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Geography Skills Handbook
How Do I Study Geography?
G
eographers have tried to understand the best way to teach and learn about geography.
In order to do this, geographers created the Five Themes of Geography. The themes
acted as a guide for teaching the basic ideas about geography to students like yourself.
People who teach and study geography, though, thought that the Five Themes were too
broad. In 1994, geographers created 18 national geography standards. These standards were
more detailed about what should be taught and learned. The Six Essential Elements act as a
bridge connecting the Five Themes with the standards.
These pages show you how the Five Themes are related to the Six Essential Elements and
the 18 standards.
5
Themes of Geography
1 Location
Location describes where something is. Absolute
location describes a place’s exact position on the
Earth’s surface. Relative location expresses where
a place is in relation to another place.
2 Place
Place describes the physical and human
characteristics that make a location unique.
3 Regions
Regions are areas that share
common characteristics.
4 Movement
Movement explains how and why people and
things move and are connected.
5 Human-Environment
Interaction
Human-Environment Interaction describes
the relationship between people and their
environment.
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Themes and Elements
6
Essential Elements
I. The World in Spatial Terms
Geographers look to see where a place is located. Location
acts as a starting point to answer “Where Is It?” The location
of a place helps you orient yourself as to where you are.
II. Places and Regions
Place describes physical characteristics such as landforms,
climate, and plant or animal life. It might also describe
human characteristics, including language and way of life.
Places can also be organized into regions. Regions are places
united by one or more characteristics.
III. Physical Systems
Geographers study how physical systems, such as
hurricanes, volcanoes, and glaciers, shape the surface of
the Earth. They also look at how plants and animals depend
upon one another and their surroundings for their survival.
IV. Human Systems
People shape the world in which they live. They settle
in certain places but not in others. An ongoing theme in
geography is the movement of people, ideas, and goods.
18
Geography Standards
1
2
3
How to use maps and other tools
4
The physical and human characteristics
of places
5
How people create regions to interpret
Earth’s complexity
6
How culture and experience influence
people’s perceptions of places and regions
7
8
9
The physical processes that shape Earth’s surface
VI. The Uses of Geography
Knowledge of geography helps us understand the
relationships among people, places, and environments
over time. Applying geographic skills helps you understand
the past and prepare for the future.
How to analyze the spatial organization of people,
places, and environments
The distribution of ecosystems on Earth’s surface
The characteristics, distribution, and migration
of human populations
10
11
The complexity of Earth’s cultural mosaics
12
13
14
The patterns of human settlement
15
16
How physical systems affect human systems
17
18
How to apply geography to interpret the past
V. Environment and Society
How does the relationship between people and their natural
surroundings influence the way people live? Geographers
study how people use the environment and how their
actions affect the environment.
How to use mental maps to organize information
The patterns and networks of economic
interdependence
The forces of cooperation and conflict
How human actions modify the physical
environment
The meaning, use, and distribution of resources
How to apply geography to interpret the present
and plan for the future
GH1
Contents
Globes and Maps (p. GH3)
• From 3-D to 2-D
• Great Circle Routes
Projections (p. GH4)
• Planar Projection
• Cylindrical Projection
• Conic Projection
Common Map Projections (p. GH5)
• Winkel Tripel Projection
• Robinson Projection
• Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area
Projection
• Mercator Projection
Determining Location (p. GH6)
• Latitude
• Longitude
• The Global Grid
• Northern and Southern Hemispheres
• Eastern and Western Hemispheres
Reading a Map (p. GH8)
• Using Scale
• Absolute and Relative Location
Physical Maps (p. GH10)
Political Maps (p. GH11)
Thematic Maps (p. GH12)
• Qualitative Maps
• Flow-Line Maps
Geographic Information
Systems (p. GH13)
Geographic Dictionary (p. GH14)
GH2 Geography Handbook
Geography
Skills Handbook
Throughout this text, you will discover how geography
has shaped the course of events in United States
history. Landforms, waterways, climate, and natural
resources all have helped or hindered human activities.
Usually people have learned either to adapt to their
environments or to transform it to meet their needs.
The resources in this handbook will help you get the
most out of your textbook—and provide you with
skills you will use for the rest of your life.
The study of geography is more than knowing a lot of facts about places.
Rather, it has more to do with asking questions about the Earth, pursuing
their answers, and solving problems. Thus, one of the most important geographic tools is inside your head: the ability to think geographically.
Geography Handbook
Globes and Maps
Teach
A globe is a scale model of the Earth. Because Earth is round, a globe
presents the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as
area, distance, and direction. However, globes show little close-up
detail. A printed map is a symbolic representation of all or part of the
planet. Unlike globes, maps can show small areas in great detail.
D Differentiated
Instruction
Visual/Spatial Use an orange
From 3-D to 2-D
Think about the surface of the Earth as the
peel of an orange. To flatten the peel, you have
to cut it like the globe shown here. To create
maps that are not interrupted, mapmakers, or
cartographers, use mathematical formulas to
transfer information from the three-dimensional
globe to the two-dimensional map. However,
when the curves of a globe become straight lines
on a map, distortion of size, shape, distance, or
area occurs.
globe accurately shows a great circle route,
as indicated on the map below. However, as
shown on the flat map, the great circle distance
(dotted
line)
between Tokyo
North
Pole
and Los Angeles
appears to be far
le Route
at Circ
longer than the true
Los
Gre
Angeles
Tokyo
direction distance
N
(solid line). In fact,
W
E
D the great circle disS
tance is 345 miles
(555 km) shorter.
