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Botany for Arborists Jim Downer [email protected] 805 645 1458 805-645-1458 http://ceventura.ucdavis.edu L d Landscape N Notes t Many of the slides in this presentation are from Raven, Evert and Eichhorn, 2005. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York ISBN 0-7167-1007-2, Botany? Arborists? Why??? • Professionalism • Knowledge of how plants (especially trees) function • This lecture introduces the article series b i published being bli h d iin each h iissue off W Western t Arborist. Botany is not not… • • • • • • Horticulture Plant pathology S il science Soil i Entomology Geology or Biology Botany is is… • • • • • Nomenclature Taxonomy A t Anatomy and d morphology h l Physiology Genetics and reproduction How we present information • “Its Its big, its green, its bushy! Look at all these sprouts! It’s a healthy tree!” • Your tree is large it has a dense canopy, leaf retention is above average average. Your tree appears healthy! • It I comes down d to NOMENCLATURE Nomenclature • International Code of Botanical nomenclature – – – – – A stable method of naming all plants Avoids useless creation of names Provides grammatical correctness of names Establishes starting dates for all names Always in Latin • Genus: generic name is a noun (singular) • Species: specific epithet is an adjective Rules of Nomenclature • • • • • Linnaeus Fragmenta botanica (1736) ( ) Critica botanic (1737) Philosophia botanica (1751) Priority: the concept that the first validly proposed name has priority over all others • Theorie elementaire de la botanique (1813) • First Fi International I i l Botanical B i l Congress C (1867) (186 ) • American Code (1892-1910) Genera are named for: • People: Lewissia, Clarkia (for Lewis and Clark) • Greek+Latin words: Helianthus from helio, sun; anthos,, flower. • Some without meaning: Alnus- Alder Iberia Spain; Idahoa, Idahoa Idaho • Based on location: Iberia, • Anagrams: Lobivia, Bolivia; Legenere, E.L. G ee e Greene Type specimen of the angiosperm P d d Podandrogyne fformosa which is found in Costa Rica and western Panama. This specimen was collected by Theodore S. Cochrane and described b hi by him iin a paper published in the journal Britonnia 30:405-410 in 1978. Terminations G d Genders must agree • Eriogonum polypodum polypodum, Eucalyptus globulus, Sinningia leucotricha • Gender of the specific eptithet always determined by the gender of the generic name • Trees, Trees no matter the generic termination are always have a feminine ending • Terminations can be for people – Clarkia dudleyana for William Dudley (1849-1911) Scientific Names always l iinclude l d authorships h hi • Sanicula marilandica L. L • Things can change – Erigeron Ei canadensis d i L. L tto Conyza C canadensis d i (L.) Cronquist Division Magnoliophyta Takht., Cronquist & W. Zimm. ex Reveal, 1996 Class Magnoliopsida Brongn., 1843 Subclass MagnoliidaeNovák ex Takht., 1967 Superorder Magnolianae Takht., 1967 Order Magnoliales Bromhead, 1838 S b d Magnoliineae Suborder M lii E l 1898 Engl., Family Magnoliaceae Juss., 1789 Subfamily Magnolioideae (Juss.) Arn., 1832 Genus Magnolia L., L 1753 Species virginiana L., 1753 Type: Clifford Herbarium 222 Magnolia No. 1 (BM) How do you correctly write a plant name? ? • • • • Genus and species Italics, or underline G Genus capitalized it li d species i nott Authorities Capsicum annuum L. L How are trees put together? • Cells • Tissues (Epidermal, ground, vascular) • Organs O – Roots – Stems – Leaves – Flowers or cones Robert Hooke, ca 1670, first used the simple microscope To discover the cellular nature of cork. Hooke’s Cork Cell Functions • A. Serves as the structural building block to form tissues and organs • B. Each cell is functionally independent- it can live on its own under the right conditions 1 it can d 1. define fi itits b boundaries d i and d protect t t ititself lf ffrom external t l changes causing internal changes 2. it can use sugars to derive energy for different processes which keep it alive 3 it contains 3. t i allll th the iinformation f ti required i d ffor replicating li ti ititself lf and interacting with other cells in order to produce a multicellular organism 4. It is even possible to reproduce the entire plant from almost l t any single i l cellll off th the plant l t Plant cells cells- the basic building blocks. • • • each cell is approximately 1/101/10 1/100th of a millimeter long cells can specialize in form and function to provide certain specialized functions to p the whole plant Each cell can live on its own under y working g certain conditions- however, by together they provide a way to survive in more varied conditions Types of Cells • A. Prokaryotic cells- eg. bacteria 