Download 1 Plant Diversity General Plants are classified into 4 major groups

Plant Diversity
General
Plants are classified into 4 major groups:
from simplest to most complex
from oldest to most recently evolved
Mosses (~15,000 species)
small, simple, in moist habitats, oldest fossils
Ferns (11,000 species)
more complex tissues and organs,
Conifers (760 species)
mostly trees and shrubs, reproduction by producing
pollen, and seeds in “cones”
Flowering Plants (235,000 species, 90% all plants)
most complex in terms of structure
reproduce by producing pollen, and seeds in fruits
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Mosses & Allies
(several other phyla of plants have the word “moss” in their common names
but they are NOT really mosses they just resemble them in some way)
~15,000 species
eg. mosses, liverworts, hornworts
simplest of plants
most are small (<20 cm) and inconspicuous
grow along streams or on moist soil, rocks and tree
trunks
are ancient plants
most are tropical
they apparently developed from a green alga as a
“dead end” group
not in direct path of evolution
(ie. vascular plants did not have moss
ancestors)
plants that were first able to leave aquatic
environment and move onto land
generally poorly adapted to land
tend to live in moist places
live in dense beds on moist soil, rocks or bark
still tied to water for reproduction
thin cuticle in most, some lack it
no water distribution system: no vascular tissue
absorb water through epidermis (like sponge)
no true roots, stems or leaves (since no vascular
tissue)
each individual plant has tiny root-like rhizoids for attachment
(not to absorb nutrients for the plant)
slender stemlike structure bears leaflike blades
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can grow upright or along ground
weak (no lignin)
Reproduction and Life Cycle:
show basic alternation of generations with
gametophyte the dominant form in the life cycle
it is larger
it is often perennial while the sporophyte is temporary
it provides nutrition for sporophyte
gametophyte Structure (true mosses):
leafy green
often perennial
bears gametangia at tip of “stalk”
antheridia sperm cells
archegonia eggs
many species have separate male and female plants
flagellated sperm are released from antheridia
during rainy weather and transported by splashing of raindrops
once they get to female plant, sperm cell swims
down neck of archegonium and fuses with egg
= zygote
the zygote grows into a sporophyte
sporophyte remains attached to the gametophyte for
nutrition
foot =
embedded in tip of gametophyte to anchor
it
seta =
stalk
capsule = sporangium – contains up to 50M
haploid spores
when spores are mature, capsule bursts open as it
dries out
wind or rain carry spores to new areas where they
germinate
Ecological Importance:
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Pioneer Plants
colonize bare rock
produce acids that help in soil formation
hold soil in place and help prevent erosion along
streams
some birds (eg. waxwings) use moss as nesting
material
peat bogs: major carbon reserves eg. Sphagnum
=>help to absorb CO2 and stabilize climate
used for fuel in England and some northern countries
mosses are sensitive indicators of air pollution
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Ferns and Allies
(Seedless Vascular Plants)
Vascular Plants
virtually all plants other than mosses and allies have
vascular tissue
vascular system enables plants attain greater size:
some ferns (tropical) grow to 75 feet today
vascular plants have true stems
most have vascularized roots and leaves
ancestors of vascular plants also evolved from green
algae
Ferns & Allies
11,000 species
mostly terrestrial, a few are aquatic
range from tropics to arctic but most are tropical
epiphytes
in temperate regions ferns typically inhabit swamps
and moist areas
most common fern in the world is
bracken fern (=Pteridium aquilinum)
grows well in poor soil – uncommon fern trait
have true stems, roots, and leaves
Stems
rhizome = underground stem with wiry roots
in temperate areas rhizome produces new leaves
each spring
ferns are easily propagated by rhizome cuttings
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Roots
the roots are clearly differentiated from stem
Leaves
frond = large, compound leaves used for
photosynthesis and reproduction
when each young frond emerges from ground it is
tightly coiled
fiddlehead
as fiddlehead grows it unrolls and expands to form
frond
Reproduction and Life Cycle
ferns show clear alternation of generations
most ferns are annuals
fern life cycle 4-18 months
sporophyte stage is dominant
the “fern” we see are sporophytes
fern sporophytes are perennial
sporophyte produces asexual spores
spore production occurs on underside of leaf
in clusters of sporangia called sori
sometimes sori are covered by umbrella-like
indusium [size of a pinhead]
as humidity changes sporangia break open
throwing spores into air
Gametophyte Stage
gametophyte generation of ferns is completely
separate and bears no resemblance to sporophyte
spores germinate into gametophytes called a
prothallium
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gametophyte is tiny (~1/4 inch)
often heart shaped
as prothallium matures it produces male and
female reproductive organs
=antheridia & archegonia
archegonia located in central region near notch
each contains a single egg
antheridia scattered among rhizoids
sperm cells shaped like cork screws
ferns require water for fertilization
as young sporophyte develops the prothallium
withers and dies.