C Critical Thinking
N
W
Circle Distan
eat
Gr 2 mi. (8,807 ce
E
S
Tokyo
7
5,4
km
)
Los Angeles
True Direction Distance
5,787 mi. (9,313 km)
Great Circle Routes
A straight line of true direction—one that runs
directly from west to east, for example—is not
always the shortest distance between two points.
This is due to the curvature of the Earth. To find
the shortest distance, stretch a piece of string
around a globe from one point to the other. The C
string will form part of a great circle, an imaginary line the follows the curve of the Earth. Ship
captains and airline pilots use these great circle
routes to reduce travel time and conserve fuel.
The idea of a great circle route is an important
difference between globes and maps. A round
to illustrate the challenges of
transferring measurements from
a three-dimensional to a twodimensional form. Sketch an outline of the continents and two or
three lines of longitude and latitude onto an orange. Then carefully remove the peel (in one
piece, if possible) and gently flatten it. Allow students to examine
the peel, and point out how lines
and shapes are distorted when
the curved peel is flattened. OL
Making Inferences Have students use a piece of string and a
globe to find the shortest route
from New York to Hong Kong.
(over the top of the globe) OL
Practicing SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: globe, map, cartographer,
great circle route.
2. Describe the problems that arise when the curves of
a globe become straight lines on a map.
3. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the
similarities and differences between globes and maps.
Globes
Maps
Geography Handbook GH3
Answers
1. globe: scale model of the Earth; map: symbolic representation of all or part of the
planet; cartographer: mapmakers; great
circle route: routes that follow the great
circle along the curve of the Earth
2. Size, shape, distance, or area becomes
distorted.
3. Globes present the most accurate depiction of geographic information such as
area, distance, and direction, but do not
show close-up detail. Maps are symbolic
representations of all or part of the planet
and can show areas in great detail. Both
show information about places on the
Earth.
GH3
Geography Handbook
Projections
C Critical Thinking
Identifying Central Issues
Ask: Why do map makers use
projections? (Projections help in
transferring information from a
three-dimensional surface to a twodimensional surface.) OL
D Differentiated
Instruction
Kinesthetic If students are
struggling with the concept of
projection, give them a large
sheet of paper or poster board
and a globe. Have students place
the paper and the globe in the
same physical relationships shown
in the illustrations. Check to make
sure students can visualize how
each projection offers a different
approximation of the sphere. BL
To create maps, cartographers project the round Earth onto a flat
surface — making a map projection. Distance, shape, direction, or size
C may be distorted by a projection. As a result, the purpose of the map usually dictates which projection is used. There are many kinds of map projections, some with general names and some named for the cartographers
who developed them. Three basic categories of map projections are shown
here: planar, cylindrical, and conic.
Planar Projection
A planar projection shows the Earth centered
in such a way that a straight line coming from
the center to any other point represents the
shortest distance. Also known as an azimuthal
projection, it is most accurate at its center. As a
result, it is often used for maps of the Poles.
EQ
UA
TOR
Cylindrical Projection
A cylindrical projection is based on the projec-
D tion of the globe onto a cylinder. This projection
EQUATOR
is most accurate near the Equator, but shapes
and distances are distorted near the Poles.
Conic Projection
A conic projection comes from placing a cone
over part of a globe. Conic projections are best
suited for showing limited east-west areas that
are not too far from the Equator. For these uses,
a conic projection can indicate distances and
directions fairly accurately.
Differentiated
Instruction
GH4 Geography Handbook
Activity: Creating a Graphic Organizer
Visual/Spatial To help students remember
the several different categories and examples
of maps discussed in this section, guide them in
creating a graphic organizer entitled “Types of
Maps.” Branching this main head should be
three boxes labeled “Political,” “Physical,” and
GH4
“Special-Purpose.” Have students complete the
organizer by taking notes on each of the different types of maps. OL
Geography Handbook
Common Map Projections
Robinson Projection
Each type of map projection has advantages
and some degree of inaccuracy. Four of the most
common projections are shown here.
TROPIC OF CANCER
EQUATOR
ARCTIC C
IRCLE
EQUATOR
RI
TROPIC OF CAP
CORN
PRIME MERIDIAN
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
Comparing and Contrasting
PRIME MERIDIAN
Winkel Tripel Projection
TROPIC OF CAN
CER
C Critical Thinking
ARCTIC CIRCLE
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
The Robinson projection has minor distortions. The sizes and
shapes near the eastern and western edges of the map are
accurate, and outlines of the continents appear much as they
do on the globe. However, the polar areas are flattened.
IC CIRCLE
ANTARCT
Most general reference world maps are the Winkel Tripel projection. It provides a good balance between the size and shape
of land areas as they are shown on the map. Even the polar
areas are depicted with little distortion of size and shape.
Mercator Projection
R
R Reading Strategy
C
ARCTIC CIRCLE
Analyzing Text Structure
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area Projection
Have students read the selected
captions. Ask: How is the information structured in these captions? (Both captions propose a
benefit of the projection, followed
by a drawback.) OL
EQUATOR
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
PRIME MERIDIA
N
TROPIC OF CANCER
TROPIC OF CAPRICORN
ANTARCTIC CIRCLE
ANTARCTIC
CIRCLE
An interrupted projection resembles a globe that has been
cut apart and laid flat. Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection shows the true size and shape of Earth’s landmasses,
but distances are generally distorted.
