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“Surely, knowing about
excellence is not enough. We
must try to possess it and use
it.”
-Aristotle, The Politics, 330 B.C.
“Liberty overmasters democracy-the truth
being that excessive increase of anything
often causes a reaction in the opposite
direction; and this is the case… above all forms
of government.” –Plato, Greek Philosopher,
from The Public, 360 B.C.
“No one is prevented from being of
service to the state because of being
poor.” –Pericles, Greek leader and
general, 457 B.C.
Our administration favors the many
instead of the few; this is why it is
called a democracy…The freedom
we enjoy in our government
extends to our ordinary life…But all
this ease in our private relations do
not make us lawless citizens.
Against this, fear is our chief
safeguard, teaching us to obey the
magistrates and the laws.” –
Pericles, Greek leader and general,
quoted by the Greek historian
Thucydides on The History of the
Peloponnesian War, 431 B.C.
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The Cycladic culture began around 3000 B.C. in the Aegean Sea on about 200 islands. Most Cycladic
people made their living by fishing and trading. Others grew grapes, olives, and other crops. Highly
skilled Cycladic craft workers made pottery and small figures. After about 2000 B.C. the Cycladic culture
began to weaken, and as it did people started following the customs and traditions of the dominant, or
more powerful neighboring cultures.
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The Minoan Culture started around 2700 B.C. on a large island known as Crete. Historians names the
culture in honor of Minos, the king of Crete in Greek Mythology. A mythology is a collection of myths, or
traditional stories, handed down from generation to generation. Myths offer an explanation of how
things in nature or human events came to be. The Minoan culture began as an agricultural society, over
time farming villages grew into cites. The largest of the cities were Knossos, Phaistos, Mallia, and Kato
Zakro. Later they began to build large, richly decorated palaces, the largest was at Knossos. The Minoan
were expert sailors. They traded in lands all around the Mediterranean Sea, including Egypt. They also
had another process like this, but instead of trading goods they traded ideas. Using an idea from the
Asians, the Minoans mixed copper and tin to form bronze. They made weapons and other tools from
bronze and other unique metals also. The Minoan people also had both a counting system and a writing
system for keeping their records of trade. To count, they used a decimal system, a system based on the
number 10. Their system used pictographs written on clay tablets to stand for the sounds in words.
Many of the oldest tablets survived a great fire that destroyed nearly all the cities and palaces on Crete
in about 1450 B.C. Only the palace at Knossos remained. After the fire a group of people called the
Mycenaeans ruled Crete. By the 1100s B.C. the Minoan culture disappeared.
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The Mycenaean culture takes its name from the city of Mycenae. This city was located on the large
southern peninsula Greece called the Peloponnesus. Archaeologists believe that the settlement started
in about 1900 B.C. By the 1500s B.C. the Mycenaean became the dominant culture because of the
influence it spread throughout the Aegean region. The Mycenaean adapted the ways of the Minoan. For
example they borrowed Minoan art styles and writing. During the 1300s B.C. they built palaces in
Mycenae, Athens, Thebes, Pylos, and Tiryns. Like the Minoan the Mycenaean sailed the Mediterranean
Sea in all directions. They traveled to trade, to start new settlements, and to make war. In about 1200
B.C. the Mycenaean culture suddenly came to an end. A large earthquake destroyed many Mycenaean
settlements. A few were rebuilt, but the Mycenaeans never regained their earlier power. Some believe it
was because of weak soldiers, still others believe it was that a group of people known as the Dorians
migrated into the area from the north.
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The Trojan culture was centered in the ancient city of Troy, in Asia Minor. From as early as the 2900s
B.C., thick walls surrounded the city. Troy was located on a high point of land near the Dardanelles, a
straight that connects the Aegean Sea with the Sea of Marmara. This waterway, which separates Asia
form Europe, allowed passage to the Black Sea for trading or warfare. Troy’s location was strategic, or of
great importance. Today people can learn about Troy from the stories that are a part of world literature.
Troy is described in the Iliad and the Odyssey, epics written by the Greek poet Homer. An epic is a long
poem that tells about important events in the life of a hero or heroes. Stories about the Trojan War were
already hundreds of years old when Homer created epics in about 750 B.C. Most historians believe that
the Mycenaean invaded and destroyed Troy around 1250 B.C.
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The development of Classical Greek civilization began with the rise of city-states. City-states were
formed as people living in neighboring villages joined to protect themselves from outside dangers. Many
of these groups built walled forts for safety during enemy attacks. Each fort was usually built on a
hilltop. It was called an acropolis, which means “high city” in Greek. Over time, villages grew into cities
around the acropolis. Houses, public building, and an open-air market called an agora stood below the
acropolis. Beyond these were farmland and smaller villages. Some city-states became overcrowded and
did not have enough resources to meet everyone's needs. To ease the overcrowding, Greek colonies
were set up in southern Italy, on the island of Sicily, and in the other areas.