Ecological and Economic Uses of Ferns & Allies
help soil formation and prevent erosion
probably most significant contribution to human culture
is as coal deposits
carboniferous fern forests
are widely cultivated for horticultural value
the fiddlehead of some species are harvested in early
spring , bilied or steamed and eaten
esp in New England and Canada
eg. ostrich fern Matteaccia
horsetails have a hollow jointed stems impregnated
with silica
gritty texture (=scouring rushes)
first “brillo pads”
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Seed Plants
mosses are small, nonvascular plants that generally
are found in moist habitats and require water for reproduction
ferns, though more terrestrial, with vascular tissue
and better able to survive in drier habitats still require water for sexual
reproduction
both of these groups are relatively rare today
and found in only a few habitats.
most plants today are Seed Plants
(gymnosperms & angiosperms)
seed plants are much more successful at life on
land
1. they are no longer tied to water,
even for reproduction
2. they generally have a much more efficient
vascular system
but most of their success can probably be attributed to
three major adaptations:
1. Greatly reduced alternation of
generations
sporophyte no longer produces spores for
reproduction and dispersal
sexual reproduction becomes the primary
method of reproduction and dispersal
instead sporophyte produces microscopic
gametophytes that become the main means of reproduction
and dispersal
2. Pollen
male gametophyte = pollen
dispersed by wind (not water) to the female
Also offers a wider variety of methods of
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genetic variation
3. Seed
female gametophyte remains attached to
sporophyte plant as ovule
once fertilized, ovule develops into seed
seed = embryonic plant
unlike spore which is a single cell, seed already has an
embryonic root, stem and leaf
plus stored food supply for germination,
surrounded by protective seed coat
in nonseed plants the asexual spore is the
primary means of dispersal
seed replaces the spore as the main means of
reproduction
is much more effective, and resistant to drying
in non-seed plants, the embryo develops from
the fertilized egg in the archegonium and immediately grows
to maturity
in seed plants the embryo reaches a certain
size, goes dormant, and becomes an important means of
dispersal
Sexual reproduction becomes the main means
of reproduction
greater variation
evolutionary advantage
seeds and seed plants are strongly connected
with the development of human civilization as an important
food source:
seeds are:
easy to store
easy to germinate
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generally have high nutritional value
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Conifers & Allies
760 sp of gymnosperms
conifers are one of a group of plants called
gymnosperms or “naked seeds”
they produce seeds that are either totally exposed or
borne on the scales of the female cone
the seeds are not produced inside a flower and
fruit
they are exposed usually on a cone
gymnosperms include:
conifers: pine, cedar, spruce, fir, sequoias, etc
cycads (resemble palms)
ginkoes
gnetophytes
by far the most abundant gymnosperms are the
conifers
nearly all are woody trees, shrubs and vines
conifers group contains some of the world’s
a. most massive organisms:
“General Sherman”
giant sequoia - California
272’ (81.6m) tall
79’ girth; >25’ diameter
b. world’s tallest tree:
Coastal Redwood
385’ (117m) tall
c. oldest living trees
bristlecone pines
one is over 4900 years old
Conifer Characteristics:
1. nearly all conifers are evergreen:
can carry out photosynthesis even in winter to
some degree
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in spring they can increase photosynthesis
immediately (don’t have to grow new leaves)
each leaf lives 2-14 years and falls off individually
a few are deciduous, eg.: dawn redwood, larch,
bald cypress
2. in most leaves are needle or scale shaped to
survive dry conditions (desert, snow)
leaves are long, narrow, tough and leathery
most leaves have thick waxy cuticle
3. many conifers produce resin = viscous, clear
organic substance that may protect plant from fungal and insect attack
resin collects in resin ducts = tubelike cavities
that extend throughout roots, stems and leaves
resin is produced by cells lining resin ducts
Woody Stems
Conifers and flowering plants are the only major plant
groups that have perennial species
Plants that live more than one year, ie. perennials,
produce secondary growth each year.