Practicing
EQUATOR
PRIME MERIDIAN
ARCTIC CIRCLE
TROPIC OF CANCER
Ask students to cover the text and
look at the selected projections.
Ask: What is one similarity and
one difference between the
Winkel Tripel Projection and the
Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area
Projection? (similarity: both show
all of the continents; difference:
Goode’s projection splits Antarctica
into four pieces, while the Winkel
Tripel projection does not.) BL
The Mercator projection increasingly distorts size and distance
as it moves away from the Equator. However, Mercator projections do accurately show true directions and the shapes of
landmasses, making these maps useful for sea travel.
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: map projection, planar,
cylindrical, conic, interrupted projection.
2. How does a cartographer determine which map projection to use?
3. How is Goode’s Interrupted Equal-Area projection different from the Mercator projection?
4. Which of the four common projections described above is
the best one to use when showing the entire world? Why?
5. Use a Venn diagram like the one below to identify the
similarities and differences between the Winkel Tripel
and Mercator projections.
Winkel Tripel
projection
Mercator
projection
Geography Handbook GH5
Answers
1. map projection: projecting image of
earth onto a flat surface to make a
map, different projections have their
advantages/disadvantages. planar:
shows shortest distance between points,
most often used for maps of the Poles;
cylindrical: most accurate near the
Equator; conic: best for limited east-west
areas not too far from the Equator; interrupted projection: shows true size and
shape of Earth but distorts distances
2. by deciding what it will be used for to
determine the least distortion
3. Goode distorts distances while showing the true size and shape. Mercator
distorts size and distances but shows
true directions.
4. Winkel Tripel, because it distorts the size
and shape of landmasses the least.
5. Both show all continents with little to
no distortion of shape. Mercator shows
true direction, but distorts land size
and distance. Winkel Tripel shows little
size distortion.
GH5
Geography Handbook
Determining Location
S Skill Practice
Geography is often said to begin with the question: Where? The basic
tool for answering the question is location. Lines on globes and maps
provide information that can help you locate places. These lines cross
one another forming a pattern called a grid system, which helps you find
exact places on the Earth’s surface.
A hemisphere is one of the halves into which the Earth is divided.
Geographers divide the Earth into hemispheres to help them classify
and describe places on Earth. Most places are located in two of the four
hemispheres.
Visual Literacy Have students
study the selected figures. Ask:
What are two differences
between longitude and latitude?
(Lines of latitude run horizontally
and are parallel. Lines of longitude
run vertically and intersect at the
poles.) OL
60°N
Latitude
45°N
Lines of latitude, or parallels, circle the Earth parallel
to the Equator and measure the distance north or south
of the Equator in degrees. The Equator is measured at
0° latitude, while the Poles lie at latitudes 90°N (north)
and 90°S (south). Parallels north of the Equator are
called north latitude. Parallels south of the Equator are
called south latitude.
D Differentiated
Instruction
Logical/Mathematical Have
students use the Internet or library
resources to determine their exact
absolute location. If you have
access to GPS equipment, you may
wish to let students use it to check
their work. OL
90°N (North Pole)
75°N
30°N
15°N
0° (Equator)
15°S
30°S
45°S
60°S
S
75°S
90°S (South Pole)
Longitude
60°W
45°W
30°W
15°W
0° (Prime Meridian)
60°E
30°E
15°E
45°E
Lines of longitude, or meridians, circle the Earth
from Pole to Pole. These lines measure distance east
or west of the Prime Meridian at 0° longitude.
Meridians east of the Prime Meridian are known as
east latitude. Meridians west of the Prime Meridian
are known as west longitude. The 180° meridian on
the opposite side of the Earth is called the International
Date Line.
90°N (North Pole)
75°N
60°N
The Global Grid
45°N
Every place has a global address, or absolute location.
You can identify the absolute location of a place by
D naming the latitude and longitude lines that cross exactly
at that place. For example, Tokyo, Japan, is located at
36°N latitude and 140°E longitude. For more precise
readings, each degree is further divided into 60 units
called minutes.
Hands-On
Chapter Project
Creating a Global
Treasure Hunt
Directions Organize students into teams
and have each team choose 10 places on
Earth to research and study. Students may
choose places that are well known or unfamiliar. However, all places should be on
land and located at least 50 miles (80 km)
from each other. Tell students to make a list
of 8–10 interesting facts about each place.
GH6
30°N
Tokyo
15°N
0° (Equator)
15°S
30°S
45°S
60°E
75°E
90°E
135°E
105°E
120°E
GH6 Geography Handbook
Putting It Together Tell students to
“bury” their treasure in each of the locations. Then have students use the facts they
learned about the place to create clues for
a Treasure Atlas. Clues will be locations,
that, when followed, will lead to the buried
treasure. The correct response to each clue
will be a place name and coordinates that
can be easily looked up. Clues should be
written on index cards. Students should
list all the clues with their answers on
a separate sheet of paper. Each correct
answer earns another clue to a new location, eventually leading to the buried treasure, so remind students to make sure their
clues follow a logical route. OL
Geography Handbook
Northern and Southern
Hemispheres
Eastern and Western
Hemispheres
The diagram below shows that the Equator
divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. Everything north of the Equator is
in the Northern Hemisphere. Everything south
of the Equator is in the Southern Hemisphere.
The Prime Meridian and the International Date
Line divide the Earth into the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres. Everything east of the Prime
Meridian for 180° is in the Eastern Hemisphere.
Everything west of the Prime Meridian for 180° is
in the Western Hemisphere.
