Download Forensic Anthropology

FORENSIC
ANTHROPOLOGY
HISTORY OF FORENSIC
ANTHROPOLOGY
• Forensic anthropologists do not study the structure
and function of bones – their primary role is to
identify each bone, which side of the body it
came from and if there is any sign of disease,
trauma or “taphonomy.”
• Taphonomy refers to anything that affects bodies
and bones after death such as carnivore
scavenging, water damage, tampering with a
body after death.
HISTORY OF FORENSIC
ANTHROPOLOGY
• An interest in anthropology and the studies of
human populations came about when the
Europeans began to colonize the America’s.
• As they encountered the indigenous populations,
they noticed the differences in appearances,
cultures and traditions.
• Early settlers attempted to classify the Native
Americans by their face shapes, heights and what
language they spoke. Unfortunately, this was done
rather haphazardly without much scientific basis.
1849-1938: FORMATIVE PERIOD
• Drs Oliver Wendell Holmes and Jeffries Wyman were
able to match the skeletal remains of a murder with
the suspected victim by matching the height, race
and approximate age to determine that the victim
was Dr. Parkman, who had been murdered by Dr.
John Webster.
• Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species.
Measurements of living organisms and fossils were
studied and the book gave an insight on how
natural selection led to human development and
evolution.
FORMATIVE PERIOD CONTINUED…
• Thomas Dwight – 1894 at Harvard gave a lecture
about human remains being used in the courtroom
and is known as the “Father of Forensic
Anthropology”
• During the early 1900s Hamann Todd and Terry
collections were established.
• Most skeleton were from people who were very poor and
were examples of how bones responded to poor diet and
health.
• Most showed stunted growth, brittle bones
• Very limited set of bones that gave little insight into 20th
century skeletons.
HAMANN-TODD OSTEOLOGICAL
COLLECTION
• In 1911 in Ohio, laws were passed that would allow
anatomy professors to keep the skeletons from the
cadavers that were used in medical study.
• T.W. Todd built a collection of 3600 bodies and 3000
skeletons and built a collection of supporting
materials and documents about the bodies.
• Carl Hamann was very helpful in the organization of
this collection.
TERRY COLLECTIONS
• Robert Terry was a anatomy professor at
Washington University Medical School. He noticed
there was a lack of documented human skeletal
remains – both normal and abnormal specimens.
• His mentor Dr. Huntington was a strong supported of
saving cadavers as well for skeletal remains
research. Also influenced Dr. Todd.
• During 1920’s, collected bodies from local
hospitals and institutional morgues.
• Cadavers were those bodies that were not claimed
and therefore became property of the state.
TERRY COLLECTION
• 1955-1956: Missouri passed the Willed Body Law –
required a signed document that released the body
to medical research.
• Prior to this law, many bodies were those of low
socioeconomic standing, however once families
were “allowed” to donate their bodies to research,
bodies from middle and upper class become more
abundant.
TERRY COLLECTION
• Protocol was collecting, cataloging, maceration and
storage.
• Cadavers that were going to be used for the collection
were only allowed to be used for soft tissue research by
medical students, to leave the skeleton as much intact
as possible.
• Maceration: removing as much soft tissue as possible
without damaging the bone. Hot water soak for 72 hours.
Drying the bone.
• To remove some of the fats: the bones were subjected to
benzene vapors. Dr. Terry did not want all of the fat
removed because he thought it would be helpful in the
bone preservation process.
• The collection being preserved as well as it was is a
testament to Dr. Terry’s foresight.
TERRY COLLECTION
- 60-65% of collection includes anthropometric
measurements and photographs of skeleton.
- Plaster death masks were made before the cadaver
underwent the maceration process. Hair and skin
samples are also included in the collection.
- The collection was transferred to the Smithsonian
Institution to be permanently curated.
- Currently – 1728 specimens with known age, sex,
ethnicity, cause of death and pathological
conditions.
CONSOLIDATION PERIOD 1939 - 1971
• The Human Skeleton in Forensic Medicine is
published by Wilton Krogerman in 1962 – significant
text that is still often used today as a reference.
• Joint POW/MIA Account Command is formed after
World War II in Hawaii. Find, identify and return the
bodies of soldiers who died. Still in use and is
currently the largest identification lab in the world.