In woody plants there are two major layers of
embryonic cells (lateral meristem) called the cambium, that produces this
secondary growth each year.
1. Vascular Cambium
One layer of cambium is found in the vascular
bundles of the stem between the xylem and phloem.
Each year this cambium produces new layers
of xylem and phloem cells.
Xylem grows much faster than phloem and
virtually all of the “wood” of a tree is
dead xylem cells
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the oldest cells are closer to the center of the
trunk
Each year the cambium lays down a new layer
of xylem
the old wood closest to the center expands as
new cells are laid down in the vascular cambium
these older cells are often darker and are
called heartwood.
vs sapwood (still used for transport)
Differences in the size of the cells produced
throughout the growing season produce the familiar “growth
rings” in the wood.
softwood vs hardwood
the arrangement of different cell types in
the secondary tissue results in the distinctive
characteristics of each kind of wood:
eg oak, maple, pine, etc
Most of the strength of wood comes from the
sclerenchyma cells of the xylem specifically the tracheids,
vessel elements and fibers
thickness of the trunk requires rays for lateral transport
= chains of parenchyma cells that radiate out from
center of stem
typically continuous with the secondary xylem and
phloem
the layers of phloem are much thinner and
become part of the bark
The phloem, on the “outer-side” of the
cambium, the cortex and the periderm make up the bark of a
tree.
2. Cork Cambium
Another layer of cambium is located between
the cortex and epidermis, this produces periderm
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which makes up most of the bark of woody
plants.
The bark replaces the epidermis for protection
of the stem in large woody plants.
cork cambium can form a continuous cylinder of dividing
cells (similar to vascular cambium in woody stems)
or a series of small arcs
producing furrowed bark
the thickness, patterns and texture of bark vary
considerably by species
largely because of the varying growth rates of cork
cambium in different tree species
the bark contains cork cells
dead at maturity
heavily waterproofed cell walls
protects against injury, mild fires, temperature
extremes, water loss
areas of bark where cork cells are loosely
arranged = lenticels
allow gas exchange
wood is typically produced in the stem (=trunk) but
major roots of trees also usually have wood, bark and annual rings
Life Cycle:
Mosses
Ferns
Conifers
gametophyte was dominant
sporophyte a temporary structure growing on gametophyte
sporophyte was dominant, separate from gametophyte
gametophyte was small temporary prothallium
sporophyte is dominant plant
gametophyte greatly reduced, temporary, and completely
dependent on sporophyte
in gymnosperms the sporophyte is the dominant stage
there is no free living gametophyte
instead,
gametophyte is attached to
and nutritionally dependent upon
sporophyte
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both gymnosperms and angiosperms are heterosporous
produce two types of spores:
microspores
megaspores
most conifers are monoecious (hermaphrodites) with
separate male and female cones in different locations of same plant
reproductive organs are cones (=strobili)
Female Gametophyte
ovule – produced on female cone
female cone:
much larger than male
takes 2 years to mature
not terminal
In early spring the ovulate or seed cone begins to
develop
Takes 2 years to develop
consists of a central axis bearing a series of bracts and
scales (=modified leaves)
two ovules develop on upperside of each bract
some conifers do not produce woody female cones
eg. yews:
seed is almost completely surrounded by
fleshy cuplike covering,
an outgrowth from base of seed
seed covering is red and attracts birds
which eat it and disperse the seeds
eg. Junipers
bear seeds in fleshy cones that resemble berries
fleshy scales are fused together and completely
enclose seed
birds eat and disperse seeds
cones used to flavor gin
Male Gametophyte
=pollen grain
produced in male cone
male cone:
terminal on short branches
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~ half inch long or less
produce pollen
consists of 2 cell walls enclosing 3 cells
prothallial cells (2) degenerate)
generative cell
air sacs (for bouyancy)
tube cell
Pollen grains blow around until they contact micropyle of
female gametophyte
Pollen tube develops from tube cell of pollen
generative cell produces sperm nuclei which travel down
pollen tube to egg and fertilize it = zygote