1 very simple-there 1. i l th are no organelles ll and d mostt everything functions in the cytoplasm • B. Eukaryotic cells 1 allll contain 1. t i th the organelles ll th thatt subcompartmentalize the cell 2. includes unicellular algae and protists (e.g. amoeba) that live alone or in colonies 3. includes multicellular organisms - animals, plants, fungi - where cells work together a. p plant cells are unlike animal cells in that plant cells have chloroplasts and cell walls. Animal cells have neither of these. Plant cells also have relatively large vacuoles. Escherichia coli N l l Nucleolus Nucleus Chromatin DNA + Histones Mitochondria Chloroplasts Vacuole Tree Cells • Trees are made of cells • Cells can not be “healed” produce new • Trees p cells in new locations to cover over wounds (A Shi (A. Shigo)) Tree growth • Is fundamentally different from animal growth. • Animal g growth is determinate; an animal embryo y develops p into a young animal, then an adult. In other words, the overall shape of the adult animal is genetically determined from its earliest developmental stages. Once an animal has become an adult, it may become heavier or fatter, but it will not become larger. • Tree growth is often indeterminate; even an adult plant retains tiny regions of embryonic tissue called meristems that are capable of developing into new parts of the plant plant. Although the plant does grow according to a set of rules (similar to a fractal), the tree is growing new shoots and roots for as long as it is alive. Thus the ultimate exact shape of the tree is not determined in advance, and the growth is said to be indeterminate indeterminate. • Ultimately growth is made by dividing cells! Mitosis • Four major phases: prophase, metaphase, anaphase p and telophase. p • Prophase: chromatin condenses into chromosomes. Sister chromatids are joined at the h centromere. P Prophase h ends d with i h di dissolution l i of the nuclear membrane and nucleolus. Prophase is the longest phase of mitosis mitosis. • Metaphase: development of the mitotic spindle and the kinetochore. Polar microtubules and kinetochore microtubules are clearly formed. Chromosomes line up on the equatorial plane or metaphase plate plate. Tree Growth • Meristems are regions g of embryonic y tissue capable of growing into new plant parts. Meristems are found in both roots and shoots. – Primary meristems make the shoot or root grow longer. This kind of growth is called primary growth. • A shoot apical meristem is found within each bud. • A root apical p meristem is found at the tip p of each root, and is protected by the root cap. – Secondary meristems make the stem or root grow larger in diameter. This kind of growth is called secondary d growth. th N Nott allll ki kinds d off plants l t are capable bl of secondary growth. Secondary growth gives rise to wood, and plants that are not capable of secondary growth do not develop wood wood. Plant tissues • Unlike animals, the major organs of plants (roots, stems, and leaves) are all composed of the same three tissues (epidermis, vascular tissues, and ground tissues) tissues). Each tissue carries out the same fundamental activities throughout the plant. Three types of tissues • • – Epidermis - the exchange of matter between the plant and the environment environment. • • – Vascular tissues - the transport p of water and dissolved substances inside the plant • • – the xylem carries water and dissolved ions from the roots to stems and leaves the phloem carries dissolved sugars from the leaves to all other parts of the plant Ground tissues - metabolism, storage, and support activities • • • • • the epidermis on aboveground organs (leaves and stems) is involved with gas exchange the epidermis on belowground organs (roots) is involved with water and ion uptake the ground tissue of the leaf (called mesophyll) uses the energy in sunlight to synthesize sugars in a process known as photosynthesis the ground tissue of the stem (called pith and cortex) develops support cells to hold the young plant upright the ground tissue of the root (also called cortex) often stores energy- rich carbohydrates Growth of plant tissues give rise to complicated structure Tree Structure Tissues give rise to organs that comprise the structure of the tree • Shoots – Shoots are made of leaves attached to a stem. Leaves (singular; plural is leaves) – Leaves are often the primary site of photosynthesis. • Stems – Holds leaves, transports and stores water and nutrients and is sometimes photosynthetic. nutrients, photosynthetic • Roots • -- --- Anchorage, supports the stem Absorption of water and minerals Storage of sugars Buds Buds can develop into new shoots. Buds are named according di to t where h they th occur on