MODERN PERIOD 1972-1999
• American Academy of Forensic Sciences
establishes a discipline for forensic anthropology.
• 1977 – American Board of Forensic Anthropology is
created.
• 1980 – Dr. William Bass creates the Body Farm at
University of Tennessee in Knoxville as a research
center for human decomposition and taphonomy.
• FORDISC – computer program determine sex,
ancestry, height from measurements
FOURTH ERA: 2000 - PRESENT
• Ellis Kerley Foundation established to provide
funding for forensic anthropological research.
• JPAC receives accreditation from the American
Society of Crime Laboratory Directions.
BODY FARM
• http://www.jeffersonbass.com/photos_da.php?id=7
• http://video.nationalgeographic.com/video/scienc
e/health-human-body-sci/human-body/body-farmsci/
• http://www.documentarylive.com/watchdocumentaries/the-body-farm
HUMAN SKELETAL ANATOMY
• Skeleton main function is to support the body. It is
considered an endoskeleton – and while it is
incredibly rigid and strong – it is also rather light
weight and allows for easy movement.
• 206 bones in our body, only 20% of our weight.
• Bones come in a variety of shapes and sizes, which
are usually related to their function as well. They
also help in several biological processes as well –
such as producing blood cells, storing minerals and
other substances, buffering our blood.
SKELETAL ANATOMY
• Bones are composed of osteocytes – which arise
from osteoblasts. Osteoblasts are bone-building
cells. Osteoclasts are cells that remove bone.
• Three main substances compose bones: water,
collagen, hydroxyapatite.
HYDROXYAPATITE
• Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2: calcium phosphate derivative.
Makes up about 70% of the mass of a bone and
provides the strength and rigidity.
• Bones are mostly made up of tissues that have
become hardened – and most of this mineralization
of composed of hydroxyapatite.
COLLAGEN
• Protein that is very abundant in the body and provides
flexibility for the bones to allow us to perform daily
activities with bones cracking under pressure.
• There are also cells that exist within this matrix of calcium
phosphate and collagen.
• Osteogenesis Imperfecta: Brittle Bone Disease are
caused by mutations in 4 genes that are responsible for
collagen production.
• Mutations in the COL1A1, COL1A2 gene result in changes to the
amount of collagen produced. Usually very mild forms of the
disease.
• Mutations in the CRTAP, LEPRE1 genes result in misfolding of the
protein and secreting of collagen. More serious forms of the
disease, much more rare.
SKELETAL ANATOMY
• Cortical Bone: also called the compact bone.
Outermost portion of the bone, 80% of mass and
dense. About 5-10% porosity – often found in the
shaft of the long bone.
• Trabecular/Cancellous Bone: also known as spongy
bone. Less dense and much more porous. Provides
ample space for cells, blood vessels, bone marrow.
• Spongy bone is a honeycomb structure – found at
the heads of long bones and inside most other
bones. Usually bones that are stress bearing bones.
SPONGY BONE
• Osteocytes: mature bone cells. Regulate bone
mineralization and bone resorption (osteoclasts that
dissolve the bone).
• Yellow/Red Marrow
• Red Marrow: end of bones closest to the trunk of the
body: red blood cells, platelets and white blood
cells.
• Yellow Marrow: shafts of bones: production of white
blood cells.
IMPORTANT VOCABULARY:
• PROXIMAL: toward head/trunk of the body
• DISTAL: away from head/trunk
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
SUPERIOR (CRANIAL) – UPPER
INFERIOR (CAUDAL) – LOWER
ANTERIOR (VENTRAL) – FRONT
POSTERIOR (DORSAL) – BACK
MEDIAL – TOWARD MIDLINE
LATERAL – AWAY FROM MIDLINE
LONGITUDINAL – HEAD TO FOOT
SAGITTAL – FRONT TO BACK
SUPERFICIAL – TOWARDS SURFACE
DEEP – AWAY FROM SURFACE
IMPORTANT VOCABULARY
• DIAPHYSIS: SHAFT OF LONG BONE
• EPIPHYSIS: PART OF A BONE SEPARATED FROM THE
MAIN BODY OF BONE
• METAPHYSIS: PART OF BONE BETWEEN DIAPHYSIS
AND EPIPHYSIS
• CARTILAGE: TOUGH, FLEXIBLE CONNECTIVE TISSUE,
LINES JOINTS
• FORAMEN: OPENING IN BONE
• SINUS: CAVITY IN BONE
• CREST: RIDGE
• PROCESS: PROJECTION OF BUMP
TYPES OF BONE
1. Long Bones: length is much greater than width.
Most of the bones that make up our arms, legs,
toes and fingers. Exceptions include wrist, ankle
and kneecap.
