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Unit 1, Lesson 2 Thematic Essays and European Geography Essential Questions • What is the process for writing introductory and body paragraphs for a thematic essay? • What is the process for writing a conclusion for a thematic essay? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 2 2 Set the Stage In order to receive a high score on the AP European History Exam, you must have a broad knowledge of Europe in terms of its geography, political units, and historical themes. While the AP test won’t directly test your geographical knowledge, you’ll still need to understand the physical and political structures of Europe in order to fully grasp historical events. Some questions on the exam will require simple fact recall; others will require you to synthesize ideas in an essay. On the day of the exam, you’ll encounter two types of essay questions: the document-based essay, and the thematic essays. The thematic essays will test your ability to recall information and understand broad historical topics. Thematic essays are typically written in the five-paragraph essay format. Review: Writing a Five-Paragraph Essay On the College Board Exam (AP test) for European History, you’ll have to write two thematic essays. The thematic essay questions are designed to assess your understanding of historical themes and concepts along with your ability to formulate clear and logical responses. The thematic essay questions are typically straightforward and address various historical topics from 1450 to the present. You’re expected to respond using facts and information from memory. The questions will also require you to analyze, assess, and evaluate causes and effects of particular historical subjects. It’s vital that you completely answer the question that is asked, as failure to do so will result in a lower score. To make sure you answer the question completely, create a simple outline before you begin writing your essay. Higher-scoring essays typically follow the standard five-paragraph essay format: • • • • • introductory paragraph, including topic sentence, organizational statement, and thesis statement body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis body paragraph with supporting evidence and analysis concluding paragraph Writing an Introduction Begin your thematic essay with a strong introductory paragraph that introduces the essay’s subject and answers the question posed in general terms. First, write a topic sentence. The topic sentence should provide appropriate historical context and demonstrate that you, the writer, have a firm understanding of the essay topic. The the topic sentence must also act as a hook, grabbing the interest of the reader. After the topic sentence, write an organizational statement, stating the three topics that you’ll cover in detail in the body paragraphs. Finish your introduction with a thesis statement. The thesis statement should address the entire essay question and clarify your position. To recap, a good introduction includes the following: Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 2 • • • 3 topic sentence organizational statement thesis statement Writing a Body Paragraph After the introduction, write three body paragraphs. Collectively the body paragraphs should contain the necessary details, examples, assertions, and evidence to support the thesis statement. Each paragraph should address a discrete topic, as you outlined in your organizational statement. An effective body paragraph begins with a topic sentence that provides focus for the rest of the paragraph and introduces two or three related examples that support the thesis statement. Don’t simply list examples; explain why each example is important, what it means, and how it ultimately relates to the thesis statement and the thematic essay question. Remember: In essay writing, more doesn’t always mean better. Choose only examples that are clearly connected to the topic sentence; you don’t want to draw attention away from the main point of the essay. The final sentence of a body paragraph should summarize the information as well as act as transition to the ideas discussed in the next paragraph. Here is the structure of a typical body paragraph: • • • • • • 1 Self-check What is the basic structure of a fiveparagraph essay? topic sentence fact/example related to the topic sentence commentary on the example another fact/example commentary summarizing sentence Writing a Conclusion If you’ve written a solid introduction and body, a strong conclusion can add significantly to your final score. Your conclusion contains your final words—your last chance to positively influence the AP grader. The conclusion should review the body of your essay and restate your thesis. The conclusion is also an opportunity to venture outside of the question asked and make additional analytical points. For example, if the thematic essay question focused on secular humanism, the concluding paragraph might mention Petrarch, Machiavelli, and Bruni, all of whom would have been discussed previously in the body paragraphs, and then Guidelines for writing a conclusion What to do: • What to avoid: Review the information in the body of the essay • Adding new information • Phrases beginning with in conclusion, • Restate the thesis statement in summary, in closing, or • Add additional analytical points I have proven that . . . Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 2 4 state the influence of these humanists on later writers. Be careful, however, not to include new supporting evidence (new statistics, quotations, or other facts) in your conclusion—your body paragraphs alone should support your thesis. Avoid beginning phrases with in conclusion, in summary, or in closing. Also, never assume the reader agrees with the essay, and avoid writing I have proven that . . . . Guard against making emotionally charged statements that might negatively influence the AP grader. Here is an example of a strong concluding paragraph: Throughout this tumultuous time of warfare and clinical upheaval (from the sixteenth through the eighteenth centuries), many people devoted themselves to science and to the progress of science. Science contended with religion and sparked new philosophical concepts. The Scientific Revolution was a major step in changing not only Europe, but the rest of the world. In your conclusion, consider that AP European History Exam writers craft thematic essay questions to represent some of the most important themes of the course. Use your conclusion to show your grasp of the larger AP European History curriculum. For example, suppose an essay question asked you to evaluate the economic and political factors accounting for the failure of the German Weimar Republic (1918–1933). In your conclusion, you might consider why the Weimar Republic disappeared in 1933 in the context of the period between the two world wars. Here is an example written by a student writer: The Weimar Republic was almost doomed to fail. This government came into power at the end of a destructive war. This seminal attempt to establish democracy in Germany could not overcome the deleterious effects of the Great Depression, the lack of democratic history in Germany, and the humiliation incurred by the Treaty of Versailles. Shortly after the fall of this republic, Hitler came to power with the force of totalitarian rather than democratic rule. 2 Self-check What is the purpose of a concluding paragraph? Physical and Political Geographic Locations on the Blank and Current European Map The history of mankind is closely linked with the earth’s varied geographic and climate zones. Europe is a prime example of this relationship, and the environmental inheritance of the European continent should not be ignored when discussing its history. Europe’s environment has shaped economic activities, cultural practice, political forms, and even fashion. Europe’s diverse climate has allowed farmers to cultivate a variety of essential grains, vegetables, and fruits and raise numerous domesticated animals, providing sources of wealth and health unrivaled by most of the world. Geographically, Europe contains abundant natural resources for a wide range of manufacturing and industrial activities, including mining, metallurgy, and textile production. This rich geographic inheritance has given Europe its economic vitality and an ability to control markets and resources abroad. The geography of Europe is thus directly linked with historical developments, such as exploration and imperialism, as well as the Commercial and Industrial Revolutions. Geographic Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 2 5 context acts as a major theme in this Contemporary Map of Europe course and is amply showcased in the ongoing tension between the identities of individual nations and the common heritage of “Europe.” In order to understand Euro- pean history, knowledge of European geography is essential. Europe is an oddly shaped peninsula gouged with numerous inlets, seas, bays, and gulfs. Islands, both small and large, punctuate Europe’s waters. The continent narrows toward the Atlantic in the west. In the east, it widens into a great plain as it joins the vast Eurasian landmass. Its northern and southern latitudes place Europe in a temperate climate zone that is ideal for a variety of agricultural products. Most European countries experience wide variations between summer and winPhysical and political outline map of Europe ter temperatures, although this is less true of nations close to the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea. Although Europe is the second smallest of the seven continents—only Australia is smaller—it contains numerous geographical zones. Several large rivers roll through the land, while high mountain ranges and rich plateaus dot the landscape. Because of its diversity, the European landmass has proven difficult for one political entity to control. The Roman Empire failed to entirely subjugate the continent, and subsequent nations have proven likewise unable to act as a unifying force. The current European Union (EU), established in 1993 as an economic and political alliance of European countries, has perhaps come closest to creating unity among Europe’s diverse populations. Yet despite the EU’s successes, European countries have retained their own languages, cultures, and political forms. Even Self-check today, Europe consists of a variety of nation-states, city-states, republics, monarchies, Why hasn’t Europe ever and empires. There are numerous contested border regions and multiple centers been united under a of power. Although much common ground exists among the nations of Europe, single political unit? sufficient diversity has prevented a strong and shared identity from emerging. As a result, conflicts between groups have all too often resulted in warfare. 3 Extensions • Access Thematic Essay Questions from the College Board website for AP European History. Practice underlining the key words in each question. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 2 6 Summary The ability to craft a logical, well organized, and thorough essay is one of the most important skills for any student to acquire. The basic five-paragraph historical essay is a format that you will find useful throughout your academic career. Throughout this course, you will be encouraged to write free response or thematic essays in order to develop your writing skills. Thematic essay questions discuss broad historical topics that rely on historical recall and the ability to demonstrate a broad understanding of historical concepts and themes. One of the most important aspects of the five-paragraph essay is the final paragraph, or conclusion. In the conclusion, you have a final opportunity to influence AP graders and to stress your understanding of the topic. In addition to improving your writing skills, you will also be expected to gain a broad knowledge of European geography. The relationships between neighboring countries and between individual countries and the environment have had an extraordinary impact on the continent’s history. So gaining a basic understanding of European geography is essential to scoring well on the AP European History Exam. Looking Ahead The importance of geography and its influence on history cannot be ignored. A nation’s location, relative to other countries and to important geographical features, can have powerful positive or negative effects. A geographically wellsituated nation often has a greater political influence. By contrast, a nation with fewer geographic advantages may find its position unfortunate in times of war or expansion. Because of its varied geography, Europe has never been united as a single political unit, but instead a collection of peoples and nations joined only by a shared name. In fact, the European continent was named after a Greek nymph named Europa, a mythological being whose story highlights the restless spirit of inquiry that has dominated European history. This myth can perhaps provide some insight into the relationship between European geography and history. Self-Check Answers 1. Introductory paragraph, including thesis 3. While there is no all-encompassing simple answer statement; body paragraph with supporting evidence; body paragraph with supporting evidence; body paragraph with supporting evidence; concluding/summarizing paragraph 2. The concluding paragraph acts as a summary and demonstrates the larger relevance of the question and the information discussed. to this question, one of the most basic reasons for European disunity is related to its varied geography. With so many differences in geographical features and climate, various populations have successfully fostered their own languages, cultures, and political units, which are not easily unified. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 Mythical Origins and Historical Realities of European Geography SW EDEN Baltic Sea L ITHUAN IA RU SSIA B E L ARU S P O L AN D G ER MA NY C ZEC H R EP U B L I C U KR AIN E SLOVAKIA AU S T R I A Essential Questions • What are some of the costs and benefits of various European nations’ geographical location? • What is the mythical origin and historical reason for using the word Europe to define the western part of the Eurasian continent? Keywords first partition of Poland 1772 second partition of Poland 1793 third partition of Poland 1795 Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 8 Set the Stage Geography plays an important role in shaping history. Much of a nation’s potential for greatness or mediocrity lies in its geographic location. Nations with ready access to warm water ports have often enjoyed advantages over landlocked neighbors in terms of trade and military effectiveness. Large mountains, deep rivers, and vast deserts offer some countries natural borders that can be far more effective than any man-made barrier. Fertile soil enables crops to grow to feed a hungry nation, while a more rocky terrain can breed poverty or a martial spirit. European history is filled with examples of times when a nation’s geographic location played a pivotal role in political, cultural, economic, and military developments. Thus, history and geography are intimately entwined, and to study one is to study both. Costs and Benefits of Various Countries’ Location Europe contains approximately 50 distinct countries, ranging in size from the massive Russia, which covers 652,800 square miles (17,075,400 km²), to microstates like the Vatican City, which is enclosed on a mere 2 square miles (3 km²). The geographical location, boundaries, and natural resources of each European country bring with them a variety of costs and benefits. Some countries border the vast Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea or are protected by natural mountain borders. Other nations are locked in the interior or have no natural borders. The strength of a nation’s borders, along with its access to warm-water ports, can go a long way toward determining its military, economic, and political status. Likewise, while some countries have abundant natural resources or rich fertile soil, others must struggle to survive in harsh conditions. People living in more geographically blessed nations often enjoy a higher standard of living and health, which in turn contributes to the overall strength of the nation. Consider for a moment various European nations and the costs and benefits of their geographic locations. • • • • • • • • Why does Poland’s geographical location make it ripe for annexation by other countries? How has Russia’s limited access to warm-water ports influenced its foreign policies and economic development? What geographic advantages helped Great Britain become the first industrialized nation? What are some of the relative costs and benefits of Britain’s geographic isolation from continental Europe? What issues might have arisen from the close proximity of Ireland, Scotland, Wales, and England? How did Italy’s location account for the rise of the Renaissance? Why did Protestantism flourish in northern Europe while Catholicism remained firmly rooted in southern Europe? Why are most European capitals are located on major rivers? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 • • • How did France’s geographic location benefit Napoleon in his quest for European domination? What disadvantages might a landlocked power like Austria face over the course of European history? What advantages could a mountain stronghold like Switzerland enjoy over the course of European history? Poland (A Case Study of the Impact of Geographic Location) While the geographic location of every country has its relative costs and benefits, it is perhaps useful to focus on a single nation as a case study to more fully understand the impact of geography on history. Poland’s geographical location has had a tremendous influence on its history and its relationship with neighboring nations. One of the largest countries in central Europe, it covers 120,726 square miles (312,679 km²) and includes numerous geographic regions, including mountains, forests, deserts, and plains. Poland is bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus, and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and a Russian enclave to the north. As you read the following brief history of Poland, consider how its geographic location has influenced events both positively and negatively. Poland first emerged as a nation in the tenth century under the leadership of the Piast dynasty (966–1385). Polish history traditionally begins in 966, when Prince Mieszko I (c. 930–992) converted to Roman Catholicism and aligned his nation with the culture of western Europe rather than with the Greek Orthodox religion and the culture of eastern Europe. For more than four centuries, the Piast dynasty ruled Poland successfully and with great tolerance. The nation soon boasted a large minority population, including a sizable Jewish community. Poland, however, remained vulnerable due to its lack of natural borders. From 1240 to 1241, the Mongols attacked Poland, but they were defeated by an alliance between the Polish government and various Christian military orders. During the first half of the thirteenth century, the nation engaged in a long struggle against the Teutonic Knights over territorial rights in western Poland. In order to combat the militant crusading order, a new Polish dynasty, the Jagiellon (1385–1569), was established. The new dynasty united Poland and Lithuania in 1385, after the Grand Duke Jagiello of Lithuania married the Polish Queen Jagwiga. The newly created Polish-Lithuanian union defeated the Teutonic Knights in 1410 at the battle of Grunwald (also known as the Battle of Tannenberg). Yet despite this military victory, the new nation failed to create a strong centralized government. By the end of the sixteenth century, the Polish monarch had been reduced to an elected position that was dependent upon the nobility. The nobles, to lessen central authority even further, increasingly selected foreign princes to serve as the Polish constitutional monarch. In 1569, legislative power was transferred entirely to the noble class, who redesigned the nation as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (1569–1795). A constitutional monarchy remained in place, but the monarch served only as a figurehead. During the sixteenth century, Poland experienced a “golden age” and expanded its borders, briefly becoming the largest nation in Europe. But invasions Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. 9 10 Unit 1, Lesson 3 by Sweden and Russia in the early seventeenth century soon ravaged the country and considerably reduced its territory. Still, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth remained a significant player in European politics until the end of the century, Self-check helping to defeat the Ottoman Turks during the Muslim invasion of Europe in How did Prince Mieszko’s 1683. Over the course of the next century, however, Poland’s political and military conversion to Roman power waned, a situation exasperated by an inflexible constitution that granted to Catholicism change the every noble veto power to stop parliamentary sessions. course of Polish history? While other formerly great powers such as Spain and Sweden had been allowed to settle peacefully into secondary status on the peripheries of Europe, Poland’s territory was located at a strategic crossroads for northern Europe. Lacking a strong government, Poland soon fell prey to rising European powers. Throughout much of the eighteenth century, Poland maintained independence first partition of only by the good graces of Russia, which relied on the nation to act as a buffer Poland, 1772 Poland divided by Russia, state between eastern and western Europe. In 1764, the Russian Empress Catherine Prussia, and Austria; the Great (r.1762–1795) awarded the Polish throne to a former favorite and lover, 30% of territory lost Stanislaw Poniatoswki (r. 1764–1795). The tsarina expected Poniatoswki to reign second partition of as an obedient servant to the Russian crown. Instead, the king encouraged modPoland, 1793 Poland redivided by Russia, ernization and attempted to strengthen the Polish monarchy, decisions which Prussia, and Austria; were met with displeasure by all of Poland’s neighbors. Because Russia did not nation reduced in size have the resources to continue dominating Poland, Catherine the Great signed a and influence treaty with Prussia and Austria to divide the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth on the pretext of restoring order in the anarchic nation. The first partition of Poland went into effect in 1772 and cost the commonwealth 30 percent of The First Partition of Poland, 1772 its territory. In some ways, however, this partition effectively united the Polish people, forcing them R U to put their political house in order to throw off LIV ON their domineering neighbors. In 1791, the PolishIA Baltic Sea Lithuanian Parliament, or Sejm, produced Europe’s first modern written constitution, influenced by Vilinius Gdańsk the ideas of the Enlightenment and the example P R U S S I A of the newly created United States of America. While the Polish constitution was never fully impleP O L AN D Poznań mented, it remained a shining beacon for later Warsaw generations of Polish reformers even as it angered Kiev many Polish nobles, who feared a further loss of Kraków political influence. It also threatened Poland’s GALACIA AU neighbors, each of whom feared a revival of Polish STR IA independence. Discontented nobles sent an urgent 0 100 200 mi plea to Catherine the Great who, with the aid of 0 100 200 km Prussia, willingly interceded. The constitution was Annexed by Russia Annexed by Austria revoked, and Russia and Prussia carried out a Annexed by Prussia Boundary of Poland (prior to partition) second partition in 1793. The second partition significantly reduced Poland’s eastern territories and made the nation little more than a rump state. Polish territory annexed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1772. 