Download The Maghreb (Al-Maghrib): From the Sea to the Sahara

ROMAN AFRICA:
From the Sea to the Sahara,
From LiBYA to MoROCCO
and From NUMIDIAN BERBERS to
Conquering ARABs
Lady Africa, El Djem, Tunisia
Ancient and Modern Regions of the Maghreb
(Coastal and Western North Africa)
• Mauretania
– Tingitana
– Caesariensis
– Sitifensis
•
•
•
•
•
Numidia
Africa Proconsularis
Byzacena
Tripolitania
Cyrenaica
• Morocco
(especially)
• Algeria
• Tunisia
• Libya
Theatre at Dougga, ca 169 CE
Peoples and periods of the Magrib: An
Ancient “Melting Pot”
• Indigenous people = Berbers (from the Latin: “barbarus,” meaning foreign and
speaking a strange speech, Engl., “Barbarian”); Libyan peoples; Mauri in Morocco
• Punic or Semitic peoples, Phoenicians (Carthage founded ca. 814 BCE)
• Roman, Latin-Speakers (African colonies established following the Punic Wars (263146 BCE)
– Carthage fell to the Romans in 146 BCE
– Colony of Africa established under Julius Caesar, ca. 40 BCE
• Vandals (Germanic tribes migrating from the North, most immediately from Spain,
ca. 430-540)
• Greeks (following the Byzantine/Roman “reconquest” – 534- 703)
• Arabs (beginning in the 640s, with the fall of Carthage in 698) – by ca. 700, the
whole region was under the control of the Umayyads
• Resistance from Morocco to Umayyad rule, beginning of Islamic independent
kingdom of the Idrissids in Fez (Idriss I) in 792
The Punic Period:
Queen Dido Sacrificing, Vatican Virgil
Punic House, Kerkouane, Cape Bon, 330-260 BCE
Thuburbo Maius (Tunisia), Capitolium
Bulla Regia, Tunisia
House of Amphitrite,
first half 3rd cen.
Famous Generals and Rulers
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•
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•
Hannibal (247-182 BCE)
King Massinissa (Numidia) – d. 148 BCE
King Jugurtha (Massinissa’s grandson)
Juba I (crushed by Julius Caesar, 46 BCE)
Juba II (Augustus’ client king of Mauretania married to
Cleopatra Selene, daughter of Mark Antony and
Cleopatra)
• Septimius Severus (first African Emperor of Rome)
• Dihya Al-Kahina (woman warrior and leader of the
Berbers against the invading Arabs)
King Juba I
d. 46 BCE
Cleopatra Selene II and Juba
II, Rulers of Mauretania
ca. 30 BCE
Mauretanian Royal Tomb, Algeria
Septimius
Severus, Julia
Domna, and
Caracalla
(Geta erased)
Gods and Religions of AFRICA
• Native Gods, Numidian/Berber/Libyan pantheon
• Phoenician Gods (e.g., Ba’al and Tanit, later Romanized as
Saturn and Caelestis or Juno)
• Roman Polytheism (Liber Pater, Magna Mater, Jupiter, Juno,
Minerva, Venus, Hercules, Neptune)
• Judaism
• Christianity
– Roman (188-430/35)
– Vandal (Arian 430s - 540)
– Greek (534 – ca. 700 Byzantine – Carthage fell in 698)
• Islam (698 – present)
Tophet, Carthage
Sufetula, Forum, Temples to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva
Sacrificial Altar, Djemila, Algeria
Ecclesia Mater Mosaic, Tabarka, Christian Cemetery Church
Christian Baptismal Font from Kelibia, Tunisia
Great Mosque, Kairouan, Tunisia, 670 CE
Famous Poets, Philosophers,
Historians and Theologians
• Publius Terentius Afer (Terence - Latin playwright –
185-160 BCE)
• Marcus Cornelius Fronto (100-170, tutor to Marcus
Aurelius)
• Apuleius (125- 180 CE) – “The Golden Ass”
• Tertullian (late 2nd cen)
• Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (d. 258)
• Lactantius (tutor to Emperor Constantine’s son,
Crispus)
• Augustine, Bishop of Hippo (d. 430)
St. Augustine
of Hippo,
attributed to
Caravaggio
ca. 1600
Timgad, Algeria
The Bread Basket of the Roman Empire
Country Estate, Africa Proconsularis
Amphitheatre, El Djem, Tunisia
Bardo Museum, 2-3rd cen.