Long bones are mostly made of compact bone – with
must less spongy bone/marrow. Provide movement.
Grow by lengthening the shaft and are capped at the
ends with growth plates or epiphyses that fuse by
adulthood.
TYPES OF BONES
2. Short Bones: Wide as they are tall. Usually
responsible for support – and not as much movement
as the long bones. Usually
Wrist and foot bones are considered short bones.
Thin layer of compact, large amounts of bone
marrow.
TYPES OF BONES
• 3. Flat Bones: curved/flat. Usually function as a
protector of organs or muscle attachment.
• Skull, scapula, sternum, hip bones, ribs, pelvis.
Composed mostly of compact bone, varying
amount of marrow.
• Flat bones are responsible for much of the red
blood cell production in adults.
TYPES OF BONES
4. Sesamoid bones: bones within tendons to cover a
joint. Kneecap/patella is sesamoid bone.
5. Irregular bones: mostly spongy bone, used for
protection, attachment and support of muscles.
Examples include: hyoid bone – connects tongue to
body. Vertebrae. Mandible bone.
SKELETAL ANATOMY CONTINUED…
AXIAL VS APPENDICULAR SKELETON:
Axial skeleton: head, neck trunk
Appendicular: limbs
Work together through joints, tendons, ligaments.
Tendons: muscles to bone
Ligaments: bone to bone
Mobility, stability, flexibility.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• Question 1: IS IT BONE?
• Forensic anthropologists must be able to discern whether
a substance is a bone, a tooth or another hard
substance.
• If the remains are intact, it is easy to determine whether it
is bone by simply comparing it to known bones.
• However, remains that have been out for long periods of
time can be weathered by the environment, damaged
by animals. In these cases, bones can look like pottery,
stones or other materials.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• The best way to determine whether it is bone or
other material is to do microscopic examination.
• By looking for key features such as the different
layers of bones, the bone matrix, blood vessel and
comparing them to known reference samples we
can determine if it is bone or stone.
IVORY VS BONE
• Ivory is a material that is often mistaken for bones. Ivory
is made mostly of dentine. Due to the ban on elephant
ivory – sometimes bone is used in place of ivory for
carvings, but still hailed as bone.
• Ivory upon inspection will have a unique grain or
pattern.
• Straight lines that are parallel to the length of the tusk.
Perpendicular lines that are circular or V shaped known as
Shreger lines that are unique to mammoth or elephant ivory.
• Bones are incredibly porous and over time these “spaces” turn
dark. Although they can be bleached. You would still be able
to see the canals and porous surface against the light.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
2. IS IT HUMAN?
Most of the time we simply want to determine
whether it is human or animal. We may not be
concerned with what type of animal it is, just if it is
human or not.
Two methods: Macroscopic and Microscopic
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• Macroscopic: size, shape and structure by visually
looking at it. With proper training, it is relatively
easy to discern between animal and human bones.
• Bones that are stumbled upon by people who aren’t
trained usually raise alarms unnecessarily. There
have been cases where bear claws that were
tossed by a hunter have been mistaken for human
hands.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• There are many cases where the bones that an
anthropologist is forced to examine are so
damaged or such a small piece that it is much
more difficult to determine whether or not it is
human. In this case, microscopic techniques are
used.
• This is usually done by microscopically examining a
cross section of the bone, looking for different
orientation and arrangement of the signature
features of the bone.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• Question 3: How old is the bone
When bones are discovered, often by accident by disturbing a
burial site or a construction project – it is important to determine
the age of the bones to determine whether the remains have
any legal or criminal ramifications.
The context of the burial site can often give clues about the time
period in which the remains were buried.