Northern Hemisphere
Eastern Hemisphere
EUROPE
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
NORTH
AMERICA
EUROPE
ASIA
PACIFIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
North
Pole
C
AFRICA
AFRICA
INDIAN
OCEAN
ASIA
Southern Hemisphere
AUSTRALIA
Visual Literacy Point out that
most people probably are not used
to seeing the globe from these
angles. Ask: What view do these
illustrations show? (the globe
viewed from the top and the bottom)
Ask: How do you generally view
the globe? (from the side, along the
Equator) If students still struggle to
understand the difference between
these views, use an actual globe to
show them the view reflected in
the illustration. BL
C Critical Thinking
S
Western Hemisphere
INDIAN
OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
NORTH
AMERICA
AFRICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
ANTARCTICA
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
S Skill Practice
South
Pole
PACIFIC
OCEAN
PACIFIC
OCEAN
SOUTH
AMERICA
Detecting Bias Ask: Since
planet Earth has no true top or
bottom, why do globes show
Europe on the top half of Earth?
(early map makers and explorers
were from Europe) AL
SOUTH
AMERICA
Practicing
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: location, grid system,
hemisphere, Northern Hemisphere, Southern
Hemisphere, Eastern Hemisphere, Western Hemisphere,
latitude, longitude, Prime Meridian, absolute location.
2. Why do all maps label the Equator 0° latitude and the
Prime Meridian 0° longitude?
3. Which lines of latitude and longitude divide the Earth
into hemispheres?
4. Using the Reference Atlas maps, fill in a chart like the
one below by writing the latitude and longitude of three
world cities. Have a partner try to identify the cities.
5. Use a chart like the one below to identify the continents in each hemisphere. Some may be in more than
one hemisphere.
Hemisphere
Continents
Northern
Southern
Eastern
Western
Geography Handbook GH7
Answers
1. location: a specific place on Earth; grid
system: pattern formed as the lines of
latitude and longitude cross one
another; hemisphere: half of a sphere or
globe; Northern Hemisphere: everything
north of the Equator; Southern
Hemisphere: everything south of the
Equator; Eastern Hemisphere: everything
east of the Prime Meridian for 180°;
Western Hemisphere: everything west
of the Prime Meridian for 180°
2. They are where the division between
north/south (N/S) and east/west (E/W)
occur, respectively.
3. Equator and Prime Meridian
4. Answers will vary according to cities
chosen.
5. Northern: North America, Asia,
Europe, Africa; Eastern: Asia, Europe,
Africa, Australia; Southern: Antarctica,
Australia, South America, Africa;
Western: North America, South
America
GH7
Geography Handbook
Reading a Map
S Skill Practice
In addition to latitude and longitude, maps feature other important
tools to help you interpret the information they contain. Learning to
use these map tools will help you read the symbolic language of maps
more easily.
Using Geography Skills Have
students use the scale bar on the
map to calculate the distance in
kilometers between Paris and
Stockholm. First, have students use
a ruler to measure the distance
between the cities on the map in
centimeters (4.5 cm). Then, have
students measure the map’s scale
in centimeters. (600 km 5 1.7 cm)
Ask: How can you use this to find
the distance between Paris and
Stockholm? (set up a proportion:
x 5 1,412 km) OL
R Reading Strategy
Reading Maps Ask: According
to the map, what is the capital of
Russia? (St. Petersburg) Ask: What
major city is located southeast of
Vienna? (Budapest) OL
Europe: Political
30°W
20°W
Scale Bar
S
Den.
600 miles
NORWAY
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
SWEDEN
Christiania
(Oslo)
N
W
E
S
UNITED
KINGDOM
50°
North
Sea
DENMARK
N
Paris
Ba
FRANCE
MONACO
Lisbon
RUSSIA
Berlin
BELG.
LUX.
SWITZ.
Vienna
Budapest
LIECHT.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Belgrade
SAN
MARINO
ITALY
ANDORRA
PORTUGAL
l
GERMANY
Bern
N
St.
Petersburg
Stockholm
Copenhagen
Brussels
40°
Helsingfors
(Helsinki)
NETH.
Amsterdam
London
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
50°E
National
boundary
National
capital
Major city
600 kilometers
0
Madrid
Rome
SPAIN
Cities are represented by a dot.
Sometimes the relative sizes of
cities are shown using dots of different sizes.
Additional
Support
40°E
30°E
°N
Sarajevo
SERBIA
MONT.
Cetinje
Tiranë
ROMANIA
Bucharest Black
Sea
BULGARIA
Sofia
Constantinople
ALBANIA
Seville
Cities
20°E
60
0
R
The compass rose indicates
directions. The four cardinal
directions— north, south, east, and
west — are usually indicated with
arrows or the points of a star.
The intermediate directions —
northeast, northwest, southeast,
and southwest — may also be shown.
10°E
0°
ARCT
IC CI
RCLE
ICELAND
The scale bar shows the relationship between map measurements
and actual distances on the Earth.
By laying a ruler along the scale
bar, you can calculate how many
miles or kilometers are represented
per inch or centimeter. The map
projection used to create the map is
often listed near the scale bar.
Compass Rose
10°W
Sea
x 5 600 km 3 4 cm
1.7 cm
The key lists and explains the symbols, colors, and lines
used on the map. The key is sometimes called a legend.
The title tells you what kind of
information the map is showing.
tic
600 km
x
5
1.7 cm 4 cm
Key
Title
Mediterran
AFRICA
GREECE
ean
Sea
OTTOMAN
EMPIRE
Athens
MALTA
U.K.
