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Chapter 1
Literature Review
Research question: What do student interviews reveal about the factors that create an inclusive
learning experience for third level students with disabilities, while also enhancing the learning
experience for all students?
The medical model of disability
The individual or medical model of disability is underpinned by what Mike Oliver describes as
the personal tragedy theory of disability (Oliver, 1990, 1). This model of disability locates the
problem within the individual and views the causes as having their basis in the physical and
psychological limitations assumed to arise from disability. The experience of disability is
therefore caused by what can be viewed as an unfortunate set of circumstances experienced by
an individual. The medicalization of this model of disability occurs when the interventions of a
set of professionals are viewed as the solution to the individual’s problems. These professionals
provide accommodations to ensure some quality of life for the individual within what is termed a
normal environment. The individual or medical model of disability has been the traditional
model for many years and has ensured that the life of the person with a disability is determined
by professionals qualified to make decisions on the person’s behalf. The model, therefore, leaves
an individual completely disempowered (Oliver, 1990; Oliver, 1983). It also perceives the
individual with a disability as a problem to be fixed and as one who by definition does not fall
into the category of what is viewed as normal. This attitude does not accept difference as normal,
but sees it only as something to be fixed and changed as far as possible to fit into the norm.
Unfortunately decisions can often be made without the consent of the person with the disability.
The social model of disability
The social model of disability does not look to the individual to explain the disabling experience,
but places the cause squarely within society. It is not individual limitations that are the cause of
the problem, but society’s failure to provide appropriate services and adequately ensure the
needs of disabled people are fully taken into account in its social organization (Oliver, 1990, 1).
It is the interaction of the impairment with society and the environment that creates the disabling
experience and not the impairment itself. The social model views social barriers as the primary
cause of disability with examples being the design of buildings and modes of transport and
communication. The social model therefore sees the discriminatory attitudes and actions of
society as the cause of unnecessary impairment (Barnes and Mercer., 1996).
From the 1960s onwards the social model of disability became a reality as a way forward for
disability activists who began to mobilize in the hope of change. Disabled activists strongly
criticised social scientists who up to now had focused on the medical model of disability and
who viewed the actions of professionals as the solution to the problem. When the international
classification of disability was taking place in the 70s the attitudes of social scientists was
reflected in the WHO adopting the medical model of impairment as the determining factor in
describing a disability. This was highly criticised by disability activists everywhere. Disability
organizations argued for the social model and a definition of disability was drawn up by the
Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS): The disadvantage or restriction
of activity caused by a contemporary social organization which takes no or little account of
people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the
mainstream of social activities UPIAS, 1976, 14). This definition was soon broadened to include
other impairments including sensory and intellectual difficulties and was adopted by
international organizations representing people with disabilities. Disability research continued to
focus on the individual into the 1980s until disability organizations began to fund their own
research to help fight against discriminatory legislation (Barnes and Mercer, 2004).
Emancipatory research
In an effort by disability groups to direct social research to the advantage of people with
disabilities research on disability became allied with the work of oppressed groups like the black
civil rights movement, feminists and educationalists. Social research up to now was looked upon
negatively by people with disabilities and seen as having no positive impact on their everyday
lives. It had no role in informing badly needed progress in policy and practice in areas directly
affecting the lives of people with disabilities (Oliver, 1992; Hunt, 1981). Critical research theory
was set to become the way forward if social research was to be turned to the advantage of the
disabled person rather than to the advantage of the researcher. Critical social research has
therefore been adopted by disability researchers over the past two decades and researchers are
setting emancipatory objectives. At the crux of emancipatory research is the need to approach
disability by changing the relationship between researcher and those being researched and the
links between the research projects and the objectives of those funding the research. By adopting
a social model of disability the disabling factors of society are focused upon and not the
individual’s impairment; objectives that aim to change the world for the better and not just
describe it are set (Barnes and Mercer 2004, 12-14; Barnes and Mercer, 1997, 4-6).
However, it is not as simple as the researcher giving power to the researched, the social world is
not separated into such neat blocks making it easy to identify those who are oppressed and those
who are responsible for causing the oppression. Though emancipatory research should be
empowering it is important that it is reflective and self critical. Having distinct objectives
disability research must be rigorous in its approach, but not be reduced to propaganda (Barnes
and Mercer, 1997, 7). Neither is it wise to base research theory upon the social model without
acknowledging that there are areas of difficulty for the person with a disability that do not relate
to the social environment (Thomas, 1999). Social research can be conducted within social model
thinking, but accept that impairment has a direct affect on the life of a person with a disability.