Colonial Americans used to bury their dead with a cloth that
was fastened using a copper. As the copper oxidized, it would
leave a green “stain” on the body. When skeletons were
discovered that all had this green stain, they were able to place
the bones in a historical context.
• http://www.newhavenindependent.org/index.php/
archives/entry/skeleton_found_in_upended_tree_o
n_green/
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
Other observations such as the odor of the bones, whether
or not there is any soft tissue still attached to the bones,
insect life (entomological analysis), stains or bleaching
from the sun can also be helpful in determining the
relative age of the bones.
In some cases, the bones have been subjected to the
elements for such a long period of time that the bones are
very frail and brittle. This gives the investigator an idea that
an incredibly long time has passed.
For very old bones, C-14 dating can be used to determine
a relative age of the remains as well.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
• Prior to completing a biological analysis of the
skeleton to determine “Who is it?” , there are other
things that forensic anthropologists take into
account that help inform their investigation.
• 1. What bones are present?
• 2. How many people are present?
• 3. Are the remains modern or ancient?
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS…
• Forensic anthropologists will pull the remains
and begin to arrange them into their
anatomical position.
• Visual Inventory: Can quickly identify what you
have and what you are still missing.
• Allows for systematic investigation of each bones
and examining them for trauma, pathology,
unique identifying characteristics.
• Once the skeleton is laid out in its anatomical
position – it can be looked at as a whole and see
if there are any patterns in the bone that would
indicate trauma.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS CONTINUED.
• Skeletal inventories allow first responders,
searching volunteers and investigators to
know what they have so they can focus on
what they should be looking for.
• Finally, if certain elements are missing after
a thorough investigation/search – this may
give indicators has to what occurred
perimortem and possibly a clue to what the
perpetrator may have done.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
CONTINUED…
How many people are there?
To determine how many sets of remains there are,
anthropologists will begin to look for duplicate remains. When
two skeletons are found together, they are said to be
comingling.
If they find two femurs, will begin examining those bones to
determine if they came from the same person or not.
Knowing how many bodies are present can be very important if
a crime has been committed. It is important to be able to
determine the number of victims, were they killed together or
dumped there over a long period of time.
ADDITIONAL QUESTIONS
CONTINUED…
• North America and other parts of the world have been
inhabited by several different cultures. As they have had
to bury their dead, they often do so in accordance with
their own customs and traditions.
• The burial site can give investigators many clues as to
whether or not it was a modern or ancient burial. The
context and decomposition of the body will provide a lot
of information.
• Modern dental work and clothing vs objects that are
associated with Native American are more likely to be
someone buried a long time ago.
• More modern burials will often be investigated more
thoroughly to ensure that there is no criminal aspect to the
burial.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• Question 4: Whose Bones is it? Biological Analysis
• This is considered a biological profile: attempt to
identify the person.
• While DNA testing would be ideal, anthropologists
can run into a number of problems with doing a
simple DNA test.
• How much DNA is present to use for analysis. Even with
modern day PCR techniques, skeletal remains can often be
very difficult to get usable DNA from.
• How can we use their DNA to identify a set of remains if we
do not have a DNA profile stored in a database?
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
• Because investigators can rarely use DNA to
confirm an identity, they are left to analyze the
remains.
• The condition of the bones as well as how many
bones are excavated have a dramatic effect on
how well an anthropologist can conduct an
analysis.
• They want to answer questions such as: how old was
the person at the time of death, man or woman,
how tall.
FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY CENTRAL
QUESTIONS
General Description:
After studying the body, anthropologists have
recognized similar patterns within the human body.
One of the important patterns that has been
recognized is the relationship between the size of
bones and the person’s stature.
This is known as an allometric relationship and allows
anthropologists to estimate how tall a person might
have been even though they may not have a full
skeleton.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• How much of the skeleton is found and
which bones we have available to us is
closely related to how successfully we can
estimate the person’s height.
• The best way of estimating height is literally
measuring the skeleton, if it is recovered
intact. However, that is not always the case.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• The long bones are the ones usually used to
determine height: Femur, Tibia, Humerus. The bones
are measured – and this is known as osteometry.
• Mathematical formulas have been developed –
and take into consideration different populations.
Different formulas are used for men, women and
different ethnicities.