CYPRUS
U.K.
Capitals
Boundary Lines
National capitals are
often represented by
a star within a circle.
On political maps of large areas, boundary
lines highlight the borders between different countries or states.
GH8 Geography Handbook
Activity: Technology Connection
Contrasting Have students use an Internet
mapping Web site to help them understand
scale. Tell students to find a particular location,
such as their school or home address. Then
have them use the map’s zoom function to help
visualize the benefits of increasing and decreasing scale when viewing a location. Ask: To find
the nearest lake, would you use a distant or a
GH8
close view? (distant view) Ask: What view
would show the names of neighboring streets?
(closer view) Point out that a distant view corresponds to an increase in scale: it allows you to
view a wider area but you cannot see much
detail. Conversely, a close view corresponds to a
decrease in scale: detail is increased, but the
size of the area is diminished. OL
Geography Handbook
Using Scale
All maps are drawn to a certain scale. Scale is a consistent, proportional relationship between the measurements shown on the map and
the measurement of the Earth’s surface.
Expository Writing To give
Small-Scale Maps A small-scale map, like this
Large-Scale Maps A large-scale map, like this
political map of France, can show a large area
but little detail. Note that the scale bar on this
map indicates that about 1 inch is equal to
200 miles.
map of Paris, can show a small area with a great
amount of detail. Study the scale bar. Note that
the map measurements correspond to much
smaller distances than on the map of France.
France: Political
BELG.
LUX.
50°N
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Nantes
ES
Paris
S
RB
HE
ES
AL
E
AV
DE V
ILLIE
R
M
G ERMA N Y
W
MONTMARTRE Sacré Coeur
BLV
DE
D D
Gare
BLVD
E C
ES
S
L
du Nord
L
LICHY
O
GN
N
BATI
DES
BLVD LLES
Gare
E
Place
URC PARC
Gare
de l’Est
Charles CO
W
E
MONCEAU
St. Lazare
de Gaulle
BLVD
(Étoile)
HAUSS
S
MANN
TERNES
Arc de Triomphe
Orléans
FRANCE
SWITZ.
CH
AM
P
CHAILLOT
SÉ
LYS
ÉE
Bay of
Biscay
Lyon
ITA LY
S
45°N
200 miles
As you learned on page GH6, absolute location
D is the exact point where a line of latitude crosses a
line of longitude. Another way to indicate location
is by relative location, or the location of one place
in relation to another. To find relative location,
0
1 kilometer
0
1 mile
Museum
IL
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
Absolute and Relative Location
Practicing
Invalides
200 kilometers
RASPA
BLVD
0
Île d
e la
IN
Luxembourg
Palace
BLVD
S
MARAIS
Hôtel
de Ville
Cité
students practice thinking about
scale, have them write about two
imaginary experiences. First, have
students imagine they are an ant
beginning to climb a tree. Next,
have them imagine they are giants
bending down to look at a nest in
the top of the same tree. OL
D Differentiated
Instruction
Kinesthetic Have two students
Pompidou
Center
Louvre I
D
0
ANDORRA
SPA IN
TUILERIES
ESPLANADE
ST. GERMAIN
DES INVALIDES
SAIN
CHAMP
T
DE MARS Hôtel des
GER
Rodin
MA
Corsica
Marseille
Bibliothéque
Nationale
DES GARDENS RU
E D
National TUILE
E R
RIES
IVO
Assembly
L
BLV
Eiffel
Tower
Nice
Toulouse
QUAI D’ORSAY
INVALIDES
NDS
Place de la
Concorde
QU
AI
Seine
Bordeaux
GRA
Opéra
Grand Palais
National
boundary
Regional
boundary
National
capital
Major city
B
STR LVD DE
ASB
OUR
G
Lille
10°E
L
l
anne
English Ch
N
The City of Paris
5°E
0°
B
SÉB LVD D
AST E
OPO
U . K.
VD
BL
5°W
ST M BLVD
ICH
EL
W
W Writing Support
Notre
Dame
LATIN
QUARTER
Sorbonne
stand side-by-side, but 10 feet (3 m)
apart. Ask: What is the relative
position of each student to the
other? (One is 10 feet (3 m) to the
left. The other is 10 feet (3 m) to the
right.) BL
find a reference point—a location you already
know—on a map. Then look in the appropriate
direction for the new location. For example,
locate Paris (your reference point) on the map of
France above. The relative location of Lyon can
be described as southeast of Paris.
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: key, compass rose, cardinal
directions, intermediate directions, scale bar, scale, relative location.
2. Describe the elements of a map that help you interpret the information displayed on the map.
3. How does the scale bar help you determine distances
on the Earth’s surface?
4. Describe the relative location of your school in two
different ways.
5. Use a Venn diagram to identify the similarities and
differences of small-scale maps and large-scale maps.
Small-scale maps
Large-scale maps
Geography Handbook GH9
Answers
1. key: lists and explains symbols, colors,
and lines on map; compass rose: indicates direction; cardinal directions:
north, south, east, and west; intermediate directions: northeast, northwest,
southeast, and southwest; scale bar:
shows relationship between map measurements and actual distances on
Earth; scale: consistent, proportional
relationship between measurements
shown on map and measurement of
Earth’s surface; relative location: location of one place in relation to another
2. title tells kind of information shown on
map; key lists and explains symbols,
colors, and lines used on map; scale
bar shows relationship between map
measurements and actual distances on
Earth; compass rose indicates direction
3. shows the relationship between map
measurements and actual distances
4. Answers will vary according to school.
5. Small scale shows large areas but little
detail. Large scale shows small area
with great detail. Both show location.