Sociologists have differed to what degree such a separation is possible (Thomas, 1999; Oliver,
1996; Mole, 2008, 13).
Inclusive education
The social model of disability has informed a theoretical approach to education creating the term
inclusive education (Mole, 2008 13). The term took hold in the 1990s when educationalists
fighting for the rights of people with disabilities began to lobby governments to create an
educational environment in which students with disabilities could enjoy a fair and equal
education. These demands were not made as accommodations required to make it possible for
students with disabilities to be integrated, but rather as basic issues of equity and human rights
ensuring an inclusive educational experience for all.
The UNESCO conference on special educational needs in 1994 at Salamanca produced a
manifesto clearly placing inclusive education as an issue of discrimination and human rights.
Ireland was one of 92 countries who signed up to the Salamanca statement, thereby agreeing to
adopt an attitude of inclusion in policy and practice. Though it is true that segregated education
for students with disabilities has never existed in third level education this does not mean that
students have enjoyed an inclusive experience. To create an inclusive experience a college needs
to be aware of the architectural, institutional, informational and attitudinal environment that
people with disabilities encounter throughout the college. It must examine its disability services,
policies, practices and activities to ensure that it incorporates this new definition into the
institution culture (Mole, 2008 21; Kroeger and Schuck, 1993, 104)
Legislation in Ireland supporting the rights of students with disabilities is the Education Act
1998, The Education for Special Educational Needs Act (EPSEN) 2004, the Equal Status Acts
2002/04, and the Disability Act 2005. As the EPSEN Act is specifically addressed to students
under 18 years of age, the legislation most applicable to students in third level are the Equal
Status Acts 2002/04 and the Disability Act 2005. These acts support a third level student’s legal
right to an inclusive experience in third level education in Ireland and inclusion is now
recognized as an issue of human rights and equity of access. It must be a central issue in policy
and practice and the availability of an inclusive educational experience in third level must be
treated as a quality assurance issue.
For this to work we need to be willing to redesign the learning and assessment process to ensure
that all students are included. Different students learn differently and a broader spectrum of
teaching and assessment methods can help address difference in the classroom.
The approach to supporting students with disabilities in third level education has been one of
accommodations to help level the playing field, but it is important that this is looked at in an
inclusive manner. If the disabling experience of an individual with a disability arises from a
deficiency in attitude and practice within an institution then the approach needs to be one not of
accommodation, but one that resolves the issue via creating an inclusive experience for the
individual. This resolves the issue permanently and ensures that continuous accommodations
need not be arranged for individual students. If disability is socially caused then changes in
social organization can increase or decrease the number of disabled people in society (Oliver
1998, 64; Mole, 2008 6). If policy in environmental, teaching, learning and assessment issues is
drawn up in an inclusive manner individual accommodations can be avoided in the future.
However, there will always be problems that will not be resolved via the social model route and
which will require personal accommodations and the case for these needs cannot be lost in the
fight for an inclusive environment. This has been acknowledged in the literature (Mole, 2008
25). Each individual deals with their impairment in an individual way and will interact with the
social environment differently. It is therefore important that each student is treated as an
individual and that an understanding of the students needs comes from the individual concerned.
Even when the ideal of a learning environment based upon social model thinking is achieved,
and a student due to personal impairment still requires individual accommodations then these
requirements need to be addressed. In providing individual accommodations it should remain the
objective that independence is the goal.
Universal design
The concept of Universal Design first surfaced in 1985 in the context of architecture (Mole,
2008, 24). Designing a building to accommodate the needs of all people whatever their
impairment or background ensures that no alterations be required in hindsight. The goal is to
create a product suitable for the widest use possible by the widest number of people at a
marketable cost. By the mid 90s the approach was promoted in the area of product design and
information access. The concept of universal design has now come to be employed by
educationalists and educational institutions wishing to create an inclusive learning environment.
Adopting universal design as an educational tool without the support of good social theory can,
however, carry its own difficulties and situations can be created in which minority groups may
sometimes be overlooked. It is therefore essential that the use of universal design as an
educational tool be underpinned by the social model of disability.
Universal design is now employed by many third level educational institutions in the US and
elsewhere as a tool to help ensure social model thinking is adhered to in providing equity of
access to education. In creating a learning environment, universally designed in terms of physical
accessibility, information accessibility and promoting accessible curriculum design and delivery
UD can be used as a tool to ensure considerable reduction in disability throughout college. Thus
numbers of students registering with a college disability support service can be reduced and the
many students with hidden disabilities not currently registered with such services will be
accommodated also. It is necessary to stop thinking ‘special’ because special means separate
(Kroeger and Schuck 1993, 105-6; Mole, 2008, 22).