1 S A S I Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 11 The Second Partition of Poland, 1793 The Third Partition of Poland, 1795 R U S Poznań Kraków 0 0 100 100 RUTHENIA S Vilinius Warsaw 0 200 mi 0 200 km Boundary of Poland (prior to partition) Polish territory annexed by Russia and Prussia in 1793. P O L AN D Lublin Kiev TRIA Annexed by Russia Annexed by Prussia U I A P R U S S BELORUSSIA POLAND Warsaw SOUTH PRUSSIA AU S Minsk Baltic Sea I A S S I A P R U Vilinius R COURLAND S Gdańsk A S I Baltic Sea A U S Kraków TRIA 100 100 200 mi 200 km Annexed by Russia Annexed by Prussia Annexed by Austria Boundary of Poland (prior to partition) Polish territory annexed by Russia, Prussia, and Austria in 1795. In an effort to retain statehood, a Polish revolt broke out in 1794. Led by Tadeusz Kosciuszko (1746–1817), a military officer and national hero who had fought with distinction in the American Revolution, the revolt was overwhelmed by more powerful enemies and the ceremonial Polish king was forced to abdicate. A third partition was enacted in 1795. This final partition effectively wiped Poland off the map. Over the outcry of other European nations, the destruction of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was carried out swiftly and in a way that profoundly upset the balance of power in Europe. Both Russia and the newly formed German Confederation emerged as powerful nations whose influence threatened France, Great Britain, and other European nations. Polish patriots would attempt to revive their nation throughout the nineteenth century, but it was only in the aftermath of World War I that an independent Poland was resurrected. During World War II, Poland was invaded by both Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany with devastating results. Of all the European countries involved in the war, Poland lost the second-highest number of civilians; nearly 6 million people, half of them Polish Jews, perished. Following the war, the Soviet Union instituted a communist government in Poland that remained in power until 1990. Since then, Poland’s economy and political clout has rebounded as the nation once again aligned itself with the culture of western Europe. Poland joined the European Union in 2004 and for now remains at peace with its neighbors. Yet Poland’s geographic location at the crossroads of Europe and its lack of natural borders keep the nation vulnerable and will continue to affect its future. third partition of Poland, 1795 total dismantlement of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth by Russia, Prussia, and Austria 2 Self-check Why wasn’t Poland allowed to fade into a comfortable secondary status after its “golden age” in the sixteenth century? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 12 The Myth of Europa The origins of the word Europe, for which both the continent and its people were named, comes from an ancient Greek myth about a maiden named Europa who is seduced by the Greek god Zeus. The myth is believed to have originated sometime in the second millennium B.C. The earliest reference to it can be found in Homer’s ninth-century B.C. epic poem, the Illiad. The most complete surviving version was written by the Roman poet Ovid (43 B.C.–A.D.18) in the Metamorphoses. Numerous ancient and classical authors referenced the myth, and it was commemorated in virtually every artistic medium of the ancient world. More recent artists including Titian, Rembrandt, and Rubens were equally fascinated by the myth and painted large works depicting the seduction of Europa. According to Ovid, Europa was a highborn Phoenician woman who caught the amorous attention of Zeus, king of the gods and Lord of Thunder. He transformed himself into a snow-white bull and approached the beautiful maiden while she picked flowers with her female attendants. Europa, remarking on the beauty of the bull, soon clambered on to its back and was immediately carried off to the sea. The bull swam to the island of Crete and transformed back into Zeus’s humanlike form. He revealed his true identity to the maiden and declared her the first queen of Crete. Following Zeus’s abduction of Europa—conventionally represented in the visual arts as the “rape of Europa”—he gave her several presents, including a javelin that never missed its mark. Zeus then rearranged the heavens to forever depict him in his image as a white bull. This constellation today is easily identifiable as Taurus. For centuries afterward, the connection between Crete and bulls remained strong. Most famously, the Minoan dynasty of Crete acted as the caretaker for the legendary bull-like Minotaur and its labyrinth lair. But why was the land in the west of the huge Eurasian continent named after this woman? Why was this story elevated so highly, when it appears to be little more than a short episode among thousands of Greek myths? Herodotus, considered the father of history, first asked these questions at the end of the fifth century B.C.E. According to Herodotus, the earth was divided into three continents, all named after women, and no one knew why this was so. Especially curious to the ancient historian was the fact that Europa was of Asian birth, and yet her name was used for the European continent. He could provide no clear answer for this mystery and eventually concluded that the names were established by custom. Modern historians generally agreed with Herodotus’s assessment that custom and tradition linked the myth and the continent. Greeks and Romans used the name Europe to distinguish themselves from Asian civilizations. The name was further cemented by Charlemagne and other early medieval rulers, who used the word Europeans to describe their own Christian populations. 3 Self-check What is the mythical origin of the word Europe? Extensions • Read Ovid’s Metamorphoses for the original myth of Europa. • Do an Internet search for The Rape of Europa paintings by Titian, Rembrandt, and Rubens. What are some of the similarities and differences between these paintings? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 3 13 Summary Geography has always played an important role in European history. From the earliest of mankind’s myths to the modern wireless world, geography has helped shape the destiny of the continent, its nations, and its ethnic groups. Focusing on a single nation, such as Poland, allows the entwined relationship between geography and history to come into clear focus. Although Poland is a relatively large nation with a sizable population, its lack of natural borders has proven to be a serious vulnerability. Located at a crossroads of the European continent, its position between Russia and Germany proved disastrous throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Had Poland been situated in a more easily defended or more easily ignored location, its history would have undoubtedly been very different. Finally, while the relationship between Poland’s geography and Polish history is clear, less obvious is the origin of the word Europe. The Greek myth of the seduction of Europa acts as the etymological root and signifies a distinction between Asian or Middle Eastern civilizations and those of westernmost Eurasia. Looking Ahead Modern European history traditionally begins with the Italian Renaissance. After centuries of conquest and innovation by the ancient Greeks and classical Romans, Europe descended into a “Dark Age” for almost a millennium. During this period, Europeans lost much of their artistic, scientific, and technological skills as the region was reduced to a patchwork of kingdoms constantly at war. However, in the fourteenth century, Europe began a remarkable transformation. Italian city-states grew enormously wealthy as merchant and banking families took advantage of the Crusades and the rising international trade. With this wealth, the leaders of the city-states began to patronize emerging artists, who rediscovered and invented an astonishing number of artistic techniques. The ideals of the Italian Renaissance soon spread across Europe like wildfire, sparking a new era that transformed European society. Self-Check Answers 1. This event marks the traditional beginning of Polish history and aligned Poland with the culture of Catholic western Europe rather than with that of Greek Orthodox eastern Europe. as a “buffer state” to protect them against rival nations. These nations eventually annexed Polish territory into their own states to increase their own size and resource availability. 2. It was located at a convenient crossroads of Europe, and the rising political powers of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were eager to use Polish territory 3. The word Europe is taken from a Greek myth about the god Zeus’s abduction of a maiden named Europa. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 The Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages Essential Questions Keywords • What happened to society in western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire? absenteeism • Why did people feel such a connection to the Catholic Church? • Summarize what men like Hus and Wycliffe believed. • What was the Babylonian Captivity? autonomy conciliarism indulgences lay piety medieval monasticism nepotism papacy pluralism simony Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 15 Set the Stage When Rome fell in the 400s, western Europe was left in chaos. Its political institutions were shattered, and people were unsure where to turn in search of leadership. Into this vacuum would step the only institution that survived the fall of the Roman Empire mostly intact: the Roman Catholic Church. How would the church adapt to fill the void left by Rome? It would need to become not only a religious structure, but a social and political force as well. The Middle Ages (or “medieval” in French) is a historical period that comes after the classical period of ancient Greece and Rome and before the Renaissance. The Middle Ages span more than a thousand years and are divided into three periods: the early Middle Ages (c. 400 to 900), the High Middle Ages (c. 1000 to 1300), and the late Middle Ages (c. 1300 to 1500). medieval French term meaning “middle ages” The Rise of the Roman Catholic Church in the Early Middle Ages After Rome fell in the 400s, European life plunged into a period of uncertainty as citizens grappled with political, social, and economic upheaval. One of the only institutions that provided Europeans with some sense of stability was the Roman Catholic Church. The church had an enormous impact on daily life for Europeans in the early Middle Ages and started to gain authority and influence as it filled the power vacuum that existed after the fall of Rome. Church doctrine became increasingly focused on monasticism—an emphasis on living as monks do by embracing poverty, chastity, charity, and the simple life. Monasticism became associated with the ideal Christian life and it strengthened the following and prestige of the Roman Catholic Church. Monasteries and convents spread across Europe, carrying with them Christian ideals. Spreading the Christian doctrine and converting the English and Germanic peoples to the Catholic faith became a primary activity of the church. The church had the Bible translated into the Gothic language to help convert the eastern Germanic Goths. The western Germanic Franks also adopted Christianity and became strong cooperators with and defenders of the papacy. Within a century, many Anglo-Saxons identified themselves as Christians, as well. Due to its expanding number of adherents, its growing power, and its hierarchical administration, the Roman