GH9
Geography Handbook
Physical Maps
W Writing Support
A physical map shows the location and the topography, or shape of
W the Earth’s physical features. A study of a country’s physical features
Narrative Writing Have inter-
often helps to explain the historical development of the country. For
example, mountains may be barriers to transportation, and rivers and
streams can provide access into the interior of a country.
ested students research and write
a story about a physical feature
that affected history. Students can
explore how mountain ranges and
cliffs have served as protection,
how frozen lakes and straits
allowed for travel, or even how
the construction of a canal
changed transportation. AL
Texas: Physical
Estac
ado
e
Riv
Nuece
s River
Pla
Co
as t
a
Gr
Practicing
Ri o
MEXICO
nd
0
Mountain peak
er
e
100 kilometers
in
Galveston
Bay
Matagorda
Bay
Padre
Island
River
102°W
Meters
1,500
1,000
500
200
0
Riv
Balcones
Escarpment
Elevations
Feet
4,920
3,280
1,640
655
0
lor
ad
o
er
Riv
106°W
Co
r
Chisos
Mts.
S
Edwards
Plateau
Stockton
Plateau
al
Lla
no
os
az
Physical maps use shading and texture
to show general relief—the differences in
elevation, or height, of landforms.
Davis
Mts.
E
Sab
ine R
ive
r LA.
Toledo Bend 32°N
Res.
Sam Rayburn Res.
N
ec
he
Tr
s
in
i ty
TEXAS
er
W
Lake
Texoma
er
Br
Guadalupe Peak
8,749 ft.
Peco
sR
(2,667 m)
iv
N
Relief
ARK.
Red Riv
INS
Physical maps may show landforms
such as mountains, plains, plateaus,
and valleys.
36°N
OKLAHOMA
PLA
C
G R E AT
Ask: What can relief and elevation tell you about rivers? (Both
elements give a sense of direction:
water flows downhill so rivers flow
from high elevation to lower
elevation.) OL
Landforms
NEW
MEXICO
INS
Making Generalizations
NTA
C Critical Thinking
MO.
iver
an R
Canadi
MOU
Physical maps show rivers, streams,
lakes, and other water features.
ROCKY
Water Features
28°N
Gulf of
Mexico
0
100 miles 98°W
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
94°W
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: physical map, topography,
relief, elevation.
2. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain
what you can learn from the map about each of the
physical features listed.
Physical Feature
What You Can Learn from the Map
Davis Mountains
Red River
Gulf Coastal Plains
GH10 Geography Handbook
Answers
1. physical map: shows location and topography of Earth’s physical features; topography: shape of Earth’s physical features;
relief: difference in elevation of landforms;
elevation: height
GH10
2. Davis Mountains: location, elevation,
length; Red River: location, length, route;
Gulf Coastal Plains: location, elevation,
length
Geography Handbook
Political Maps
D Differentiated
Instruction
A political map shows the boundaries and locations of political units
such as countries, states, counties, cities, and towns. Many features
depicted on a political map are human-made, or determined by humans D
rather than by nature. Political maps can show the networks and links
that exist within and between political units.
Gifted and Talented Political
Texas: Political
Human-Made Features
MO.
an
Canadi
36°N
r
Rive
OKLAHOMA
Amarillo
ARK.
NEW
MEXICO
Red Riv
Lubbock Wichita
Falls
Fort
Worth
Sab
i ne R
ive
r
Dallas
Austin
Nueces
MEXICO
Laredo
a
Gr
0
200 kilometers
0
River
nd
N
28°N
Padre
Island
98°W
Brownsville
Gulf of
Mexico
Lambert Azimuthal Equal-Area projection
Physical Features
E
W
e
200 miles
102°W
Galveston
Victoria
Corpus
Christi
Ri o
State capital
Major city
Comparing and Contrasting
Beaumont
er
Houston
San
Antonio
106°W
Riv
C Critical Thinking
iver
lor
ad
o
32°N
R
ity
er
Co
er
R iv
Waco
TEXAS
LA.
in
Tr
os
az
Ri
v
Br
Peco
s
C
er
Abilene
El Paso
Political maps show human-made features such
as boundaries, capitals, cities, roads, highways,
and railroads.
maps change more rapidly than
physical maps. Have interested
students select an area and
research how political maps of
this area have changed over time.
Students may be interested to
learn how their own state or
region has changed politically, or
they may wish to study another
area. Have students create a presentation of their findings. AL
Political maps may show some physical features
such as relief, rivers, and mountains.
S
94°W
Ask: When you fly in an airplane
and look down at the ground,
what human-made features can
you see? (roads, buildings, farms,
dams, some lakes, railroads) Ask:
What human-made features can
you not see? (boundaries, capital
designation) BL
Nonsubject Area
Areas surrounding the subject area of the map are usually
a different color to set them apart. They are labeled to give
you a context for the area you are studying.
Practicing
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: political map, human-made.
2. What types of information would you find on a political map that would not appear on a physical map?
3. Complete a table like the one to the right to explain
what you can learn from the map about each of the
human-made features listed.