University College Cork
In accordance with the aims of the National Plan for Equity of Access 2008 -2013, University
College Cork’s strategic plan 2009-2012 has put in place procedures to increase the numbers of
non traditional students entering the university. The Mature Students’ office, the UCC Plus+
scheme and the Special Admissions scheme for students with disabilities have endeavoured to
increase these under-represented groups within the student population. The Direct Access Route
to Education or DARE scheme allows students with disabilities enter the university with a
reduced points ratio and the Higher Education Access Route or HEAR scheme applies a similar
system to prospective students from a low socio economic background. As a result the numbers
of students with disabilities, students from lower socio-economic backgrounds and mature
students are increasing each academic year. Numbers of international students also increase as
the university works to draw in more students from both inside and outside the EU. The
traditional university student in Ireland has for years been from a white middle-class background,
but this traditional group is being forced to give way to a significant and growing non-traditional
minority group within the student population. Though the diversity of the student body is
changing, curriculum design and delivery has for the most part not altered to accommodate this
growing diverse student body. This presents the challenge to promote inclusive curriculum,
involving teaching practices that include teaching, learning and assessment methods that are
proactive in responding to the diverse needs of the student population.
There are approximately 700 students with disabilities currently registered with the Disability
Support Service at University College Cork and this is expected to rise over the coming
academic year. These include students with visual impairments, hearing impairments, physical
disabilities, specific learning difficulty (dyslexia), development coordination disorder
(dyspraxia), attention deficit disorder (ADD), mental health difficulties, asperger’s syndrome and
significant ongoing illness. All students are assessed for their needs and students apply to the
European Social Fund to receive financial support to provide for needs such as assistive
technology, IT training, alternative media, note takers, educational assistants, personal assistants,
special exam arrangements etc. Though many of these supports are crucial, especially for
students with severe disabilities, to be able to sustain this level of support for the growing
number of students will become unrealistic in financial terms. The long term objective of the
Disability Support Service has always been to make each student as independent as possible, but
this will require a far greater awareness of inclusive curriculum throughout the college. This is
vital if students are to gain full and equal independence in their studies and subsequently become
as employable as their peers. Assistive technology skills have played a strong part in bringing
this objective forward, but the role of the academic as teacher must be a key part of creating an
independent and inclusive experience for the student.
The Disability Support Service has strived to create good relations with departmental staff from
all college departments and has invited teaching and library staff to attend information sessions
on how to address the needs of students with disabilities in their classes. All academics have also
been provided with handbooks on how to provide for the needs of these students. This approach
has had limited success and depends upon academics attending information sessions and on their
studying the booklets provided. Even academics interested find it difficult to pencil in extra time
in their busy calendar. The only approach available up to now for the Disability Support Service
has been one which needs to draw people’s interest to the disability issue as an important but
none the less new and separate topic to be addressed in their work. It is a challenge to promote an
institutional attitude that does not see inclusion as ‘add ons and fix its’. Inclusion can only be
achieved in the design process if curriculum is to have the flexibility and variety to address the
needs of all students.
Current research
In conjunction with research developments into teaching, learning and assessment in recent years
developments have also been taking place in the area of best practice in teaching learning and
assessment for students with disabilities. Much progress has taken place in identifying and
promoting best practice in teaching students with disabilities at Strathclyde University. The
Teachability Project was funded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council from 1999 to
2006 to create a series of publications of benefit to academics wishing to create an inclusive
learning experience in their classrooms. The project has developed a web site providing many
resources to teachers working in all areas of higher education to help them improve and evaluate
the accessibility of their programs of study (www.teachability.strath.ac.uk). The resource has
been of benefit to colleges all over the UK and beyond. The Disability Discrimination Act 2002
placed much pressure on third level institutions in the UK to make their courses accessible and
explicitly criticised ad hoc reactive provision of inclusive curriculum. This legislative pressure
was to ensure that the results of the project were put to good use.
A study conducted in the UK was prompted by a situation in which universities are realizing that
many students with hidden disabilities choose not to disclose their presence by registering with a
disability support service, while numbers registering with the service are also increasing (Fuller,
Bradley and Healey, 2004). It is therefore becoming unrealistic to support students with
disabilities in third level by providing accommodations employed to address difficulties through
a disability support service. This awareness is causing institutions to wake up to the realization
that the problems of students with disabilities are going to need to be addressed within the
mainstream arena. The point is made that it is not until institutions consult their disabled students
directly that they will become aware of the difficulties and barriers faced by disabled students. It
was based upon this premise and a scarceness of student centred research that the study took
place.