the fertilized egg develops into mature seed
consisting of several structures:
~8 cotyledons (surround epicotyl)
seed coat
hypocotyl
Economic Importance of Conifers:
conifers are the most important phylum of
gymnosperms both ecologically and commercially
conifers are the predominant trees in 35% of the
world’s forests
they play an essential ecological role:
1. roots hold soil in place and reduce soil erosion
2. watersheds – absorb hold and slowly release
water and help control flooding
3. food and shelter for other organisms
coniferous forests are economically important:
1. recreation
camping
backpacking
picknicing
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2. in US ~80% of timber crop is from conifers:
building and paper products
landscaping
christmas trees
resin of some plants is used to make
turpentine, tar, etc
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Flowering Plants
[Angiosperms]
235,000 known species
=vascular plants that reproduce sexually by forming
flowers and fruits
dominant plants in world today
last major group to appear in the fossil record
1st appeared 130 MY ago
have dominated the landscape for the last 100 Million
years
Why are flowering plants so successful:
1. highly adaptable vegetative organs including
complex symbioses with fungi and bacteria enhance survival
2. form and diversity of leaves maximize
photosynthetic efficiency
3. much more efficient transport tissues
structure of both xylem and phloem are more
efficient than in gymnosperms
4. diversity in flower structure greatly enhances
success and diversity of group
5. seed within fruit
better protection
much greater variety of dispersal
differences from gymnosperms:
more efficient vascular tissues: sieve cells smaller in
gymnosperms, larger and with more pores in
angiosperms
few gymnosperms have xylem vessels, mainly have tracheids
angiosperms have flower instead of cone
angiosperms surround seed with fruit
Two major groups of flowering plants:
monocots
~65,000 species
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flower parts in three’s
parallel veined leaves
onions, grasses, irises, lilies,
only woody monocots are palms eg coconut palm
dicots
more diverse, (>170,000 species)
flower parts in 4’s or 5’s
net veined leaves
oaks, roses, mustards, cacti, sunflowers
includes herbs, shrubs and trees
Flower Structure
in flowering plants, sexual reproduction occurs in
flowers
sepals
petals
stamens = filament + anther
pistils
= stigma + style + ovary
are temporary structures
parts are arranged in whorls on the end of a flower stalk = peduncle
peduncle may terminate in a single flower or a cluster of flowers
= inflorescence
tip of peduncle enlarges to form the receptacle
sepals
lowermost whorl
leaflike
covers and protects flower bud
all sepals together = calyx
petals
whorl just above (inside) sepals
great variation in size, shape and color
sometimes fused to form tube
all petals together = corolla
stamens
just inside petals
consist of filament and anthers
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anther = sac like structure that produces pollen
grains (=gametophytes)
each pollen grain produces 2 cells surrounded by tough outer
wall
one cell contains 2 male gamete (sperm) nuclei
other cell produces pollen tube through which sperm
nuclei travel to ovule
pistil
female reproductive organs
may be a single chamber or made of a group of
chambers = carpels
sometimes carpels are fused into a single pistil
sometimes there are many pistils
each pistil consists of:
stigma
on which pollen lands
necklike structure
style
saclike, contains ovule
ovary
each ovule contains cells that form one egg and
2 polar nuclei
many variations in flower structure
a flower with all four different parts
lacking one or more
with both stamens and carpels
stamens or carpels
=
=
=
=
complete flower
incomplete
perfect
imperfect
some of these variations are due to the way flowers
are pollinated
pollen grains must travel from anther of one flower to
stigma of another
self pollination pollen travels to stigma of same flower
cross pollination pollen travels to stigma of different plant
flowering plants have coevolved with many kinds of
animals through most of their history
this close interdependent relationship between
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plants and pollinators has resulted in coevolution
mutual adaptations for mutual benefits
plant: petals, scent, nectaries
animal: special body parts and behaviors
In some instances the relationships have become very
specialized such that only a single species of animal can pollinate a
particular species of plant.