Human-Made Feature
What You Can Learn from the Map
Austin
El Paso
Texas state boundary
Geography Handbook GH11
Answers
1. political map: shows boundaries and locations of political units such as countries,
states, counties, cities, and towns; humanmade: determined by humans rather than
nature
3. Austin: location, that it is the capital city
of Texas; El Paso: location; Texas state
boundary: what states border Texas, what
river forms its southern border
2. capitals, cities, roads, highways, railroads
GH11
Geography Handbook
Thematic Maps
study the “Europe: Slavic
Migrations” map. Ask: What do
the arrows on this map represent? (The main routes of migration
taken by Slavic peoples in c. 700.)
Ask: How is color used to present
information on this map? (It distinguishes the three major groups
of Slavs by their place of origin.)
Ask: How would you explain the
forks that appear in several
arrows? (These indicate places
where immigrants from the same
area of origin diverged into two
groups.) OL
Qualitative Maps
Flow-Line Maps
Maps that use colors, symbols, lines, or dots to
show information related to a specific idea are
called qualitative maps. Such maps are often
used to depict historical information. For example, the qualitative map below shows the primary exports of Latin America.
Maps that illustrate the movement of people,
animals, goods, and ideas, as well as physical
processes like hurricanes and glaciers, are called
flow-line maps. Arrows are usually used to represent the flow and direction of movement. The
flow-line map below shows the movement of
Slavic peoples throughout Europe.
Latin America:
Resources and Exports
VENEZUELA
FR.
GUIANA
Au
COLOMBIA
(Fr.)
EQUATO
R
GUYANA
SURINAME
20°E
Migration of
Slavic Peoples, c. 700
Eastern Slavs
Western Slavs
Southern Slavs
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
Au
ECUADOR
Europe: Slavic Migrations
0°
Present-day
boundary
BRAZIL
PACIFIC
OCEAN
BOLIVIA
OF CA
E
W
S
PRICO
RN
URUGUAY
ARGENTINA
0
1,000 kilometers
0
1,000 miles
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
80°W
60°W
40°W
Petroleum
40°
S
60
Natural gas
Iron ore
ning
Collaborative Lear diffi-
have
Ask students if they
one color
ing
ish
gu
culty distin
the map
from another on
dents may
above. If so, these stu
resources,
benefit from other
make disat
such as maps th
or syming
ad
sh
tinctions using
.
lor
co
an
bols rather th
GH12
Coffee
°S
Primary Products
as a Percentage
of Exports
Bauxite
Sugarcane
Copper
Cotton
Gold
Cut flowers
25%–49%
Zinc
Leather
Less than 25%
Timber
Wool
No data
SLAVIC
HOMELAND
Dn
i es
R. t e r
°N
Dni 50
epe
r R.
UKRAINE
MOLDOVA
SLOV.
20°W
ITALY
Food
products
BELARUS
i
CH R
EP.
ROMANIA
CROATIA
ic
Coal
R
A
VAKI
SLO
AUSTRIA
HUNGARY
S
Resources
Additional
Support
CZE
t
ria
Ad
100°W
Au
GERMANY
CHILE
RUSSIA
ula
st
.
TROPIC
S
LATVIA
POLANDV
PARAGUAY
N
E
W
RUSSIA
10°E
20°S
N
LITHUANIA
Au
PERU
30°E
ESTONIA
ltic S
ea
Visual Literacy Have students
Maps that emphasize a single idea or a particular kind of information
about an area are called thematic maps. There are many kinds of thematic maps, each designed to serve a different need. This textbook
includes thematic maps that show exploration and trade, migration of
peoples, economic activities, and war and political conflicts.
Ba
S Skill Practice
Se
a
BOS.&
HERZ.
0
200 kilometers
0
200 miles
Danube
SERBIA
MONT.
Lambert Azimuthal
Equal-Area projection
ALBANIA
R.
Black
Sea
BULGARIA
MACEDONIA
TURKEY
GREECE
40°N
75% or more
50%–74%
GH12 Geography Handbook
Activity: Collaborative Learning
Making Thematic Maps Divide the class
into several groups. Each group will research a
theme that interests them and create a thematic map to present to the class. Themes may
be national (for example, a U.S. map showing
the location of roller coasters or professional
football stadiums) or local (for example, a city
map displaying the location of public libraries
or city parks). After groups choose their themes,
each group should designate tasks (research,
drawing maps, creating the presentation)
among themselves so that each group member
participates. Schedule a period for all the groups
to present their maps to the class. OL
Geography Handbook
Geographic Information Systems
S Skill Practice
Modern technology has changed the way maps are made. Most cartographers use computers with software programs called geographic
information systems (GIS). A GIS is designed to accept data from different sources—maps, satellite images, printed text, and statistics. The
GIS converts the data into a digital code, which arranges it in a database. Cartographers then program the GIS to process the data and produce maps. With GIS, each kind of information on a map is saved as a
separate electronic layer.
Practicing
could you make GIS maps without a computer? (You could draw
the data on transparencies, and
layer the transparencies.) OL
2 Additional layers of information are
added based on the problem or issue being
studied. In this case, hospital administrators
want to find out about the population living
in neighborhoods near the hospital so they
can offer the community what it needs. A
second layer showing African Americans who
live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been
added to the GIS.
Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.
Copyright © 2008 by David W. Boles. All Rights Reserved.
1 The first layer of information in a GIS
pinpoints the area of interest. This allows the
user to see, in detail, the area he or she
needs to study. In this case, the area of study
is a 5 mile (8 km) radius around Christ
Hospital in Jersey City, New Jersey.