During discussions with students they were inclined to focus on barriers and difficulties
experienced in learning and assessment, but after a little encouragement they also revealed
instances in which they experienced what they would see as good practice in teaching, learning
and assessment. There were many difficulties surrounding communication and the receiving of
information. Receiving notes handouts and other information vital to a positive academic
experience were often nonexistent or late. The study found that some students were inclined to
choose modules in which assessment methods best suited their disability. Students felt that
modules with a variety of assessments were good. It was also discovered students differed in
their willingness to seek support for their impairment, had experienced widely different levels of
support from teaching staff and appeared to be very differently placed in terms of seeking
support for what was on offer.
A recent publication presents an in depth study of four academic institutions in Britain
examining the extent to which these institutions have reacted to the Disability Discrimination
Act (Fuller et.al., 2009). The enactment of this legislation addresses the moving away from a
specialist service approach to individual needs of a student and focuses upon the implementation
of mainstream teaching learning and assessment practices that address the needs of all students.
Apart from the legislation the book also highlights the role of the growing diversity in the student
population as a force for change in teaching learning and assessment practices. This has caused
institutions to begin to recognise widening access to teaching learning and assessment for
disabled students as an essential part of their quality assurance agenda. The study also examined
changes to curriculum design and delivery by specific teachers and how this had impacted on the
students. Lecturers’ perspectives on making such adjustments were also reflected upon in the
study. How students felt barriers existed or were being dismantled was of course an important
feature of the study.
This British study was a large study and interviewed nearly fifty students with a variety of
disabilities throughout four institutions. For comparative purposes a sample of non-disabled
students from one university was also included in the research. The study also examined the
variety of needs of students studying in different departments and faculties.
The TIC project
A project promoting curriculum inclusion and funded by the Strategic Initiative Fund has been
taking place at Trinity College Dublin (www.tcd.ie/CAPSL/TIC). The Trinity Inclusive
Curriculum project or TIC project has been researching and investigating the experience of
mature students, students from a low socio economic background, students with disabilities and
students whose first language is not English who are studying at the college. The first phase of
this project involved the planning of a survey questionnaire by means of consulting the relevant
offices that support these categories of student while also consulting the Student Union office.
The second phase of the study was the distribution, collection and analysis of the mostly
quantitative data contained in the survey. Questions were asked in the following areas: general
academic experiences, student information, teaching and assessment methods, academic
facilities, academic support services and effects of non-traditional status on academic
experiences. 493 students responded to the study with 85% completing it fully. This was a
response rate of 25%-30%. Various examples of barriers to learning, as well as examples of good
practice, were highlighted in the study and these are discussed in the research findings under 3
themes: 1. Effects of non-traditional status on academic experiences. 2. Teaching and assessment
methods. 3. Student information. Of the 3 groups the results showed that students with
disabilities were far more likely to feel that their status within the diverse group had a negative
effect on their academic experience (Garvey, 2009).
Regarding teaching and assessment, the study found that there was great variety in students’
preference and that preferences were purely individual and not based upon the non-traditional
status of the student. With regard to the provision of information such as class handbooks, class
notes and handouts etc., many respondents to the survey felt that timely distribution of this data
in a clear format was crucial to a positive learning experience. This was especially important to
students with disabilities for whom the provision of handouts and notes prior to a lecture was
very important (Garvey, 2009).
The results of the survey overall concluded that non-traditional students did not constitute a
homogenous group. Non-traditional students come from a variety of backgrounds, face a variety
of challenges and respond to these challenges in individual ways. Thus the study report
concludes that it is important to use a range of teaching and assessment methods and resources in
order to care for the assorted strengths and preferences of the diverse student population. The
study did state, however, that communication was important and that clear, accurate and timely
provision of information played a large role in eliminating many different barriers to learning.
The project reacted to this phase of the study by creating a template for departments to follow in
the designing of student course handbooks and also created an Internet tool to help academics to
reflect on the design and delivery of programs of study in order to maximise inclusion. The goal
is to incorporate the use of this tool into current college procedures including program/module
design, quality review and teaching awards. The tool is supported by a website providing
resources, guidelines and templates for all staff involved in teaching, learning and assessment.