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The city of Sparta had an inland location on the Peloponnesian Peninsula. The inland location caused
them to establish a military economy. Their society was made up of three classes. Only males in the
ruling class were considered to be Spartan citizens. They were the descendants of the Dorians, who had
migrated to the Greek peninsula in the 1100s B.C. Helots were enslaved farm workers who were the
largest class. People feared this class because they outnumbered them 10 to 1. So the Spartan society
began to focus on their military. To prepare life as a soldier, Spartan boys started training at six or seven.
Sparta had a oligarchy where a few people from the ruling class made decisions for everyone.
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The city-sate of Athens was located on Attica, a part of the Balkan Peninsula northwest of the
Peloponnesus. After the Dark Age, Athens was ruled by an aristocracy, or a small group of leaders from
wealthy landowning families who inherit the right to rule. In 594 B.C. the Athenians asked a leader
named Solon to make reforms, or changes, in their government to end struggles. Solon divided the
Athenians into classes based on wealth and birth. Those with the most wealth became part of the ruling
class. Yet the Athenians wanted a larger role in making decisions. More reforms in 508 B.C. made the
Athenian city-state into the world’s first democracy. A democracy is a system of government in which
the people rule. A leader named Cleisthenes opened the government to all free men 18 years of age or
older, not just the wealthiest. He also created a new council. The council suggested laws for the
assembly and decided on government policies. A policy is a plan of action.
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The different city-states had a cultural identity, a connection with one another. Over time, this common
cultural identity began to help people begin to think of themselves as a single civilization. According to
the mythology, the people of all city-states shared a common ancestor. His name was Hellen, for this
reason they called their country Hellas and themselves Hellens. The Greeks believed that their god,
Zeus, controlled events both in nature and in human life. Athena was the goddess of wisdom and
warfare, Aphrodite was the goddess of love and beauty, and Hermes was the messenger of the gods. In
addition to their language, mythology, and religion, the Greeks were united by other activities. The
ancient games were held about 776 B.C. To A.D. 393. Writing also helped bring the city-sates together.
In the 700s B.C. the Greeks developed a writing system based on the one used by the Phoenician
traders. The word alphabet comes from the names of the first two Greek letters, alpha and beta. A
common mythology, religion, activities, and language helps unite the Greeks as people. It also set them
apart from others living in the Mediterranean region. The Greeks thought of themselves as different
from all other peoples. They called anyone who could not speak a barbarian. Today a barbarian is a
person who is considered uncivilized, or rough mannered.
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At the begging of 500s B.C. A common enemy brought the Greek people together for a time. The
common enemy was Persia. Citizen-soldiers from Athens met a larger Persian force on the plain of
Marathon, not far from Athens. Although the Persians had more soldiers, the well-trained Athenians
managed to defeat them in just one day of fighting. Legends about the battle tell of a messenger who
ran all the was from Marathon to Athens to report the amazing victory. Athens today re-create this run
in the marathon, a race that covers 26 miles. Then in 480 B.C. the Persians tried to attack Balkan
Peninsula, but they were met by Greek forces made up of armies and navies from many city-states,
including Athens and Sparta. They defeated the Persians once again near the island of Salamis and on
land at Plataea. City-states from Attica, Asian Minor, and some of the Aegean Islands joined Athens to
form the Delian league. A league is a group of allies.
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Athens was led by Pericles a member of the city-states wealthiest ruling class. Pericles was a relative of
Cleisthenes, who had taken away the authority from the aristocracy and given it to the city-state’s
assembly. In 460 B.C. Pericles was elected as a leader in the Athenian government. Over the next 30
years he made very important changes. He introduced pay to the public officials. Also people who were
not wealthy could serve in the government and get paid. He believed that every citizen, not just wealthy
citizens, had a right to take part in government.
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Pericles was a patron, or supporter, of learning and arts. He hired the best artists and architect to build
and decorate temples-such as the Parthenon-theaters, and other public buildings. He also supported
writers, such as Herodotus, an early historian. Sophocles wrote tragedies, or serious plays with unhappy
endings. Aristophanes chose to write comedies, or plays designed to make you laugh. During the Golden
Age, scientists studied nature and human life. One great scientist was Hippocrates, he invented the
Hippocratic oath.