Races at Carthage
Races at Gafsa, 6th cen.
Now in the Bardo Museum
Gladiator in Combat,
Thelepte, 3rd cen.
Now in Bardo Museum
Bestiarii at work – from Smirat, now in the Sousse Museum (2nd cen)
Lady Africa, El
Djem, Tunisia
Christian Controversies in Roman
Africa
• Tertullian and the New Prophecy (Late Second
and Early Third Century)
• Cyprian and the Unity of the Bishops (Middle
Third Century)
• Donatus and the Purity of the Clergy (Fourth
and Early Fifth Century)
• Pelagius and the Power of Human Will (Early
Fifth Century)
• Only the first three are directly linked to
Christian Practice
The New Prophecy
• The Paraclete and Counselor that Christ promised in
John 14:25 & 16:7-13 had finally arrived and
inspired prophets with new teaching.
• The change was in new practices that were more
rigorous.
– No reconciliation for serious post-baptismal sin
• Especially idolatry, adultery, murder
– Only one marriage in a life-time; marriage continues
forever
– Fasting lasting until sundown, without food or drink
• Only those following the New Prophecy have power
to forgive (but do not use it)
– Not bishops, in virtue of their office (Matt 16:19)
– Not martyrs, in virtue of their witness and intercession
(Rev 6:9-11)
Cyprian and the Unity of the Bishops
• The Fallen in the Decian Persecution (250-51)
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–
–
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The Sacrificers and the Certified
Exclusion from Communion: could they be readmitted?
Limits of Bishop’s Power and Authority
Intercession of the Confessors and Martyrs
• Laxist Presbyters offered Communion to Fallen
– Appeal to authority of the Martyrs
• Cyprian argued that only Bishops in unity have power
and authority to sanctify by forgiving sins
– In rituals of baptism, eucharist, reconciliation
– Power (Holy Spirit) given by Christ to “college” of bishops
(John 20:22-23
– Only Faithful Bishops, in unity have power to sanctify
– Martyrs can intercede at Judgment by Christ; not in church
Cyprian and Rebaptism
• Laxist Presbyters who accepted the Fallen set up
their own College of Bishops
– Claimed that they also had the power to sanctify
– Objected to the rigor of Cyprian
• Cyprian and his colleagues rebaptized Converts
baptized by Laxists
– Only Bishops in unity could baptize
– Only Bishops who were faithful could hold and exercise
power to sanctify (gift of Holy Spirit)
– Baptism (and Eucharist) performed outside the unity
were useless.
• Cyprian met with disagreement in Rome and Africa
– Efficacy of Sacraments depended on God not Bishop
Donatist Schism
• Diocletian Persecution (303-304 in Africa)
required Bishops to turn over sacred books and
vessels
– Some Bishops refused and were executed
– Some Bishops capitulated or dissembled
• Conflict over status of Caecilian of Carthage
(312-336)
– Charge that he had been ordained by failed bishop
– Donatus made competing bishop of Carthage
• Appeals to Constantine to settle conflict
– Trials in Rome and at Arles supported Caecilian
– Constantine attempted to force unity 317-321
Expansion of Donatist Schism
• Donatist church was isolated in Africa
– All Bishops had to be free of crime of apostasy
• Only the faithful could have Holy Spirit and could sanctify
– Acceptance of an apostate Bishop incriminated other
Bishops
• The entire church had become unfaithful by tolerating Caecilian
and his colleagues
– Donatist were the only Holy Church
– Rebaptize converts from Caecilianist church
• “Catholic” Bishops rejected Donatist charges and
theory
– The efficacy of sacramental ministry depends on Christ
– Unfaithful bishops harm only themselves; should be
removed
– Converts from Donatist church are not rebaptized
Attempts to Resolve Division
• Constantine (317-321) attempted to suppress
through nonlethal force
• Constans leader (345-47) used incentives and exile
of leaders
– Julian allowed leaders to return from exile in 362
• Theodosius & Honorius (392–
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More aggressive bishops on both sides
Donatists supported some revolts against emperors
Privileging of Christians over traditional pagans
Honorius began treating Donatists as deviants
Catholics make concessions for acceptance of Donatist
clergy
– Colloquy of Carthage (June 411); imperial suppression
of Donatists through fines and confiscation of property