The report finally concludes that ‘an inclusive teaching and learning environment can only be
accomplished by a co-operative effort by the whole college community. It is necessary to
recognise that non-traditional students are a permanent addition to modern university
classrooms and that it is becoming increasingly unsustainable to rely totally on specialist
services to meet their needs. Furthermore, treating disability or widening participation in
isolation will never achieve a holistic cultural approach to inclusive service provision (Ball,
2009, 3). This Trinity study also concludes by pointing out that no comparable study has been
conducted with traditional students, but that work elsewhere indicates that there is considerable
overlap in academic difficulty experienced by both traditional and non-traditional students
(Gravestock, 2009; Healy et al., 2006). Any inclusive practices adopted to overcome these
challenges will, therefore, be of great value to all students. The report closes with the suggestion
that a study of the academic experience of all students within Irish academic institutions might
provide results of great value to those interested in an inclusive higher education environment
(Garvey, 2009).
The Association for Higher Education Access and Disability (Ahead) have recently issued a
Charter on inclusion for Irish third level institutions. This charter was drawn up after extensive
input from the many bodies and individuals involved in teaching and learning in higher
education. The charter states that inclusion is a quality assurance issue which should capture the
voice of all minority groups. Teaching should be practiced in a manner that allows all students to
fully take part in all activities and minimize the need for additional adjustments. Access to course
materials is an important issue and creative and innovative teaching methods should be practiced.
It also states that learning outcomes and assessment methods should be very clearly outlined to
students from the beginning of a course if students are to receive a clear understanding of what is
required from the outset. It is important that accessible formats are used for students and proper
training is made available for staff. Active learning is important for all students to gain a full
grasp of concepts being taught. The charter also states that formative assessment is a very good
way to ensure that effective teaching methods are being employed. A teacher needs to always be
aware that every individual learns in different ways. Assessment practices need always to be
student centred, flexible, transparent and fair. A high quality learning experience for all students
is key to achieving equality and wider participation in higher education. The National Plan for
Equity of Access to Higher Education 2008-2013 states that good practice for access becomes
good practice for all learners throughout the institution.
SOTL
The Scholarship of Teaching and Learning or SOTL has done much to establish teaching as a
scholarship in its own right (Boyer 1990) and provides criteria for scholarship (Shulman1999;
McCarthy 2011, 3). Much of the debate on teaching and learning has developed from the
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and subsequently from the Carnegie
Academy for the Advancement of Teaching and Learning. Boyer challenged the current attitude
of universities regarding the focus on research over teaching and asked instead what it means to
be a scholar? Boyer established a whole new paradigm of scholarship comprising the dimensions
of the scholarship of discovery, the scholarship of integration, the scholarship of application and
the scholarship of teaching. This was a whole new approach to gathering, integrating applying
and presenting knowledge of a discipline. It soon became obvious that each dimension of
scholarship was embedded in the other and that they were each closely intertwined. Handling
complex concepts in the classroom via methods requiring performance and interactive learning
was important if each dimension was to be applied. Donald Schon (1995) highlighted that it was
not possible to deal with difficult and complex teaching and learning classroom issues by
depending on positivist methods alone, but that it was necessary to adopt an action research or
reflective practice approach to study one’s work in the classroom (McCarthy, 2011, 14-31).
Lee Shulman further developed the scholarship of teaching by making clearer exactly how this
can be done. He determined that to become scholarship the scholarship of teaching must contain
the 3 attributes of being public, being open to critical review by one’s peers and be available for
generic use and development. He also suggests that this is best achieved among a community of
scholars. The focus is to be taken off the teaching and placed upon the learning, that is the
learning of both the student and the teacher. This brings the process of teaching and learning into
the open where it can be seen, and benefited from rather than being lost forever to the benefit of
anyone. This approach distinguishes the difference between good teaching and scholarly
teaching and highlights the importance of how all teachers can benefit their teaching and the
teaching of others by taking a scholarly approach to their work (McCarthy, 2011, 32-40).
As I am not currently teaching and am conducting research on behalf of the Disability Support
Service I will focus on listening to the student voice and making implications for SOTL. The
proposed study is a student centred study which by interviewing students will analyse and reflect
upon the practice of teaching and learning as it unfolds in the classroom, thus having SOTL
implications for how teaching and learning might be researched and made visible. The approach
will provide qualitative data to help reflect upon the learning experiences of students and the
research is intended to be of use to teachers as they in turn reflect upon their own teaching.
No student centred study on inclusive practices in teaching, assessment and curriculum design
has taken place at University College Cork and I am mapping the territory for the first time. My
contribution, therefore, is to open up this field to possible further investigation. The proposed
study is not a large study, but could play a vital role as a pilot for further work in this area at the
university. The work will focus on students from the Arts and Social Sciences and collect and
analyse rich qualitative data from both students with disabilities and non-disabled students by
means of several case study type interviews. The advantages of adopting MI theory and TFU in
one’s teaching will be considered throughout the analysis of the data. This has implications for
reflective practice and encourages teachers to take a scholarly approach to teaching.