• Once the bones have been measured and plugged
into the formula, heights are provided as a range.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Our best guess is to give a range of heights,
because we know that our stature is not a
constant throughout the course of our life.
• In addition – because we are often
comparing these measurements to a driver’s
license or legal document, problems arise
when people are not accurate when
reporting their height.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• It is often nearly impossible to estimate the weight of the
person, as fat layers leaves no “evidence” behind on our
bones.
• Again, the context of the burial site – and any clothes
may give us an indication of their size.
• Muscles do actually leave markings on the bone –
muscles that are used more frequently and developed will
often the tendons used to keep the muscles in place will
leave behind markings on the bone itself.
• If soft tissue is still intact, the muscles themselves may give
us an indication of whether or not they were an athlete,
their “handedness” and even their teeth can tell us a lot of
information.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• 2. Sex of remains
• For many obvious reasons – it is incredibly
useful to know whether or not the remains
belonged to a male or female.
• There are several key differences or sexual
dimorphisms between men and women
skeletons.
• The most important bones to consider are
the pelvic bones, skull and long bones.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Because of the hormonal and biological
differences that exist between men and
women, this often presents itself as different
physiological traits.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• The pelvis bones are not as useful when
dealing with a pre-pubescent set of remains,
because most of these changes occur
during and after puberty. Not enough
sexual dimorphism to be useful.
• In addition, there is a tremendous amount of
variation within people of the same sex.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Pelvis Bones: Most commonly used to determine
sex. About 95% accuracy
• The pelvis is a point where the axial and
appendicular skeletons connect and is made up of
several bones: 2 hip bones, the sacrum and the
coccyx.
Generally speaking:
- Women generally have wider pubic bones to
accommodate childbirth
- Female pelvic bones are wider and the aperture is
more circular.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Symphysis Pubis: located on the front of the
pelvis and is where the two hip bones meet.
• Subpubic angle can be measured here.
Men happen to be sharper and narrower –
female is much broader.
• The sciatic notch can also be examined.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Female
Male
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Another difference between male and
female skeleton occurs in the skull.
• Male skull: more massive. Jaw bones larger,
more square shaped. Where the muscles
attach to skull are more pronounced
(Mastoid process)
• Female skull: more angular, delicate
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Other differences:
Men tend to have stronger, sturdier long bones due to
having to bear more weight.
The female femur is lighter, less muscle attachment
ridges.
This is also to be taken with caution – because there
is a great variability between the same sex and
ethnicity.
We use these features together to point us in the right
direction, and to narrow down the pool of potential
people we are trying to identify.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Over the course of our lives, ossification occurs at 800
points around the body during fetus development – at birth
there are about 405 centers and they will eventually fuse to
form 206 bones in the body.
As they fuse, we can often observe zigzag seams.
By age 30, most of our bones have completely fused.
Therefore, to determine age past that point, we look at how
bone degenerates.
.
One of the most common examples is a baby’s “soft spot.”
At birth, we have many small bones that have not fused yet
– which gives our cranium a lot of flexibility.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• In the long bones, ossification proceeds in a sequential
manner:
• The shafts begin ossification – in the diaphysis and
ossification moves to the ends of the bones – the
epiphyses.
• Eventually the epiphyses and diaphysis fuse together and
form one complete bone. This fusion occurs at different
points in our life, depending on the bone.
• So by looking at how many bones have completed this
fusion, and having a good idea of when these processes
happen – you would be able to estimate the age of an
individual.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Age at time of death: our bodies change as
we age, and our bones are a reflection of
that.
• As we get older, bones fuse and cartilage
becomes bone (ossification) and there are
several markers in this process that will give
us a good idea of the age of remains.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Notice the lines
between the
longer shafts of
the bones and the
tips.
This x-ray is taken
of young knee,
where those two
parts have not
fused yet.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• As our skulls fuse together, anthropologists
will often notice zig zag lines where the
fusion takes place, called sutures.
• These sutures can also be used to determine
age, up to a certain age.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• By your late 20s, most of your bone fusion has
finished, and now cannot be used accurately to
estimate age.
• Instead, bone degeneration is used to estimate
age.
• Joint are a common place to study bone degeneration and
particularly in the pelvis.
• The pubic symphysis changes over the course of the life time –
the two pubic bones change from a rough surface to becoming
much smoother over time.
