Creoles
castas—Mestizos,
mulattos, and
many more
Between 1450 and 1750 CE, gender roles were altered. Women gained more political
power, and more female rulers arose, such as Queen Elizabeth in England. In Africa, the
slave trade also caused women to take on more roles in the place of men. Family
structures also changed in Europe, for size went down. Additionally, in Southeast Asia,
Europeans relied on natives for communication and translation, thus altering the economic
and political possibilities for women.
In Latin America, Europeans formed the top of the social hierarchy. Those born in Europe
who had come to Latin America were called peninsulars, and were regarded more highly
than Creoles, or American-born Europeans. Castas were new social designations resulting
from the intermixing of Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans. Mulattos were halfAfrican, while Mestizos were half-Indian. These new racial constructs were often
resulting from the lack of female slaves.
Answer
Concepts & Relevant Factual Examples in underline
Maritime empires were established through European efforts to establish themselves by
conquest, or through new trading relations. The land based empires of the Ottomans,
Safavids, and Mughals covered multiple regions of Europe during this time period. Also,
land empires existed in Africa, primarily in the Sudan. For example, the Mali and
Songhay empires were well established. The Russian empire additionally stretched over
great expanses, and it reached from eastern Europe as far as central Asia. China gave rise
at first to the Ming Dynasty, which later became the Qing Dynasty under Manchu
leadership.
Political rulers used visual displays of power to legitimize and consolidate their rule. One
visual display used in this period by the Aztecs was human sacrifice. Human blood and
organs were offered to gods such as Huitzilopochtli, and the crowd watching the sacrifice
saw the power display by the rulers. Monumental architecture was another method of
visual power display. In order to assert their power, rulers would order the construction of
grand buildings and various other structures. For example, Louis XIV ordered that the
Palace of Versailles be built, and the Taj Mahal was constructed under the instruction of
Mughal ruler Shah Jahan. Additionally, the Suleymaniye Mosque was built as a visual
“Facts”
display of power under Suleyman the Magnificent. Suleyman was an Ottoman leader. The
Safavid rulers also used ornate architecture to display their power.
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What role did religion play in
legitimizing political rule?
Religion was important in legitimizing political rule. In Europe, there were still multiple
divine right monarchies. The theory of divine right was that monarchs believed God
called them to rule. If anyone did not succumb to their monarch’s wishes, they were
believed to be disregarding the will of God. Religion had a prominent role in the political
governing of empires. In China, there were public Confucian rituals, which utilized the
citizens’ beliefs regarding ancestral veneration, in order to ensure the roots of the religion.
The Shi’a Muslims in the Safavid empire with their Shii’stic beliefs asserted that God
chose them to rule over the people; they called themselves God’s children. In the Aztec
empire, sacrifice was also used to rule, for leaders performed sacrificial rituals in order to
declare their loyalty to gods and the empire. Songhay adopted Islam, so that rulers
promoted the religion by their own individual practice of it. Timbuktu became a rich
Islamic city, and rulers annually traveled to Mecca.
How were ethnic and
religious minorities treated in
the following empires—nonMuslims in the Ottoman,
Manchu treatment of the
Chinese, Spanish treatment
of the natives
In many empires, minorities were not persecuted, but instead tolerated. This is because
they were economically beneficial or useful to the empire. In the Ottoman empire, nonMuslims were tolerated, for they were primarily Christian or Jewish if not Muslim. People
practicing these religions are considered dhimmi, or people of the book, and are therefore
not forced to convert due to the similarities in beliefs, and were not required to pay a head
tax. However, non-Muslims were enlisted into the Ottoman army and voluntarily
converted to Islam under a system called Devshirme. These former Muslims could rise
within the Ottoman ranks as janissaries, but never could reach the same rank as those born
Muslim. In China, the Manchus had taken over the Chinese, who were the ethnic
majority. As political rulers, the Manchus felt superior, like an elite minority. The
Manchus strictly ruled over the Chinese in almost all aspects: the economy, socially, and
culturally. Laws prohibited the marriage of Manchus and Chinese so that the people
would not intermix. When the Spanish conquered the American natives, they were
intolerant and severe. Many natives were forcibly converted. However, the Spanish also
created the Republica de Indios, where natives ruled themselves, although this was only
somewhat true. The natives were also isolated within the communities. In the Spanish
Inquisition, almost all non-Christians were heavily persecuted.
How did rulers make sure
that their governments were
well run?
Rulers used complex, talented bureaucracies in order to maintain a government that
functioned and ran smoothly. The Ottoman empire created a devshirme class, which was
composed of recruited janissaries. These were primarily Christian boys who had been
recruited at a young age and converted to Islam, and they made up the vast majority of the
military. The best janissaries were chosen to run the bureaucracy and went through
extensive training so that they could be the best possible leaders. In China, civil service
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Theory of divine
right
Safavid Shiism
Aztec human
sacrifice
Public
performance of
Confucian rituals
Songhay
promotion of Islam