th the shoot. h t E Each h shoot h t has an apical bud at the tip of the shoot, as well as an axillary bud associated with each leaf. – Apical Bud • The apical bud is found at tip (or "apex") of the shoot. • This is the point from which the shoot will grow. – Axillary a y Buds uds • The angle between the leaf and stem is called the axil. • There is normally a bud in the axil of each leaf • Axillary buds are of elongating into a new shoot (a branch). Therefore there will be a leaf (or a leaf scar) below each branch on a stem. In trees the leaf scars disappear over time, but on young branches of trees the leaf scars are easy to find. Other kinds of buds • Adventitious buds • Latent Buds – Lead to epicormic shoots Bud Anatomy • Apical Meristem • Leaf primordia • procambium Leaves organs of photosynthesis • Relate anatomy of leaf to its primary function of photosynthesis – • carbon dioxide + water -------> > sugar + oxygen Major tissues of the leaf – Epidermis • • – Mesophyll • • – Site of photosynthesis Air spaces between cells for gas exchange to each cell Veins • • • • • Transparent- light goes right through Transparent (a) Main function - protects against drying out (cuticle) (b) Stomata with guard cells Function- gas exchange, especially common on lower epidermis Xylem- water conduction Phloem- food conduction Bundle sheath- one or more layers of fiber cells surrounding a vein; strengthens vein to support leaf Branching extensive in veins- no mesophyll cell is far from a vein Transpiration- loss of water vapor Abscission leaf fall Abscission- Leaf Anatomy • • • • • • Blade or lamina Petiole Stipule Leaf Arrangement Leaf phyllotaxy Leaf types Compound Leaves • Pinnate • Palmate • Once, O twice t i thrice th i Maple Ginko Peach Leaf Arrangement or Phyllotaxy Inside the leaf Stomata • Stomata a site of transpiration (water vapor loss) • Generally more on the bottom of the leaf than the top Mineral Nutrition • Leaves are the window into a plant’s plant s mineral nutrient status • Macro:N,P,K,S,Ca, Macro:N P K S Ca Mg • Micro:Fe,Zn,B,Mn, Mi F Z BM Ni,Cl, Cu, Mo, Stems and Branches • Buds lead to the p of branches development and main stems • Health and vigor can be determined by the amount of growth observed between buds • Twigs lead to branches and branches lead to the need for pruning Stems • Functions of Stems – Support leaves and fruits – Conduction of water and sugars throughout plant – Storage of sugars or starch Tissues of stem • Epidermis – – • Protection P t ti Cuticle to conserve moisture Cortex – – – – • Store food Photosynthesis (when stem is green) Some support cells pith to store food Xylem – – • Conduction of water and minerals Second function - has strong g supporting pp g cells ((fibers)) Phloem – – Conduction of sugars, hormones, phytochemicals Second function - storage Stems with secondary growth • Devleopment of the vascular cambium is unique to woody plants • The pith gets crushed • It all starts with the Shoot Apical M i Meristem Buds give rise to all the cells that will eventually t ll d develop l wood d wood • If for no other reason a tree is a tree because of its wood. Wood Phloem<> oe ---XYLEM---------------------------- Oak Wood Sections Pine rs xs ts Carob Quercus Hardwoods Oak Hardwoods, Oak, willow willow, basswood • Major cell type in the xylem is the vessel element • They are huge, round, thin walled, hundreds of times larger than trachieds. Conifers Pines, Conifers, Pines cedar etc • Major cell type in the xylem is the trachied. • These are narrow thick walled and long • Trachieds can intergrade into fiber t hi d and trachieds d fib fibers. Conifer wood Tilia americana (basswood) a ring i porous wood d Basswood: ring porous The strategy for palms monocots!! Reaction Wood Bottom of tree Compression wood (Shigo) Wood Reacts • • • • To internal defects To pruning wounds To insects To forces that pull or push on stems • To gravity Natural Target Pruning 35o 32o ~35o Not So Good Cuts 25o Bad cuts fl h cuts flush >35o 44o Included bark Dealing with codominance A philosophy of pruning • Pruning should accomplish predetermined goals while striving to limit the formation of d decay columns l within ithi the tree’s major branches and stems stems. Root • The root anchors the plant in the soil, absorbs water and mineral nutrients from the soil soil, and often serves for storage storage. Roots are underground, so people don't think very much about them, but they are very important. Branch Roots • • – – • Roots do not have leaves or axillary buds Branch roots emerge from the inside of the root Root Hairs – – • Absorption Ab ti Found just behind growing tip of root Root Cap – – Protects the delicate tip of the root as it grows through the soil. Found in front of