Catholic Church increasingly employed Europe’s best and brightest minds. Life in the Middle Ages revolved around small villages, and the local clergy and church soon stepped into whatever leadership roles were available. Abbots, monks, and bishops enjoyed considerable power. In a time when formal political divisions were weak, people often identified themselves as “Christians,” rather than as citizens of a particular nation. The goals and ambitions of the church took precedence over those of secular institutions, and the church developed political and economic clout. Further, Catholics saw Rome as a holy city since St. Peter, one monasticism embracing chastity, poverty, and obedience as the ideal way of life Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 16 of Jesus’ apostles, was martyred there. As Rome became an important religious center led by the bishop of Rome—the pope—it also wielded considerable political power. Rome did not fall under the authority of any emperor, so the papacy assumed a secular leadership role and the pope enjoyed political and religious autonomy. Criticism of the Roman Catholic Church in the High Middle Ages Papal power climaxed with the reign of Pope Innocent III (r. 1198–1216), who established a centralized papal monarchy and expanded the power of the church. His reign solidified the political power of the church while weakening its spiritual and moral authority. Later popes extended this secularization and politicization even further by establishing a papal court and making taxation of parishioners a permanent strategy for raising funds. The increase in papal authority extended to internal power, as well. Popes began making clerical appointments at all levels of the church hierarchy, which diminished the power of the dioceses and led to criticism of the pope. Church criticism wasn’t limited to the increasing power of the pope. As the power and influence of the church grew, so too did the charges of corruption and hypocrisy. Church appointments were often guided by nepotism—the favoring of family members—and money. Simony, or the buying and selling of church appointments, became widespread. Some church officials were criticized for absenteeism, or failing to be present in the offices they served. Other church officials held and earned money from multiple clerical appointments, an abuse called pluralism. The selling of indulgences—having parishioners pay for the forgiveness of sins—sullied the moral and spiritual clout of the church and outraged many Christians. Some church officials faced criticism for living opulent lifestyles or engaging in unscrupulous sexual or moral behavior, all while preaching the monastic values of poverty and chastity. In England and Bohemia (now part of the modern Czech Republic), critics of the church found leaders in John Wycliffe (c. 1330–1384) and John Hus (c. 1369–1415). Wycliffe taught at Oxford University in England and wanted to reform the Catholic Church. He was critical of the corruption within the church and disapproved of the political power exerted by the papacy and the church hierarchy. He did not think the church should be involved in land holding, but should be politically subservient to the monarchies. For Wycliffe, the Bible was the word of God and the key to understanding the proper way to live. He believed that personal Bible study was critically important for every Christian, but the Bible was inaccessible to most because it was written in Latin. Because the masses of English people lacked the ability to read the Bible, their only knowledge of the book came from spoken readings made by clergy. Wycliffe was determined to bring the Bible directly to the people, in their own vernacular. Without first receiving approval from Catholic authorities, but with help from some fellow reform-minded English scholars, Wycliffe created an English translation of the Bible. The new Bible angered church authorities, who condemned his unsanctioned Bible. But rural clerics and ordinary English people embraced the Wycliffe Bible. Soon, a group of followers began disseminating the Bible across England, and to the continent. Radical ideas began to spread that challenged the traditional authority of the medieval church. papacy anything to do with the Catholic pope autonomy to act alone 1 Self-check What institution provided stability after the economic, social, and political upheaval caused by the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century B.C.E.? nepotism the practice of appointing family members or relatives to positions under one’s own supervision simony the practice of paying money in exchange for a position of religious influence absenteeism the situation of holding primary spiritual responsibility for a congregation but not personally fulfilling it pluralism the situation of holding primary spiritual responsibility for more than one congregation within a church indulgence in Catholic doctrine, a written document from a spiritual authority that forgives one’s sins without the need for penance Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 Hus and his followers, called Hussites, shared many of the same ideas. Hus was also a teacher, but at the University of Prague in Bohemia. Like Wycliffe, Hus condemned the corruption of the church, especially the sale of indulgences. In On the Church, he also took issue with the power of the papacy, noting that religious authority rests in scripture, traditions, and morality. Hus criticized the church for owning vast tracts of land and operating as a harsh landlord. Hus’s ideas also drew the ire of the church, which called the reformer before the Council of Constance on the charges of heresy. Church leaders promised him fair treatment for his cooperation, but once before the council, Hus was found guilty of the charges and burned at the stake in 1415. Hus’s execution created outrage and ignited the Hussite Wars, which lasted for several years. Additional criticism of the church came from mystics such as Meister Eckhart (1260– 1327) and Thomas à Kempis (1379–1471). Kempis put forth his ideas in Imitation of Christ, which became the most popular religious book of its time. Neither Eckhart nor Kempis openly broke with the church. Rather, they promoted lay piety. They believed that connecting with God did not require church sacraments or worThe execution of John Hus ship services. According to Eckhart and Kempis, the faithful could find God through spirituality, actions, and feelings in their daily lives. Martin Luther later shared some of these same ideas. Members of the laity who supported church reform also found an outlet in Gerard Groote (1340–1384) and his Brethren and Sisters of the Common Life. Also known as Modern Devotion, this movement started in the Netherlands and gained a large following, especially in northern Europe. The movement operated as a community where lay people could develop their faith based on simple living, tolerance, and service. Members did not take vows like members of a monastery or convent, but instead focused on education, charity, and living a life modeled after the life of Christ. Challenges for the Roman Catholic Church in the Late Middle Ages 17 lay piety people who were not priests, nuns, or monks but behaved as such 2 Self-check Identify church practices that generated public criticism. Various internal crises coincided with the rising criticism of the Roman Catholic Church and contributed to a decline in the authority and prestige of the church in the late Middle Ages. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. 18 Unit 1, Lesson 4 The Avignon Papacy When Pope Benedict XI died in 1304, a French bishop became Pope Clement V (r. 1305–1314). Hoping to increase French influence over the church, King Philip IV of France, often known as Philip the Fair (r. 1285–1314), convinced Clement to move the papal headquarters from Rome, which had been the center of church power for centuries, to Avignon, a city in southern France. For the next seven decades, Avignon became the seat of the papacy, which was strongly influenced by the French monarchy, just as Philip had planned. The period is often called the Babylonian Captivity of the papacy, a reference to the Old Testament story in which the Jews of the ancient Kingdom of Judah were held captive in Babylon during the sixth century B.C.E. Although the Avignon papacy increased its administrative efficiency during its years in France, the period damaged the church’s The Palace of the Popes Avignon, France power and ability to raise money. Rome had always been the seat of power for the Catholic Church, but the leadership’s move to France robbed the city of its historical and traditional power. Additionally, the French government enjoyed significant influence over the church, which further diminished the power of the church and its prestige in the eyes of the people. During these years, the church granted 113 of 134 new cardinalships to Frenchmen. The church also struggled to raise money during the Babylonian Captivity since its traditional funding came from the estates of Rome. The city suffered a decline in visitation with the pope residing in France. To compensate for the lost revenue, Clement increased papal taxes, especially annates, which were the first-year incomes of church benefices. John XXII (r. 1316–1334) was the most powerful of the seven Avignon popes and was responsible for many of the improvements in the administrative efficiency of the church. He modeled papal authority on the successful European monarchies Self-check and made reforms to bring the church more in line with the growing money-based, What approach did rather than land-based, economy. Pope John XXII attempted to return the papacy Thomas à Kempis to Rome, but he faced opposition from Emperor Louis IV (r. 1314–1347), whose advocate for lay followers ascendency to the German throne he opposed in 1314. In response, Louis IV declared who wanted to access an antipope. The feud ended when John abandoned his assertion that Louis IV God? was subordinate to him. John was not able to return to Italy, and his successor Benedict XII (r. 1334–1342) had no intention of trying to do so. The church’s financial woes continued. The Hundred Years’ War broke out in 1337, pitting France against England. Because the English considered the Roman Catholic Church to be on the side of the French, they passed laws that hindered the church’s ability to raise money or make clerical appointments in England. France also had its own laws that made it difficult for the church to raise money. Pope Clement VI (r. 1342 to 1352) increased the sale of indulgences and expanded the practice to include selling indulgences to surviving family members for the sins of the already deceased. These practices—along with the lavish lifestyles the Avignon popes enjoyed—fueled the church’s reputation for corruption. To many, the church was more concerned with power and bureaucracy than with salvation and spirituality. 