Republica de
Indios
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devshirme
civil service exams
salaried samurai
exams were required so that individuals could move up in rank within the bureaucracy,
therefore filtering out the majority of the less qualified. In Japan, samurai were hired and
paid salaries by the government in return for loyalty, bravery, and honor. Their salaries
were incentive to remain loyal and effective under the government.

How did rulers finance their
territorial expansion?
In order to pay for their territorial conquest and expansion, rulers collected money from
those under them. This could be done through taxes, but money was also raised by the
collection of tribute from subjects. Ottoman rulers used tax farming, in which the state
transfers the right of collection to private individuals called tax farmers in exchange for a
certain fee. This allowed for more financial income to the government, with the funds
going towards expansion.

In this time period, what was
the relationship between
empire building and military
technology?
In this time period, empire building heavily relied on military technology. With
technological developments and advances, the Ottomans, Mughals, and Safavids were
able to dominant large areas of land. More advanced technology was advantageous to
those who had it, such as the Europeans. Because of their superior technology, the
Europeans were able to easily conquer many less advanced peoples. Technology also
greatly affected naval power and conquest, for the areas with weaker militaries could not
compete. Gunpowder, canons, and armed trade all enabled the building of empires.

What European powers
established empires in this
period? Where were they?
What was the nature of those
empires?
Spain, Portugal, Britain, France, and the Dutch all were European powers that established
empires, and these empires were all maritime, and some stretched across oceans. The
specific regions taken over by the Europeans were those most advantageous to trade,
leading to the creation of trading post empires. Spain ruled over large parts of Latin
America, as well as smaller parts in Africa and Southeast Asia. The Portuguese were in
control of Brazil and parts of Southeast Asia and Africa. The British controlled India and
large parts of North America with settler colonies along the Atlantic. France also had parts
of North America, including the majority of what is now Canada. The Dutch had the tip of
Africa, Southeast Asia, and a small portion of the Americas.

What were the major land
based empires of the period?
Where did these empires
expand?
The Mughal, Ottoman, and Safavid empires were the most prominent land-based empires
in this period. All three were Muslim gunpowder empires. The Mughal empire was in
northern India, and the Ottomans’ power stretched into the East Mediterranean. The
Safavid empire was between the Ottoman and Mughal empires.

What obstacles to empire
building did empires
confront, and how did they
respond to those
Competition and rivalries were major obstacles to empire building. Europeans powers
tried to gain colonial land overseas, and they combated for these colonies against one
another. Trade routes were also competed for. As a result, there was much piracy in the
Caribbean, for precious commodities like sugar were traded here. In the Mediterranean,
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tribute collection
tax farming
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maritime empires
trading post
empires
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Competition over
trade routes such
as piracy in the
Caribbean
challenges?
The Muslim Ottomans and Christian Europeans fought viciously against one another. This
led to piracy of one another’s ships. In continental Europe, tensions led to conflicts,
including the Thirty Years War. The Ottoman-Safavid war was caused by tension between
the Shi’a Safavid empire and Sunni Ottoman empire. All of these disputes hurt economies
of anyone remotely involved, and they cost large sums of money and destabilized the
governments. Internal revolt also posed an obstacle to empire building. Local rebellions
occurred in the Americas, for slaves wanted their freedom. Hindus rebelled against the
Mughal empire, while peasants in China revolted to cause the Taiping rebellion. The
Boxer rebellion occurred in the Qing Empire. Governments, in order to stabilize
themselves and restore order, put down rebellions. The Qing relied on Europeans to help
put down rebellions.


State rivalries like
the Thirty Years
War or the
Ottoman-Safavid
War
Local resistance
like peasant
uprisings