1. wind pollinated
often grow in dense populations
many small inconspicuous flowers
petals reduced
pistils and stamens exposed
numerous stamens and conspicuous
large amounts of pollen produced
eg. oak, willow, grasses
insect pollenators - general
petals colorful and large
often with nectaries
fused petals force insect to crawl into flower for
nectar
2. sunflowers
are a successful exception to above:
they are insect pollinated
but consist of numerous inconspicuous flowers
they combine to resemble a single, large
showy flower
one insect pollinates many flowers
at once
3. bee pollinated
20,000 different species of bees are important
pollinators for many plants
honeybees are attracted to nectar
they also gather pollen
flowers are generally brightly colored
predominately blue or yellow
rarely pure red (pure red appears black to them)
flowers often have lines or distinctive
markings that function as “honey guides”
lead bees to nectar
some of these markings are only seen in
UV light
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invisible to us, not bees
flowers often delicately sweet and fragrant
4. beetle pollinated
flowers tend to have a strong yeasty, spicy or
fruity odor
usually white or dull in color
(beetles cant see as well as bees)
secrete no nectar but may supply food as
pollen or in special storage cells in petals
5. carrion flies
tend to be dull red or brown
often have foul odors resembling rotting meat
eg. carrion flowers (Africa); skunk cabbage
6. butterflies
similar to bee-pollinated flowers in that they
have sweet fragrances
nectaries are usually at bases of deep spur that
only butterflies and moths can reach with their mouthparts
some butterflies can detect red flowers
eg. daisy family: butterfly bush= Buddelias, goldenrods,
blazing star
eg. milkweeds monarchs
7. moth pollinated
white or yellow flowers
heavy fragrance
open at dusk
eg. some yuccas, some milkweds
(see p510 Stern 3rd ed)
8. bat pollinated
mainly in tropics
strong odor
dull color
open only at night
9. hummingbirds
do not have a highly developed sense of smell
but do have excellent sense of vision
frequently bright red or yellow flowers
little if any odor
fused petals with nectary
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produce copius quantities of nectar
long floral tubes prevent most insects from reaching the
nectar
eg. fuschias, petunias, morning glories, salvias, cardinal
flowers, trumpet creepers, columbines, penstemons
10. orchids
some speceis of orchids resemble certain wasp females
see Stern p 512-14
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Role of Pollinators in Modern World
without pollinators many plants cannot be fertilized to
produce seeds
90% of worlds flowering plants are animal pollinated
including 80% of world’s 1330 cultivated crop
species
1/3rd of US agricultural crops are insect
pollinated
120,000 – 200,000 animal species are pollinators
including >1000 sp of birds and mammals
honeybee pollination services are 60-100x’s more
valuable than the honey they produce
in US ~1/2 of honeybee colonies have been lost in
last 50 years 25% in last 5 yrs alone
threats:
habitat fragmentation
loss of nesting and overwintering sites
intense exposure to pesticides and herbicides
introduction of exotic species
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Fertilization:
one of the two cells in pollen grain grows a thin pollen
tube down through the style into the ovule
the 2nd cell divides to form two sperm cells which
move down the pollen tube ad enter the ovule
only flowering plants have double fertilization
zygote
endosperm
this double fertilization results in seed:
young plant embryo
nutritive tissue = endosperm
seed coat
The Seed:
seed = plant embryo with stored nutrients in
protective shell
mature seed consists of:
1. embryo:
radicle
= embryonic root
hypocotyl = embryonic shoot (stem)
cotyledons = seed leaves
(monocot has 1 cotyledon
dicots have 2 cotyledons)
plumule (=epicotyl) = part of shoot above
leaves
2. food
food is stored either in the cotyledon or in endosperm
(a nutritive tissue surrounding embryo)