3 Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 19 The Babylonian Captivity finally ended with Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378), who moved the papacy back to Rome in 1377, thanks in part to a visit by a Dominican mystic, Catherine of Siena. Although the papacy had been restored to Rome, the challenges and disagreements within the Roman Catholic Church were far from over. The Western Schism With the papacy back in Rome after a period of 70 years, the Italians demanded an Italian pope when Gregory died the year after the move. The predominantly French cardinals knew that failing to elect an Italian pope could cost them their lives, so they obliged, electing Urban VI (r. 1378–1389). Urban wanted to reform and clean up the church, and he called for an end to church practices that rewarded corruption and deceit, at the same time that he denounced opulence and overindulgence among the church’s elites. When Urban went so far as to propose eliminating the cardinalships, the outraged cardinals called for the return of the papacy to Avignon. Thirteen cardinals broke away from the pope and elected a French pope, Clement VII (r. 1378–1398), who resided in Avignon and was the French king’s cousin. This period, in which two different popes claimed legitimacy, created a split in the church that is often called the Western Schism, or the Great Schism. The schism continued as the church tried to figure out how to reconcile the stalemate. Both popes maintained their legitimacy and refused to concede to the other or call a council that would likely depose one of them. Countries across Europe divided their support for the papacies based on political allegiances. French allies supported the Avignon pope, while England and its allies supported Urban VI in Rome. While national alliances were clear, individual Europeans did not know which pope to follow and the schism damaged the prestige of the church. Because only the pope could convene a church council, and because neither pope was going to make such a personally risky move, the church needed a new bureaucratic mechanism. Conciliar theory developed to fill this need. Conciliarists maintained that a representative council was needed to provide oversight of the pope, who did not represent the whole church but simply acted as its elected leader. Proponents of the Conciliar Movement believed that the pope’s primary responsibility was to maintain the unity of the church. They did not believe the pope to be infallible, and they urged the pope to share leadership responsibilities. Representative councils, conciliarists argued, would be better equipped to handle reforms within the church than a pope acting alone. Marsiglio of Padua was one of the most well-known advocates of conciliar theory, and he presented his views in Defender of the Peace. Marsiglio argued that the church should be less involved in secular matters and more concerned with spirituality. He believed it was the people who gave the church and clergy its authority, not God. These ideas found a wide audience during the Great Schism. The conciliar argument prevailed and cardinals from both papacies attended the Council of Pisa in 1409 and 1410. They elected Alexander V and deposed the dual popes in Rome and Avignon. However, neither of the existing popes complied, which left the church with three popes and no solution in sight. Alexander died shortly after his election, and John XXIII (r. 1410–1415) succeeded him. John called another council, the Council of Constance, from 1414 to 1417. The council 4 Self-check What idea did the Conciliar theory promote? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 20 elected yet another pope, Martin V (r. 1417–1431) after each of the three existing popes either stepped down or was successfully deposed. The council and the end of the Great Schism were victories for conciliarism, but the church had suffered a major setback. Together, the Babylonian Captivity and the Western Schism weakened the church and shook the faith of many believers. Europeans who looked to the church for stability and leadership found only uncertainty and doubt during this turbulent period. The Conciliar Movement ended with Pope Martin V, who disbanded the Council of Constance and was not interested in further reforms. However, the movement’s legacy lasted much longer as it tested the faith of many Christians and called into question the divine authority of the pope. conciliarism a belief that a representative council could control the behavior of popes Extension • Read Pope Boniface VIII’s Defense of Papal Supremacy. Upon what premises does Boniface rest his argument for a strong papacy? Summary The Roman Catholic Church was one of the few remaining powerful institutions after the ancient Roman Empire failed in the 400s. As such, people clung to the church. The papacy’s power grew as people looked to the pope to be a leader in a world where real political authority was largely absent. A series of popes expanded the church’s authority and influence by centralizing power in Rome and involving themselves in secular affairs like the Hundred Years’ War. Many people criticized Rome’s increasing nonreligious actions. Men like John Hus and John Wycliffe gained large groups of followers, as did mystics like Meister Eckhart and Thomas à Kempis. Toward the end of the Middle Ages, several events occurred that weakened the Catholic Church. The Babylonian Captivity, during which the papal court left Italy for France, damaged papal prestige. The Great Schism—the era of two popes—confused common people since they didn’t know which pope to follow. This confusion led to the Conciliar Movement, which sought to control the behavior of the popes through representative councils. The Conciliar Movement ultimately failed, but many of the complaints against the church would eventually be adopted by the Reformation. Looking Ahead • Feudalism served as a unifying and organizing force for Europeans after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Black Death killed a third of the European population and altered the economic, psychological, and social spheres of European life. • Universities developed and flourished in the late Middle Ages. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 4 21 Self-Check Answers 1. The Roman Catholic Church provided stability 3. Thomas à Kempis advocated spiritual actions, after the economic, social, and political upheaval caused by the fall of the Roman Empire in the fifth century C.E. 2. Nepotism, simony, absenteeism, indulgences, and pluralism were all church practices that generated public criticism. feelings, and personal connections to God rather than ritual. 4. The Conciliar theory promoted the idea that a representative council should oversee the papacy because a single leader could not fully represent church membership and because the Western Schism had diminished the pope’s authority. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 Feudalism and the Black Death Essential Questions • What were the fundamental features of the feudal system? • What were the causes and consequences of the Black Death in Europe? • Why did universities and scholasticism rise during the High Middle Ages? Keywords anti-Semitism asceticism feudalism fief manor primogeniture taille vassal vassalage Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 23 Set the Stage After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 400s, Europe struggled to recover some semblance of a social structure. The societal framework of ancient Rome disappeared, and in its place a new type of society developed. During Rome’s collapse, people fled the cities and regrouped in small villages. Feudalism and manorialism developed in this new social structure and helped western Europeans reorder their disrupted lives. These new systems provided protection and a sense of safety in an unsettled time. As society rebuilt itself, some scholars and theologians started looking into the past for knowledge and inspiration. Ancient works were rediscovered and scholasticism developed alongside Europe’s first universities, which filled the void left by the collapse of Rome’s educational system. Europe had rebuilt itself after the collapse of Rome, but European society in general faced a catastrophic setback when the Black Death descended on it in the fourteenth century. The Rise of Feudalism in Western Europe Feudalism developed in the aftermath of the fall of Rome in the 400s. People fled the cities—where the government, the military, the police, and the economic system had collapsed—and settled in small countryside villages. The Catholic Church was one of the only institutions still intact after the fall of Rome, and people looked for new ways to find stability, protection, and structure. The system that developed to fill this need was later called feudalism. Feudalism, like most historical developments, was not a monolithic system—it varied with time and place after its emergence in the late ninth century until its decline in the fourteenth century. However, the basis for all feudal systems was the same: powerful lords provided protection to subjects in return for service and loyalty. The feudal system that developed in Germanic states in the early Middle Ages was called vassalage. In this arrangement, a lord granted land, called a fief, to a vassal, or knight. In return, that vassal pledged his loyalty and military service to the lord. The simple ceremony and oath is described by the following passage from medieval law: feudalism a political, societal, military, and economic system that prevailed in the Middle Ages in Europe vassalage a system whereby men (vassals) swore their loyalty to a lord or prince in exchange for land fief the land granted in exchange for service to a lord, usually military vassals a person granted an estate in return for accepting the obligation to render services to a lord The man should put his hands together as a sign of humility, and place them between the two hands of his lord as a token that he vows everything to him and promises faith to him; and the lord should receive him and promise to keep faith with him. Then the man should say, ‘Sir, I enter your homage and faith and become your man by mouth and hands, and I swear and promise to keep faith and loyalty to you against all others, and to guard your rights with all my strength.’ If a vassal granted some of his land to another man, he too became a lord, but he remained a vassal to his benefactor. In this system, every man was beholden to another man, except, of course, for the king. Landholding was the Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 24 measure of wealth in this society because the use of coins had diminished with the fall of Rome. Lords did generate additional income by collecting fees from the vassals for knighting their eldest sons or from dowries for marriage of their daughters. The feudal agreement was based on mutual loyalty and trust. If a lord did not look after his vassals—by failing to provide land or protection in court, for instance—the contract broke down. If the vassal failed to fulfill his obligations, the lord could retract his fief. Although fiefs were essentially loaned to the vassal, it became common for a vassal’s eldest son to inherit the fief by the end of the tenth century. This practice of inheritance by the family’s eldest son is called primogeniture. Not every man in medieval society could be a lord or a vassal. The rest of society was incorporated by the system called manorialism, which provided the economic structure of feudal society. Lords built large manors as the center of their agricultural operations, Peasants working in the fields and serfs worked the land. These serfs came from the peasant class, which accounted for the majority of society. Many serfs gave up some of the freedoms they had as free peasants in exchange for the protection offered by a lord. Serfs were affiliated with the land itself and not necessarily with the lord. If the land was sold, the serfs remained with the fief and became the subjects of the new owner. Serfs were not slaves—they could not be bought or sold themselves—but they remained dependant on their lords and had to ask permission to leave the fief. In exchange for the lord’s protection, serfs not only worked the land but also paid rents for access to common land, such as pastureland, with the understanding that a portion of their production would go to the lord. Serfs also had to pay tithes to the local church. Some free peasants did exist, but they were not in the majority. primogeniture when a fief is inherited by the eldest son of a lord manor village farm owned by a lord Scholasticism and Europe’s First Universities During the High Middle Ages, scholasticism and universities developed as teachers and students organized themselves in formal institutions of learning. Much