Pericles wanted to make Athens “the school of Greece,” so to do this he sent out soldiers to conquer
lands of Egypt. Athens forced its allies from the Delian League to pay tribute as the price for peace and
protection. In 431 B.C. Sparta and its allies went to war against the Athens. It marked the beginning of
the Peloponnesian War. In 430 B.C. the plague, a deadly disease, broke out and spread quickly through
the city killing one-fourth of the Athenian army and Pericles himself. Without the wise leadership of
Pericles , the members of the Athenian assembly began to follow demagogues. A demagogue is a leader
who stirs up the feelings and fears of people to gain personal power. In 404 B.C. Sparta quickly replaced
the Athenian democracy with an oligarchy like its own after they surrendered.
Socrates called himself the city's “gadfly” after an insect that bites horses and makes them jump. Such
criticism annoyed the new leaders of Athens. In 399 B.C. an Athenian court found Socrates guilty of
teaching dangerous ideas to the city’s young people. The court ordered Socrates to end his own life
because Socrates felt it was important for all citizens to obey the law, so he drank the poison. One of
Socrates students was Plato. Like Socrates Plato disappointed the leaders who came after Pericles. Plato
said that a ruler should be a person of good character-someone who is wise. In 385 B.C. Plato started a
special school, or academy, in which future rulers could learn lessons. Aristotle entered Plato's
academy at the age of 18. He studied there for about 20 years. Aristotle did not agree with Plato about
the kinds of knowledge that were most important. Plato was mainly interested in how he would like
things to be. Aristotle was more interested in how things relay were. They disagreed in some areas.
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Alexander was born on 356 B.C. in Macedonia. Both Alexander's parents wanted to pass to their son
their love of Greek culture. To do this, they hired the Greek philosopher Aristotle to be Alexander's
teacher. Like his teacher, Alexander was interested in many subjects. He studied literature, philosophy,
and politics. He also trained in sports, physical fitness, and warfare. Alexander's studies ended at age 16,
when his father called him away to fight in the army. In 338 B.C. 18-year-old Alexander commanded the
cavalry, or soldiers on horseback, in Philip’s army. After the battle of Chaeronea , Philip next prepared to
invade the Persian Empire in Asia. But before he could do so, he was killed by one of his bodyguards. In
336 B.C. Philip’s rule was passed onto Alexander.
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In 334 B.C. Alexander led an army of more than 35,000 soldiers from southern Europe to Asian Minor.
An early victory over the Persians at the Granicus River gave Alexander more wealth and glory. It also led
the way to Alexander’s conquest of much of southwestern Asia. He conquered the cities along the coast
of Asian Minor all the way to Gordium in present-day turkey. A famous legend tells about Alexander’s
adventures in Gordium. King Gordius had tied a difficult knot to his chariot, stating that whoever untied
it would rule all Asia. So Alexander took the Gordian knot and cut it with his sword making him king of
the city. In 333 B.C. Alexander and his army had reached Syria. Alexander also took over the Phoenicia
port cities, Egypt, Gaugamela, the Persian cites of Babylon and Persepolis, and the Caspian Sea. It was
there at the Caspian Sea that Alexander became the most powerful ruler in southwestern Asia. He began
to be called Alexander the Great.
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Alexander ruled a wide area of land, but yet he still wanted more lands. So Alexander an his army
marched all the way tot eh Indus Valley all the way from east Persia to Bactria. Bactria is where in 327
B.C. Alexander married the Bactria princess Roxane. After a year Alexander’s army was on the move
again. They reached the upper Indus River, where Alexander planned to push from there to the Ganges
River. After reaching Babylon, Alexander was already planning more expeditions. He wanted to lead
these journeys into northern Africa and then into the Arabian Peninsula. However, in 323 B.C. Alexander
became seriously with a fever. He died shortly before his thirty-third birthday. A legend says that before
Alexander’s death, a soldier asked, “To whom will rule the great empire go?” Alexander is said to have
answered, “To the strongest!” No leader proved strong enough to replace Alexander the Great. SO his
empire quickly split into many parts, the largest of which were Egypt, Macedonia, and Syria. These three
kingdoms were often at war with one another. Even so they continued to build upon Alexander’s legacy.
A legacy is something lasting left by someone who has died.
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Alexander an his army came in contact with many different cultures. Many of the conquered peoples
learned to speak and write Greek and to follow Greek customs. For this reason the period of
Alexander’s rule was known as the Hellenistic, or “Greek-like,” Age. The Hellenistic Age was the time of
achievements. As his empire spread across eastern Europe, northern Africa, and southwestern Asia,
Alexander the Great built new cities. Many of them were named Alexandria in his honor. The cities
became centers of learning and helped spread Greek culture. In time, Alexandria, Egypt, equaled Athens
as a center of Greek culture. The huge library at Alexandria, Egypt contained more than 500,000 scrolls
of papyrus. The goal of its librarians was to collect every text in the world! Connected to the library was
a building known as the Museum. There scholars, or seekers of knowledge, wrote books and exchanged
ideas. Today museums are places that preserve history and offer learning to all people.