the nutrients are used by the germinating seed until true
leaves can begin photosynthesis
in monocots the endosperm is main source of food in mature
seed
in most dicots – endosperm nourishes embryo which
subsequently stores food in its cotyledons
3. Seed Coat
tough, for protection
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seed size varies from:
eg. dustlike orchids
eg. 60lbs double coconut
The Fruit
seeds are not naked as in most gymnosperms
the ovary wall enlarges into a fruit
protects developing seeds from desiccation
aids in dispersal
As the ovule develops into a seed the ovary portion of
the pistil increases greatly in size and becomes a fruit
fruit = a ripened ovary containing seeds
eg. pea pod = fruit; peas = seeds
peach, bean and watermelon all develop from ovaries
only 1/8th to 1/4th inch in diameter
causes great drain on food supply
vegetative growth often ceases when fruits are
developing
pinching off some flower buds results in larger fruits that
are left
The tissues of fruit and seed enhance survival and may
aid in dispersal
distribute new plants to areas away from
parent plant
There are many different kinds of fruits characterized by how they
develop and the arrangement of the flower parts that produced them
4 basic types:
1. simple:
develops from a flower with single pistil
eg. tomato, grape, bean, pea, wheat, corn
2. aggregate
develops from flower with may separate ovaries
eg. rasberry, blackberry, magnolias
3. multiple
develops from an inflorescence, ovaries fuse to form single
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fruit
eg. pineapple, mulberry, figs
4. accessory
develop from flower in which receptacle or floral tube
enlarges and becomes part of the mature fruit
eg. apple, pears (=pomes outer part of fruit is enlarged
floral tube), strawberry (edible portion of strawberry is fleshy
receptacle)
most fruits are simple fruits
at maturity simple fruits may be fleshy or dry
fleshy:
dry:
berry:
eg tomato, brapes, blueberries, cranberries, bananas
drupe:
contain hard stony pit surrounding single seed
eg. peaches, plums, olives, avocados, almonds
[NOT: strawberries, rasberries, mulberries]
some split open along seams or sutures to release seeds
follicle:
splits along 1 suture
eg. milkweed
legume
splits along 2 sutures
eg. peas, beans, bluebonnets
capsule
splits along multiple sutures
eg. poppies, cotton,
some do not split along sutures
grain (caryopsis)
single seed, seedcoat fused to fruit
eg. corn, wheat
achene
same as grain but seed coat is not fused
eg. sunflowers, daisies, composites
nuts
usually larger, often from compound pistil
eg. chestnuts, acorns, hazelnuts
[NOT: peanuts, brazilnuts
Seed Dispersal Mechanisms:
1. wind
one of most important
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a. small, light seeds
eg. orchids seeds resemble dust
b. hairlike appendages
eg. dandelions, milkweeds
c. winged seeds
eg. maple, bigonia
d. whole plant dispersal
eg. tumbleweed (=Russian thistle)
2. edible fruits
attracts birds or mammals
may eat whole fruit or spit out pits
if swallowed seeds resistant to digestive juices
squirrels and birds bury fruits and seeds
nuts stored underground are forgotten
3. passively carried by animals
hooks or spines to catch in fur or on skin
in mud on feet of birds, etc.
burs, beggars ticks, devils claw, etc.
4. water dispersal
aquatic plants
rainfall
some contain airsacs to float
mangroves, coconuts
5. mechanical dispersal
=explosive dehiscence
seeds are forcibly ejected from fruit
many cast seeds several feet away from
parent plant
eg. violets
Economic Value of Flowering Plants
virtually all crop plants are flowering plants
cooking oils
spices and seasonings
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hardwoods are used for furniture and flooring
musical instruments
commercial products:
latex/rubber
maple syrup
sugar
pharmaceuticals extracted
nightshade belladonna atropine
jimsonweed scopolamine hallucinogenic
native Americans used for puberty rights and
rituals
cork from bark of cork tree
baskets
paper
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