of this new intellectual vitality found roots in the discovery of the knowledge of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Plato, Euclid, and Aristotle. Yet Europe’s scholars would have never had access to these writings had Arab thinkers and philosophers not preserved the ancient manuscripts and, in some cases, extended the work with their own studies and commentary after the fall of Rome. The Arabs had translated the works into Arabic, and when the manuscripts arrived in Europe, monks and scholars translated and preserved the works into Latin. European intellectualism and learning flourished with this influx of knowledge, and the first universities soon formed, first in Bologna in 1158, then in Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge. These Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 25 universities focused on studies in law, medicine, and theology. All intellectual activity was conducted in Latin. The works of Aristotle had a profound influence on both the subject matter and the method of learning in these new universities. Students analyzed and commented on primary source material and studied logic and reasoning. While this rediscovery of ancient knowledge inspired intellectual growth throughout Europe, it also raised an unsettling question. How could this ancient Greek and Arab knowledge be reconciled with Christian theology? Some thinkers viewed the new knowledge as a threat to Christianity, but scholastic philosopher Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) set out to dispel these fears. In his famous work Summa Theologica, Aquinas not only attempted to outline the sum total of Christian theology, but also to assure people that faith and reason could coexist because they both originated with God. Aquinas’s work provided the intellectual freedom for thinkers to pursue questions of logic and reason. His work also proved to be extremely influential to the Catholic Church. The Black Death Descends on Europe By 1300, Europeans had accomplished a great deal since the fall of the Roman Empire. Universities provided centers of education, while government, economic, and religious institutions created stability, order, and meaning for a growing populace. However, Europe faced a tragic setback when the bubonic plague arrived in the mid-fourteenth century. The plague, known as the Black Death, descended upon Europe at a time when the population was already weakened by extreme famine that began around 1300. That was when the European population, which had grown significantly between 1000 and 1300 thanks to an abundant food supply, started to out-pace agricultural production. People faced job and food shortages. Once the plague set in, disease and famine each exacerbated the effects of the other and, together, caused the death of up to half of all Europeans in the fourteenth century. The bubonic plague first entered Europe through Italian seaports and probably came from central Asia. It spread along trade routes. The plague reached Sicily in 1347 and moved north, making it to France and then England in 1348. By 1349, the plague had reached Norway, from which it then spread into eastern Europe and Russia. At the time the plague hit Europe, doctors had little idea what to do with their patients or what was going on inside their bodies. Today, we know that the disease was carried by fleas and caused by the Pasteurella pestis bacteria. Thousands of flea-infested rats traveled around Europe with trade caravans and in the cargo holds of ships, and any person who came in contact with these rats or the fleas they carried was in danger of being infected. Once infected, people experienced a high fever, pain, and vomiting. Victims also developed swollen lymph nodes (or “buboes”), which filled with fluid and turned black. These buboes eventually burst, and death followed shortly thereafter. The grim and horrific disease progressed rapidly—the victim usually died within three or four days of infection. The death toll attributed to the plague was immense: anywhere from 25 to 50 percent of Europe’s population perished between 1347 and 1351. Italy, where the disease entered Europe, was hardest hit and may have lost up to 60 percent 1 Self-check Explain both feudalism and manorialism. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 26 The burial of plague victims of its population. The plague killed entire towns throughout the continent. The extraordinary death toll likely resulted from the presence of a pneumonic plague at the same time as the bubonic plague. The pneumonic plague was transmitted via the air through coughing or sneezing and was easily spread from person to person. Living conditions in fourteenth-century Europe fostered the spread of both types of plague. Many people lived in close proximity to others and in crowded, filthy conditions. Personal hygiene practices such as bathing were very limited, making it easy for disease to spread. The Black Death had profound effects on European philosophy, religion, and economics. Many people came to view their world differently after facing the possibility of such a quick and horrendous death. Some became fascinated with death, and art and culture reflected this morbid fascination in the danse macabre style. Literally the “dance of death,” this morbid style in art found wide use in the paintings of the day. The paintings depicted everyday scenes where people intermingled with skeletons, reminders that death was never far away. Some people responded by trying to live for the moment, knowing it could all be gone in an instant. They took part in taboo activities and renounced religious piety in favor of indulgence and immediate satisfaction: “Eat, drink, and be merry” served as their motto. Giovanni Boccaccio summarized the outlook of these people in the preface to his Decameron: “. . . at the least inkling of something that suited them, they ran wild in other people’s houses, and there was no one to prevent them, for everyone had abandoned all responsibility for his belongings as well as for himself, considering his days are numbered.” Other Europeans responded to the grim realities of the plague by strengthening their religious faith rather than renouncing it. Some people believed the 2 Self-check Describe the origins of the Black Death in Europe. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 plague must be a punishment from God for man’s sins, and they turned to a life of piety and restraint or, in some cases, extreme asceticism. One particularly zealous group was the flagellants, who travelled from town to town whipping themselves in penance and offering themselves as martyrs for the sins of the world. Pope Clement VI condemned the practice by 1349 and ordered the suppression of the movement. However, flagellants continued to appear with plague outbreaks into the fifteenth century. Many of the flagellants were anti-Semitic and actively persecuted European Jews. Anti-Semitism emerged in response to the Black Death because some people wrongly believed the disease was caused by Jews poisoning the drinking wells. Many Jews were killed, especially those in the area along the Rhine River, and others were exiled. In Germany, more than 60 Jewish communities were completely destroyed when all their inhabitants were murdered. Some Jews fled to eastern Europe and never returned. Anti-Semitism arose from people’s fears and was not officially condoned by governments or religious institutions. The pope issued two papal bulls in 1348 condemning the murder and persecution of the Jews. The Catholic Church, whose priests ministered to many of the sick and presided over the burials of many of the dead, lost a large number of clergy to the Black Death, which diminished the church’s influence and outreach capabilities. People also began to doubt the church when it became clear it could do nothing to halt the destructive spread of the plague. The fact that the plague hit Europe during the Babylonian Captivity served to weaken the power and prestige of the church even further. The plague produced varying effects on European economies. On one hand, the severe labor shortages hurt everyone by further reducing the already meager agricultural production. On the other hand, fewer workers meant higher wages for those who were able to work—both as farmers and skilled artisans. The cost of most goods and services decreased because the extremely high mortality rates led to a surplus of many everyday goods, but luxury and manufactured goods became more expensive. The standard of living actually rose for those who escaped the plague. The plague also sparked some economic and technological advances, including improved navigation techniques that allowed traders to reach more distant lands that might be left unscathed by the Black Death. Medical advances—such as effective quarantine measures—also developed because of the plague. While workers generally saw income rise during this period, income for lords decreased because they were not able to charge high rents to their vassals and had to pay higher wages to workers. The aristocracy responded in two ways. First, they turned from labor-intensive agriculture, such as grain farming, to activities like sheep herding, which required few workers. They also developed legislation to stem the increasing wages. In England, Parliament passed the Statute of Laborers, which reset wages at their preplague levels. With the power of the lords diminished, European monarchs were generally able to further consolidate and secure their power, especially as they founded professional armies to replace the lords’ armies of knights. 27 asceticism the doctrine that a person can attain a high spiritual and moral state by practicing self-denial, self-mortification, and the like anti-Semitism hostility toward Jews for religious, racial, or ethnic reasons 3 Self-check Where was the first important university? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 28 Peasants faced their own hardships in response to the plague, especially in the following century. Since lords had fewer workers available to them, they freed fewer serfs and demanded more forced labor out of the serfs they had. As wage restrictions came into effect and new taxes were levied on the peasants in the years after the plague, their economic conditions declined. In France, the taille was a direct tax on the peasants that presented a severe hardship. In response to such conditions, many peasants revolted, including those in France and England in 1358 and 1381, respectively. Doctors had no cure for the plague in the fourteenth century and simply had to let the disease run its course. Isolation and quarantine were the only effective ways to avoid the plague and stop its spread. Although the disease had largely disappeared by 1351, it continued to reappear every generation for the rest of the fourteenth century and then throughout the fifteenth century, although less often. These recurrences made it difficult for many areas to regain the population levels that they had before the plague; most only started to do so by 1500. taille French term for a direct tax on the peasantry Extension • Read Giovanni Boccaccio’s Decameron and compare the characters’ experience of the Black Death with calamities today in terms of approach, treatment, and circumstances. Summary After Rome fell in the 400s, Europe was in desperate need of a new way to organize society. Feudalism provided this organization and structure. Feudalism was a complex array of obligations. A land-owning lord gave a fief to a vassal, who was then able to work the land and provide help to the lord when needed. If he was lucky, the vassal became powerful enough to become a lord himself and have his own vassals. Manorialism was the economic foundation for the feudal system. During the High Middle Ages, universities developed as Europeans rediscovered the works of ancient scholars. These works, saved