Visual Literacy Ask: How
Assess
Summarizing Have students
S
3 Complex information can be presented
using more than one layer. For example, the
hospital’s surrounding neighborhoods
include other groups in addition to African
Americans. A third layer showing whites who
live within the 5 mile (8 km) radius has been
added to the GIS. Administrators can now
use this information to help them make decisions about staffing and services associated
with the hospital.
work in pairs to make study cards
for the Geography Handbook.
Students can use main headings
and subheadings to organize the
section material. When the cards
are finished, have students take
turns testing each other on what
they have learned. OL
Close
Identifying Ask: What are the
four main types of maps? (physical,
political, qualitative, and flow-line)
SKILLS
1. Explain the significance of: thematic map, qualitative
maps, flow-line maps.
2. Which type of thematic map would best show the
spread of Islam during Muhammad’s time?
3. Which type of thematic map would best show average
income per capita in the United States?
4. How does GIS allow cartographers to create maps and
make changes to maps quickly and easily?
5. Complete a chart like the one below by identifying
three examples of each type of thematic map found in
this textbook. Note the page numbers of each.
Qualitative Maps
Flow-Line Maps
Geography Handbook GH13
Answers
1. thematic map: emphasizes a single idea or
particular kind of information about an
area; qualitative map: uses colors, symbols,
lines, or dots to show information related
to a specific idea; flow-line map: illustrates
movement of people, animals, goods, and
ideas, as well as physical processes like
hurricanes and glaciers
2. qualitative
3. flow-line
4. by allowing information to be stored and
displayed on separate electronic layers
5. Answers will vary. Note that most maps
in the text are qualitative maps; most
climate maps are qualitative and flow-line.
GH13
Geographic Dictionary
Volcano Mountain peak
Strait
Sound
Island
Valley
Cape
Ocean
Cliff
Isthmus
Bay
Harbor
As you read about the history
of the United States, you will
encounter the terms listed below.
Many of the terms are pictured in
the diagram.
absolute location exact location of a place on the earth described
by global coordinates
Delta
Peninsula
st
Seacoa
glacier large, thick body of slowly moving ice
basin area of land drained by a given river and its branches; area
of land surrounded by lands of higher elevations
gulf part of a large body of water that extends into a
shoreline, generally larger and more deeply indented
than a bay
bay part of a large body of water that extends into a shoreline,
generally smaller than a gulf
harbor a sheltered place along a shoreline where ships can
anchor safely
canyon deep and narrow valley with steep walls
cape point of land that extends into a river, lake, or ocean
highland elevated land area such as a hill, mountain,
or plateau
channel wide strait or waterway between two landmasses that lie
close to each other; deep part of a river or other waterway
hill elevated land with sloping sides and rounded summit;
generally smaller than a mountain
cliff steep, high wall of rock, earth, or ice
continent one of the seven large landmasses on the earth
island land area, smaller than a continent, completely surrounded
by water
cultural feature characteristic that humans have created in a
place, such as language, religion, housing, and settlement
pattern
isthmus narrow stretch of land connecting two larger
land areas
lake a large inland body of water
delta flat, low-lying land built up from soil carried downstream by
a river and deposited at its mouth
latitude distance north or south of the Equator, measured in
degrees
divide stretch of high land that separates river systems
longitude distance east or west of the Prime Meridian, measured
in degrees
downstream direction in which a river or stream flows from its
source to its mouth
GH14
Gulf
lowland land, usually level, at a low elevation
elevation height of land above sea level
map drawing of the earth shown on a flat surface
Equator imaginary line that runs around the earth halfway
between the North and South Poles; used as the starting point
to measure degrees of north and south latitude
meridian one of many lines on the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole; used to measure degrees of
longitude
Mountain range
Glacier
Source of
river
Channel
Highland
Lake
Plateau
Hills
Canyon
Mouth of river
River
Desert
Upstream
Downstream
Plain
Lowland
Basin
Tributary
mesa broad, flat-topped landform with steep sides; smaller than a
plateau
mountain land with steep sides that rises sharply (1,000 feet or
more) from surrounding land; generally larger and more rugged than a hill
mountain peak pointed top of a mountain
mountain range a series of connected mountains
mouth (of a river) place where a stream or river flows into a
larger body of water
ocean one of the four major bodies of salt water that surround the
continents
ocean current stream of either cold or warm water that moves in
a definite direction through an ocean
parallel one of many lines on the global grid that circle the earth
north or south of the Equator; used to measure degrees of
latitude
peninsula body of land jutting into a lake or ocean, surrounded
on three sides by water
physical feature characteristic of a place occurring naturally,
such as a landform, body of water, climate pattern, or
resource
plain area of level land, usually at a low elevation and often
covered with grasses
plateau large area of flat or rolling land at a high elevation, about
300–3,000 feet high
Prime Meridian line of the global grid running from the
North Pole to the South Pole at Greenwich, England;
starting point for measuring degrees of east and west
longitude
relief changes in elevation over a given area of land
river large natural stream of water that runs through the land
sea large body of water completely or partly surrounded
by land
seacoast land lying next to a sea or ocean
sea level position on land level with surface of nearby ocean
or sea
sound body of water between a coastline and one or more islands
off the coast
source (of a river) place where a river or stream begins, often in
highlands
strait narrow stretch of water joining two larger bodies of
water
tributary small river or stream that flows into a larger river or
stream; a branch of the river
upstream direction opposite the flow of a river; toward the source
of a river or stream
valley area of low land between hills or mountains
volcano mountain created as ash or liquid rock erupts from inside
the earth
GH15