the root apical meristem. Roots • Functions – – – – • Anchorage Absorption of water and dissolved minerals Storage g ((surplus p sugars g transported p from leaves)) Conduction Epidermis – Single layer of cells for protection (from disease organisms) and absorption (water and dissolved minerals) – Root hairs- tubular extensions of epidermal p cells • • • short lived greatly increase surface area of root, in contact with soil confined largely to the region of maturation of the root Roots • • Cortex – Store starch and other substances – Contain numerous intercellular spaces - air spaces essential for aeration of the root cells (for cellular respiration) Xylem – Conducts water and dissolved minerals – composed of • a) vessels: tube tube-like like structures composed of hollow elongate cells (vessel members) placed end-to-end and connected by perforations • a)) tracheids: elongated g conducting g and supporting pp g cells with tapering and pitted walls without perforations – – Upward movement caused by transpiration from the leaves aided by the properties of water: polarity of water molecules, cohesion of water molecules to each other, adhesion to xylem cell walls V Very rapidid 2 ffeet/ t/ minute i t Roots • Phloem – – Conducts food (dissolved sugar) Phloem composed of sieve elements (sieve tube members, companion cells) • • • Sieve tube is a series of sieve tube members arranged end-to-end and interconnected by sieve plates Movement of sugars up or down through plasmodesmata of sieve elements One inch/ minute Roots and Root systems Root Anatomy • There are many kinds of root systems • Some root systems y have no hair roots • Ecto and Endomycorrhizae change the root appearance Mycorrhizae Root Development Roots have some unique structures • Pericycle – Endodermis • Cortex Metasequoia • Root showing secondary growth • Pith is gone and crushed. Secondary STEM, note annual rings phloem differentiation. differentiation Plant Physiology • Plants are p photosynthetic y -- theyy g gather their food energy gy directly from sunlight • To perform photosynthesis, plants need to have a supply of: – – – – Sunlight Carbon dioxide gas from the atmosphere Water Mineral nutrients • During photosynthesis, plants release Oxygen, but they need to use oxygen at night and in parts of the plant (like the roots) that do not perform photosynthesis. photosynthesis • The structure of a plant is adapted to gathering the things that the plant needs. Physiology y gy • Photosynthesis – (6C02 +24H20 + light C6H12O6 +6O2+18H20) – 3CO2 +6H 6H2O + light li ht C3H6O3 + 3O2 +3H 3H2O • Respiration – C6H12O6 + 6O2 6C02 + 6H20 +Chem E + Heat • Transpiration T i ti – Water loss from plant surfaces due to Ps • Guttation – Water loss from plant surfaces due to Rs • Hormonal regulation of plant growth – Auxins, cytokinins, gibberelin, ethylene, abscisic acid – http://www.emc.maricopa.edu/faculty/farabee/BIOBK/BioBookPLANTH ORM.html Uptake Solute movement • Symplastic • Apoplastic movement movement Cohesion C h i tension theory of water movement Driving force for water movement is at the h lleaf! f! Plant Reproduction • • • • • • • • Asexual Reproduction B Because plant l growth h iis iindeterminate, d i each h meristem i can potentially develop into a complete plant. This means that it is very easy to clone plants, and many plants can grow from cuttings or broken plant parts. This is asexual reproduction (also called vegetative t ti reproduction). d ti ) Sexual Reproduction Alternation of Generations - plant sexual reproduction is unusual, and involves an alternation between two partially independent life stages. We will discuss this later in the course. Flowers are special reproductive structures found in the Flowering Plants (=Angiosperms) A flower fl is i a specialized i li d shoot, h t adapted d t d for f sexuall reproduction. d ti A fruit develops from a flower following fertilization. Other plants perform sexual reproduction, but do not use flowers, and do not form fruit. fruit Flowers • Zygomorphic – One line of symmetry • Actinomorphic – Radial symmetry • Perfect vs imperfect • Hypogynous, yp gy Perigenous, g Epigenous pg Lychee flowers Male female p both hermaphrodidic Fruit • Four types – Simple (Berry, Drupe) • Dehiscent (legume, (legume follicle) • Indehiscent (achene caryopsis, nut) – Aggregate (multiple drupes/drupelets) from a single flower (blackberry) – Multiple p ((pineapple, mullberry) y) manyy flowers per fruit – Accessory (pome, pepo, bannana) contain tissues derived from parts other than the ovary Seeds http://www.leubner.ch/anatomy.html Seeds cont. cont Seedlings • Are sensitive to attack by fungi insects, fungi, insects bacteria etc. • May require breakage of dormancy How a seed germinates Germinated