• The 4th rib can also be used: the cartilage between the end of the
rib will eventually turn to bone and fuse to the sternum over the
course of time.
• Skull sutures appear more “open” in young people but as we
age the sutures fade away and in the elderly they seem invisible.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Teeth are another reliable resource to use for
estimating the age of the deceased.
• As you all know, you have two sets of teeth:
deciduous teeth and permanent teeth.
• Eventually, permanent teeth replace the
“baby” teeth until 32 permanent teeth are
formed and visible above the gum line.
• In some cases, our wisdom teeth – never
appear – although if they do, it typically
occurs around 18 years old.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• The pattern of tooth eruption can be
particularly useful for estimating the age of
young people, less than 20 years old.
• If baby teeth are still present, a victim can
be estimated to be less than 12 years old,
while the lack of wisdom teeth can lead you
to conclude that the victim is less than 1820 years old.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• The wear and tear on teeth can speed up by
poor diet, hygiene or culture practices.
However, we often find this in the teeth of the
elderly. So it is important to take all of this
into consideration.
• Upon investigating, the presence of dentures
will also indicate an elderly victim.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Ancestry of the Decedent: perhaps the most
difficult biological feature to determine. An
educated guess at best.
• Typically the nose, face, head shape,
stature and body proportions will provide the
most information.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Caucasian victim: high bridged nasal bone,
narrower face. Chin is more pronounce and
relatively flat cheek bones. The upper incisors
(teeth) will have a flat lingual surface. (Surface
closest to the tongue).
• Negroid skull: broader nose ridge, wider nasal
opening and subnasal grooves. The jaws are more
outward sloping and the lingual surfaces are also
flat.
• Mongoloid: Lower nose bridge. Skull tends to flatter,
broader and the cheekbones are forward sloping
and almost wing like. The lingual surface of upper
incisors are shovel shaped.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Personal Habits/Individual Characteristics: Genetic,
lifestyle, nutritional, disease, previous injuries can all
be incredibly helpful when trying to identify a set of
remains.
• In terms of lifestyle, it would be helpful to determine
what kind of job the victim held:
• Repetitive movements due to a job will leave their
mark on bones, as excessive wear and tear or even
arthritis. A very physical, load bearing job will result
in “sturdier” bones due to the need to bear more
weight.
• Can determined “handedness” or athlete vs nonathlete.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Dental history is the most obvious indicator of
medical history. Now that we have x-ray
records of most peoples teeth, an x-ray can be
performed on the teeth from a victim to try to
determine a match.
• Any broken bones will also be spotted in an
xray and can be compared to medical records,
metal plates are easily detectable and will
often contain a serial number that is recorded
at the time that it is “introduced” into the body.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Nutritional disorder: when certain vitamins
and minerals are missing from diet –
particularly iron – the marrow space in bone
becomes enlarged – particularly in the skull.
• Vitamin C and D deficiency: scurvy and
rickets – bones are not mineralizing properly
and become too soft and too pliable to
carry the weight of your body.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Certain diseases such as tuberculosis,
osteoporosis, cancer, syphilis and Paget’s
disease will also affect bones.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Syphilis: sexually transmitted disease
associated with bacterium: treponema
pallidum. It belongs to a group of bacteria
called the Treponomes – which cause non
venereal forms of the disease.
The venereal form of the disease most likely
arose from one of the non-venereal forms
through a series of mutations.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• In 1987, Bruce Rothschild reported the chemical
signature of syphilis in skeletal remains of an
11,000 year old bear. In human, the earliest
signs are approximately 2000 years ago.
• Researcher dispute how syphilis arrived in the
“Old World” as it had reached epidemic levels
by 1500.
• Most researchers agree that Columbus and his
crew brought it back when they returned from
the New World. Although, there is some
evidence that it was present in the Old World
prior to this.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
Other researchers believe the disease could
not have come from the New World
exclusively. Remains have been discovered
that also show tell tale signs of the disease.
They have hypothesized that the disease may
have originated out of Southeast Asia which
may explain the migration pattern both to the
Old World and the New World.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Syphilis presents itself in 4 stages, with the 4th
stage being the evidence that is left behind in
the bones:
• Thickening of the lower leg bones and cranial
damage.