by Arab scholars and subsequently translated into Latin by European monks and scholars, helped European students learn how to reason. Thomas Aquinas led the scholastic philosophers and worked to show that faith and reason were not antagonistic. The Black Death, which made its way to Europe in 1347, delivered European society a severe setback. The population, already weakened by overpopulation and famine, was especially susceptible to the bubonic plague. One-quarter to one-half of Europe’s population was killed, and the society that emerged was very different from the preplague world of western Europe. Most Europeans had one of two responses to the Black Death: they turned to religion and faith to guide their actions or they indulged in the pleasures of the world since the next day might be their last. Looking Ahead As conditions worsened for the peasants, especially with the increased burden of direct taxation, revolts occurred across Europe. Conflict and power struggles plagued European states at a time when instability and hardship already ran rampant because Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 5 29 of troubles within the Roman Catholic Church and the devastating Black Death. England and France descended into war in 1337. Although this conflict, fought entirely on French soil, was called the Hundred Years’ War, it lasted over a century. England dominated the conflict until a young girl named Joan of Arc helped turn the tide in favor of the French. While England and France were embroiled in war, the Holy Roman Empire to the east faced its own problems, both with its member states and the Roman Catholic Church. Self-Check Answers their jurisdiction. The manor house was the main 1. Feudalism was a political system in which nobles are granted the use of their land (land that belongs to the king) in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on their land. Manorialism was a system of rural economics during the Middle Ages in which lords held legal and economic power and received obligatory contributions from the peasants under dwelling on the lord of the manor’s fief. 2. Most scholars believe the Black Death originated in Asia. It traveled along trade routes, entering Italy through port cities and spreading to the rest of Europe. 3. Bologna Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 Peasant Revolts, the Hundred Years’ War, and the Holy Roman Empire Essential Questions Keywords • What advantages did France have over England at the start of the war? In spite of these advantages, what happened? dauphin • Describe the reasons for the peasant revolts in both France and England. ecclesiastical • Who were Charles VII and Joan of Arc? How are they linked to one another historically? • Describe at least three results of the Hundred Years’ War. • How did Holy Roman Emperors acquire their position? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 Set the Stage In 1337, longstanding tensions between France and England came to a head, and the Hundred Years’ War began over who had the right to sit on the French throne. Both sides introduced many new weapons and tactics that undermined feudal warfare and the premier status of the medieval knight. In addition, strong nationalist sentiments grew in both France and England. The war precluded trade, and governments had to impose heavy taxes on peasants to pay for the war. Those taxes led to peasant uprisings. England lost most of its continental holdings in the conflict with France and subsequently turned its focus to maritime supremacy. English nobles soon fought a civil war that ushered in the Tudor dynasty. The French lost a significant percentage of its population to the war. Meanwhile, the Holy Roman Empire struggled to keep its territories under control as it fought not only with its subjected states, but also with the Roman Catholic Church. The Hundred Years’ War and Peasant Revolts The Hundred Years’ War officially began in 1337 over a dispute for the French throne and a contested piece of land in the southwest of France called the Duchy of Aquitaine. The long-lasting conflict pitted the French against the English and had its roots in the previous century, when the English occupied the Duchy of Aquitaine. In 1259, the French and English signed the Treaty of Paris, which formalized this unique relationship. The king of England, by holding the French land, officially became a vassal to the king of France. This tenuous relationship more or less worked until French and English tensions mounted over the contested French throne in the 1320s and 1330s. In 1328, King Charles IV, Philip the Fair’s son, died without an heir, thus ending the Capetian dynasty in France. Philip VI, who was Philip the Fair’s nephew and the first of the Valois dynasty, gained the French throne, but England’s King Edward III claimed that he was the legitimate heir to the throne. Edward was the closest living male heir to the throne since his mother was Queen Isabella, the sister of France’s King Charles IV. The French barons rebuked Edward’s claim by arguing that the throne could not be passed down through a female heir. Edward III’s claim to the throne remained idle until French king Philip VI attempted to gain the Duchy of Aquitaine from the English in 1337. Edward III considered this action a violation of the 1259 Treaty of Paris and declared war on the French in 1337. Edward III also maintained that he must take the French throne in order to protect his rightful territory. These events, along with tensions surrounding the English domination of French Flanders through the wool trade and France’s support for Scottish independence, sparked the Hundred Years’ War, a conflict that would rage for more than a century before finally ending in 1453. The Hundred Years’ War was fought in France and, to a limited extent, by the two navies in the English Channel. The war lasted so long, in part, because Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. 31 Unit 1, Lesson 6 32 Philipe VI pays homage to Edward III. it turned into a French civil war, as well as a war between the two rival western European powers. The English dominated most of the war—they won key battles at Crecy, Poitiers, and Agincourt—despite France’s apparent advantages. Among the advantages that France enjoyed were a larger population and more wealth than its neighbor across the English Channel. Moreover, since the battles were fought on French soil, the French didn’t have to worry about supply lines or transportation logistics. However, the French monarchs made poor decisions, both strategically and economically, that resulted in military and political defeats. Also, like their English counterparts, French nobles were anxious to reap the spoils of battle to increase their own power. Unlike the English nobles, the French were willing to do so even at the expense of the monarch, and their behavior contributed to the internal struggles France faced during the century-long conflict. Truce and stalemate marked the first decade of the war, but the first major battle took place in 1346 at Crecy in the area of northern France known as Normandy. English troops, led by Edward III, invaded Normandy and were met by Philip VI’s forces. It was a decisive victory for the English, who used their longbowmen to defeat the French cavalry. Although the longbow didn’t have the same accuracy as the French crossbow, soldiers could reload it much more quickly. For every arrow launched by the French, the English could fire off three. The English took the port city of Calais, which they held for the next 200 years. Fourteenth-century French historian Jean Froissart described the battle in his Chronicles: “The English continued to shoot into the thickest part of the crowd, wasting none of their arrows. They impaled or wounded horses and riders, who fell to the ground in great distress, unable to get up again (because of the weight of their armor) without the help of several men.” 1 Self-check Over what issues did the Hundred Years’ War start? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 After six years of relative peace—a truce forced largely by the Black Death—the English dealt another serious blow to the French at the Battle of Poitiers in 1356 in west-central France. The defeat was a particularly catastrophic one for the French since the English captured France’s King John II, along with approximately 2,000 soldiers. The defeat and capture of the French king plunged French society into disarray and sparked peasant revolts after France had to pay a hefty ransom for the return of its monarch. The Estates General tried to enact government reforms similar to those set forth by the Magna Carta in England in 1215, but infighting among the estates halted any attempt at establishing a representative monarchy. The English-dominated Peace of Bretigny in 1360 resolved one of the initial causes of the war, but it did not end the fighting. With the upper hand in the war, the English made the French agree to the renunciation of Edward III’s vassal status, even though he would keep the land holdings in France. The agreement also resolved the dispute over the French throne because Edward III withdrew his claim. The rest of the war focused on the English land holdings within France’s borders. After battles in the 1360s and 1370s came a period of relative peace, partly due to the peasant revolts and internal problems within each country; the next major engagement took place in 1415 at the Battle of Agincourt in Flanders in northern France. Henry V (r. 1413–1422) led the greatly outnumbered English troops, while Charles d’Albert led the French. Despite their numerical disadvantage, the English troops of longbowmen defeated the French once again. The defeat prompted the Burgundians to join the fight on the side of the French, although this alliance lasted only a short time. When the Duke of Burgundy was assassinated, his son became convinced it was at the hands of the French, and the Burgundians rejoined the war effort on the side of the English. With the momentum still on their side, the English forced another peace on the French. The 1420 Treaty of Troyes declared the English king as the rightful heir to the French throne upon the death of Charles VI. The agreement meant all of France and England would come under the power of the English monarchy. However, Charles VI’s son came forward as the French dauphin (the heir to the French throne) with the backing of many of the French people and a young French peasant girl named Joan of Arc. Although the English dominated almost the entire first century of the war, the momentum shifted toward the French in 1429, thanks in large part to Joan of Arc (1412–1431). From a young age, Joan heard voices talking to her. She believed they were the voices of the saints. She knew that France needed help to get the English off of French soil and out of French affairs. Joan approached the uncrowned Charles VII in 1428 and convinced him to let her accompany the French troops who would soon try to end the English siege of Orleans. She and the troops arrived at Orleans in April 1429, and the English surrendered within two weeks. Charles VII was crowned king in July 1429. The English were weakened by disease and starvation, but their surrender at Orleans marked the turning point in the war. It also made Joan a hero to the French and a target for the English. Troops from Burgundy, then allied with the English, captured Joan of Arc in 1430 and sold her 33 2 Self-check What advantage did the English longbow have over the French crossbow? dauphin the eldest son of the king of France Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 34 to the English. The English courts put her on trial for witchcraft, condemned her as a heretic, and burned her at the stake in 1431. She was 19 years old. However, a new trial in 1456 cleared her name, and the Catholic Church canonized her in 1920. After the siege of Orleans, the French started gaining back land occupied by the English. Fighting in the north of France ended in 1450 with the decisive French victory at the Battle of Formigny. The last battle of the Hundred Years’ War took place at Castillon in Bordeaux in 1453. The battle was a final attempt by the English to retain some territory in France, but the French used the cannon to hold off the English troops and emerged victorious. The war was over. England lost all of its holdings in France except for the town of Calais in Flanders along the English Channel. Both countries faced significant consequences from the war. France had been devastated, especially its farmland and wool trade. The aristocracy continued to tax the peasantry in order to recover wartime expenses. However, many members of the French arisJoan of Arc tocracy jockeyed for power in the chaos after the war, so the French king exempted nobles and clergy from taxation in an effort to keep them content and out of politics. The French king also maintained a standing professional army. England also had to tax its peasantry. In both countries, the need to rebuild the economy put more and more responsibility on the parliaments, and representative government strengthened in the years after the war. Both countries also experienced a wave of nationalism. Propaganda and popular literature fueled these sentiments. Authors wrote in the vernacular, rather than Latin, and reached a wider audience. Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales in England and Francois Villon’s Grand Testament in France were two of these nationalistic works. Peasant Unrest General discontent among the peasants erupted into peasant revolts in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. One of the longest lasting revolts occurred in Flanders on the northern coast of France. Flanders was a major textile manufacturing area, and revolts in the region lasted for more than five years. They started in 1323 and were a response to the increasing monetary burdens, through both taxing and tithing, placed on the peasantry. Edward III also threatened to cut off the English wool supply to Flanders, which prompted many Frenchmen in Flanders to openly support Edward III’s claim to the French throne. Peasants burned and pillaged the castles of the aristocracy but were eventually crushed by French forces in 1328. 3 Self-check Why did the war have intermittent periods of peace? Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 35 Another French uprising occurred in 1358 near Paris. This revolt was called the Jacquerie uprising after a fictional peasant hero named Jacques Bonhomme, and it had many causes. Like other revolts, it was a response to the heavy taxation of the peasantry as the Estates General tried to recoup the mounting costs of the Hundred Years’ War. The uprising was also partly due to the 1356 capture of France’s King John II, who the English returned to France only after receiving a significant ransom. The peasants resented having to pay for his release. Peasants were also upset because much of their land had been destroyed by the war, and they received little or no compensation for the loss of their livelihood. Lastly, the peasants felt as if the aristocracy deliberately kept their wages low. The following passage from a tale told to the French aristocracy seems to confirm those suspicions: “Tell me, Lord, if you please, by what right or title does a villein [peasant] eat beef? Should they eat fish? Rather let them eat thistles and briars, thorns and straw and hay on Sunday and peapods on weekdays. They should keep watch without sleep and have trouble always; that is how villeins should live. Yet each day they are full and drunk on the best wines, and in fine clothes. The great expenditures of villeins come as a high cost, for it is this that destroys and ruins the world. It is they who spoil the common welfare. From the villeins comes all unhappiness. Should they eat meat? Rather they chew grass on the heath with the horned cattle and go naked on all fours.” The aristocracy repressed the Jacquerie revolt weeks later, but more uprisings occurred throughout France during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. The French peasantry was not alone in its discontent. Peasant uprisings also sprang up throughout England, particularly during the Peasants’ Revolt of 1381. The revolt was a protest against the repressive feudal system, which was particularly strong in England, and a new tax on all adult males. Priest John Ball led the revolt along with Wat Tyler. John Ball inspired the peasants: “Good people, things cannot go right in England and never will, until goods are held in common and there are no more villeins and gentlefolk, but we are all one and the same. In what way are those whom we call lords greater masters than ourselves?” Ball and Tyler rallied 30,000 men to call on King Richard II and demand changes. The king initially decided to meet with the group, but when he changed his mind, the peasants unleashed their destruction upon London. Many members of the aristocracy and clergy were murdered, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, who had levied the taxes. Richard finally crushed the large-scale revolt. Other uprisings occurred throughout Europe, including in Italy, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. 4 Self-check What role did Joan of Arc play in the Hundred Years’ War? Power Struggles in the Holy Roman Empire While France and England were immersed in the on-again, off-again fighting of the Hundred Years’ War, the Holy Roman Empire was involved in its own struggle to retain power and control its domains. The Holy Roman Empire consisted of largely independent states and cities that retained a high degree of political and economic autonomy. They were also frequently at war with each other. The empire included present-day Switzerland, eastern France, Germany, Austria, parts of western Poland, Luxembourg, northern Italy, the Czech Republic, Slovenia, and the Netherlands. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 36 Unlike other monarchies in Europe, the Holy Roman Emperor was an elected leader rather than one who inherited the throne. The Holy Roman Empire had been ruled by the Hohenstaufen dynasty since the reign of Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152–1190). Frederick wanted to reassert the power of the Holy Roman Empire, which had been involved in a struggle with the Roman Catholic Church throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries. However, conflict between the church and the emperor only intensified and German politics disintegrated into a period of deadly feuds during the thirteenth century. The papacy succeeded in weakening the power of the emperor and worked to maintain that weakness by supporting the practice of electing the emperor. The states and cities of the empire also worked to keep this practice to ensure the weak authority of the emperor. As a result, the Germanic states failed to develop a strong, central monarchy like the other nations of western Europe during this time. Initially, the electors of the Holy Roman Emperor actually elected the king of Germany. This king only became the Holy Roman Emperor if approved by the pope. Emperor Louis IV (r. 1314–1347) and some of the German princes set out to remove the papacy’s influence on imperial matters. Louis IV issued the Declaration of Rense in 1338, which proclaimed that papal approval was no longer necessary for the imperial position. The declaration angered Pope Clement VI (r. 1342–1352), who deposed Louis in 1346 and appointed Charles IV (r. 1346–1378) as emperor. The appointment wasn’t accepted until Louis IV died in 1347. Charles IV worked to provide a framework for the emperor’s election and did so by issuing the Golden Bull in 1356. The proclamation officially laid out the seven electors of the Holy Roman Emperor: three ecclesiastical princes and four lay princes. The pope lost all say in the election of the emperor. Even without papal oversight, however, the emperor remained in a weak position with little control over his domains. Anarchy enveloped the Holy Roman Empire as princes and other nobility looked to strengthen their power. Italian citystates enjoyed relative autonomy. Some of these states would later successfully assert their independence. Amidst this political instability, the empire also faced the constant threat of attack from the Ottoman Empire to the east. Extension • Read “The Hundred Years’ War” chapter of The Chronicles by Jean Froissart. What can one learn from Froissart’s account that may not appear in textbooks? 5 Self-check Identify one reason for the Jacquerie revolts in France. ecclesiastical of or related to a church, especially as an established institution 6 Self-check List two areas that were part of the Holy Roman Empire. Summary The Hundred Years’ War ripped England and France apart from 1337 to 1454. It began with a spat over the French throne and a contested piece of land in southwest France. Edward III of England claimed the throne as his own when Charles IV of France died without an heir. French nobles had another idea and installed Charles IV’s cousin, Philip of Valois, on the throne. England declared war on France. What should have been an easy victory for France instead turned into over 100 years of bloodshed, stalemates, and truces. England dominated most of the war, forcing Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Unit 1, Lesson 6 37 France into the Peace of Bretigny in 1360 and the Treaty of Troyes in 1420. However, the tides turned in the late 1420s due, in part, to the efforts of Joan of Arc. The French proved victorious and drove the English out of all their French holdings except Calais in northern France. The war had several results, from the unrest of the peasantry—which had revolted numerous times over excessive taxation during the course of the war—to the rise of parliamentary power. The Holy Roman Empire also struggled during this time, mostly owing to the election process that ensured a weak emperor, much to the liking of the pope and German princes. Looking Ahead The Renaissance saw unprecedented brilliance in intellectual and artistic pursuits. The educated elite living during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries distinguished themselves from the “dark ages” that preceded them. The rebirth of classical Greek and Roman thought began in Florence, Italy, and rapidly spread to the other Italian city-states and northern Europe. While some of the accomplishments and ideas of the Renaissance can be traced to medieval times, there is a sharp distinction between popular ideologies and practices between the two eras. Self-Check Answers favor, and helped secure Charles VII’s place on the 1. Disputes between England and France over control of the French throne and the Acquitaine. French throne. 2. The English could reload the longbow more quickly than the French could reload the crossbow. The English could fire three arrows to one arrow launched by the French. 5. The peasant-led Jacquerie revolt happened because of high taxes, resentment for bailing out the French King when the English held him captive, and the lack of compensation for the land destroyed during the Hundred Years’ War. 3. The Black Death slowed war efforts as did peasant revolts in both England and France. 4. Joan of Arc boosted the morale of French troops, helped troops turn the tide of the war in France’s 6. Answers will vary but may include: Switzerland, eastern France, Germany, and Austria, part of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Slovenia, the Netherlands, and northern Italy. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc. Copyright © 2013, 2011 K12 Inc. All rights reserved. This material may not be reproduced in whole or in part, including illustrations, without the express prior written consent of K12 Inc.