• Thickening of the thigh bones, erosion of the skull’s frontal
bones, sabre-like thickening of shin bones and perforation of
the palate.
• While syphilis affects virtually every part of the
body in the 4th stage, we are only left to draw
conclusions based on the skeletal remains.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• Friars that were excavated in 1994 from a friary
that was established in 1316-17.
• 245 skeletons were found, 207 were complete
and it is estimated that at least 60% showed
evidence of syphilis.
• One particular skeleton: 1216: a male between
25-35 and had all of the signs of syphilis.
• Carbon dating estimated him to have been
alive around 1300 – 1420AD – much earlier than
Columbus’ voyage.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION: BIOLOGICAL
PROFILE CONSIDERATIONS
• A second dig of “old” bones from an area near
Pompeii led investigators to a similar
conclusion. However, there is a lack of dental
evidence.
• Upper central incisor teeth that were affected
by congenital syphilis will often have grooves
which are “proof”
• Local Latin medical journals from the time
support the “epidemic” of syphilis in early
Europe – pre Columbus.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• Facial reconstruction try to blend the
skeletal remains with the biological
profile that we have discussed.
• As technology improves, the
techniques to accomplish have
drastically improved.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
Overlay process: comparing a photo of the person to
a photo of the skull.
The two photos have to be scaled to match each
other in size and proportion of key features.
The photos are then superimposed and how much
agreement between features will either support the
identity match or dispute it.
This method only works well when there are key
features of the skull that are unique, such as a unique
nasal bone or a feature with a unique size.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• 2 Dimensional: incorporates both the skull and
anthropological data related to skin tissue depth.
• Artists construct a drawing or likeness based on what the
skull looks like and how the tissue was most likely
arranged on the skull.
• Tissue depth markers are placed on the a photocopy
picture of the skull and then tracing paper is placed over
that so the artist can give the face more fullness where
skin, tissue, muscles would have been.
• This is then compared with a potential photograph and
the artist can put these two things together and create a
final sketch.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• 3D Facial Reconstruction: very similar to the 2D process:
but instead of the tissues being simply drawn, they are
sculpted out of clay.
• Both of these methods use depth markers that will give
an artist an idea of how the tissues would have been on
the face.
• The brow ridge, distance between orbits, shape of nasal
cavity, shape of nasal bones, chin, cheekbones all will
influence what your face actually looks like.
• It is not an exact process, we will not be able to
determine hair color, eye color, shape of the lips, how
how much fat was also present.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• Initially the skull is cleaned, to clear away any
leftover tissue that was found with the remains.
• They use round, rubber markers (usually at least
20) are placed on the specific points around the
actual skull.
• These are used to indicate the depth of the flesh
at those particular locations. This is done using
statistical data after studying peoples skulls,
and how that relates to their actual “face”.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• The depth of the flesh is dependent on male or female, different
ethnicities, age, and what the estimated weight of the person
was.
• The artist then uses strips of clay to join these rubber markers,
and then clay is put underneath to act as supporting “flesh.”
• Facial muscles are added, which are estimated based on the
size and shape of the actual facial bones. Wrinkles can also be
created based on the approximate age of the remains.
• Finally: eyes, ears, nose are added and the skin an be colored.
The hair color and style would be added. These are some of the
most distinguishable and memorable features of a person for
identifying, however – these are approximations and without
any other data – they are just estimates.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
http://anthropology.si.edu/writteninbone/co
mic/activity/pdf/Facial_reconstructions.pdf
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• Computerized facial reconstruction offers significant
advantages because of the speed in which it can
convert digital images of the skull into 3D likeness.
• The skull is rotated and a laser is bounced off the
skull and this produced a digital image of the skull.
Then the computer can use databases to estimate
muscle, fat, skin to place over the skull.
• Another advantage is that it is non-destructive to
the skull and if there are errors made or more
information is discovered – these changes can be
made seamlessly.
FACIAL RECONSTRUCTION
• Some of the problems with facial
reconstruction is that the data that we use to
create the tissues, fat and skin are highly
variable and are an estimate at best.
• Also – some of our features that we see
aren’t strongly supported or visible in the
skeletal remains.
• The shape and size of our lips, ears, eye color, hair – usually
most identifiable.