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The Later Roman Empire 284 to 476 AD Overview of the course. Diocletian to Romulus Augustus. What we will cover – Highlights Who are our sources – can we rely on them? The chronology of events and maps Why did the Empire in the West collapse can we identify the causes? Third Century Crisis – The Empire in Chaos By the time Diocletian’s reign started in 284AD after a long period of turmoil. Between the death of the Emperor Severus in 211AD to the accession of Diocletian - a period 0f 73 years there had been 18 emperors. The longest reign had lasted just 8 years. The average reign lasted 4 years and 3 weeks – not to mention the constant ‘would be emperors’ staking their claim from all parts of the empire. Third Century Crisis The Empire had suffered a plague (probably smallpox) that wiped out between 15 and 30% of the population. The army was not exempt. The monetary system broke down. The continued violence caused by barbarian raids and civil wars made travel dangerous. Trade became more localised and land owners became more self-sufficient. Third Century Crisis (2) Cities and Towns had to build walls and fortifications to protect their populations. Aurelian built had a wall built around Rome. In Britain, for example, walls were erected around Verulamium (St Albans) in the mid-3rd century. The succession of Emperors led to state funds being used to bribe troops to remain loyal. The imperial treasury became bankrupt. Third Century Crisis In 260AD the Emperor Valerian who was campaigning in the East against the Persians was captured and kept as a prisoner never to return to the Roman Empire leaving his son Gallienus (260 -268AD) to rule the Empire alone. The reign of Gallienus saw the loss a number of Roman provinces in the East and West of the Empire. Gaul, Spain and Britain separated and formed a Gallic Empire under a usurper Postumus (260-269AD) who was succeeded after his murder by Marius and then by Victorinus. The Rise of The Illyrian Emperors From the time of Gallienus (260 -268AD) a core of the most senior army commanders came from the province/region of Illyricum. These men were career soldiers most of whom had worked their way through the ranks . It was from this group of soldiers that the later third century Emperors were declared. They proved to be able and the Empire began to recover. The Emperor Claudius 11 drove out an invasion of Goths but died of the plague to be succeeded by the extremely able Aurelian. The Beginnings of A Mobile Field Army Gallienus is credited with the formation of an army that could react quickly to a barbarian breach of the Roman frontiers. This army may have consisted of a large cavalry unit. Goldsworthy (modern historian) says that it is impossible estimate accurately how large this army was. He states that if the cavalry was to large it would become cumbersome. Although the cavalry could make relatively fast progress over a few days the horses would need large amounts of fodder and the cavalry men would need food none of which could be carried with them. Aurelian 270-275AD In 271AD Aurelian managed to drive the Vandals and Sarmartians back across the Danube but other Germanic tribes had managed to invade Italy. After an initial defeat Aurelian managed to drive these Germanic tribes out of Italy. This invasion had led to the building of massive walls around Rome. In 272 AD Aurelian led his army eastwards, first supervising the withdrawal from and the abandonment of the province Dacia before marching further Eastward to challenge Zenobia the Palmyrene Queen Note Later another province was formed and named Dacia within the Empire. The Settlement of The Juthungi in Dacia Having defeated the Juthungi Aurelian allowed the tribe to settle in Dacia which was now outside the Empire. The province had suffered huge depopulation and settling the tribe in Dacia which had not really become Romanised seemed like a very good solution- to have a settled peaceful tribe on the border of the Empire, This is interesting - as we will see later the mishandling of the Goths caused a huge problem for the Empire and the death of an Emperor Aurelian Aurelian After a series of military engagements Queen Zenobia of Palmyra was defeated and the Eastern provinces she had seized were restored to the Roman empire. A feature of the various victories was that Aurelian ensured that the ordinary citizens were not harmed after the battles had been won. In 273AD the city of Palmyra acclaimed another Emperor – Antiochus. Aurelian returned to Syria and quickly defeated him. In 274AD Aurelian marched into Gaul to challenge the Gallic Empire. The Gallic emperor Tetricus 11 surrendered restoring Spain Gaul and Britain to the empire. Tackling the Debased Coinage The Roman coinage had become debased and the silver coins had as little as 2% of silver in them. What silver there was sometimes did not find its way into the coins but into the pockets of those running the mints. The supply of silver had become difficult with the exhaustion of several major mines – however Aurelian managed to stabilize the silver currency at a more acceptable level He also manged reform the gold aureus coin to higher value because of a more plentiful supply of gold on the restoration of lost provinces. Aurelian and Religion Aurelian promoted the cult of the cult of Sol Invictus – the Unconquered Sun. (Feast Day 25th December) He believed in a single God and that all other pagan Gods were in fact Sol Invictus taking on different forms. The Emperor Constantine for most of his life was also a follower of this cult which was popular with Eastern Roman army and had also been followed by the Emperor Egalabus 218-222AD There is some evidence that Aurelian wore the bejewelled gowns in the style of the Persian kings although it has been said that Diocletian was the first to adopt this fashion. Aurelian Walls - Rome Aurelian Walls The invasion of Germanic tribes who reached Northern Italy terrified the citizens of Rome. Aurelian decided to build walls around Rome to replace the earlier walls that now did not encompass the whole expanded city. Aurelian could not afford to employ troops on this project and it was left to local builders. The result was that the walls were not as expertly built as other military walls had been, however they would have been a sufficient barrier to keep out the barbarian tribes as they lacked siege equipment. Aurelian Victim of a Forgery Unfortunately for the Empire Aurelian - the Restitutor Orbis – Restorer of The World -was murdered by his own officers in 275AD following the production of a forged death list upon which these officers names appeared. A court official having made a serious blunder thought he would be severely punished by Aurelian drew up an execution list and forged Aurelian’s signature and showed to the generals named on the list. Post Aurelian There followed a quick succession of Emperors. Tacitus 275-276 (murdered after 6 months) Florianus 276 (murdered after 2 months) Probus 276 -282 (murdered by disaffected troops after several successful campaigns)) Carus 282-283 (Died after a lightning strike) Numerian 283-284 Carinus 283-284 Numerian and Carinus sons of Carus rule as Coemperors (more of these two later) Diocletian Diocletian Diocletian Diocletian Diocletian’s – Rise to Power In 283AD the Emperor Numerianus died allegedly of an eye infection but it was strongly believed that Aper (his father-in-law) murdered him. Numerian was a young weak individual and it was likely that he would not last long as Emperor. In 284AD a military assembly declared Diocles (Diocletian) emperor. Diocletian immediately and personally executed Aper with his own sword in front of the assembled troops. Diocletian The Man (1) Diocletian’s selection was the result of careful consideration by the army commanders. Some historians believe that Diocletian was carefully planning to make a bid for Emperor if the opportunity arose. He had been the Commander of the ‘Pretectores’- an elite legion of soldiers who protected the Emperor. Diocletian was probably a freedman or the son of a freedman. It is believed his father was a scribe. He was born in Solana (Modern Solin, a suburb of Split in Croatia). Diocletian The Man (2) He was 40 years of age when he became Emperor. He was married - had a daughter (Valeria) – but no son. Diocletian was deeply tied to the ancient pagan religions. Diocletian believed Jupiter was the master of the Universe and the guardian of the Roman Empire. Diocletian had worked his way up through the ranks of the army, learned important lessons on the way, he was thorough and paid great attention to detail. He has been likened to Joseph Stalin. He was certainly ruthless with a tendency to micro manage the Empire. Defeat and Death Of Carinus Diocletian had a rival - Carinus the brother of Numerian and his Co-Emperor . He was defeated in a close fought battle near modern Belgrade Carinus was killed by one of his own officers who held a grudge against him. It is said that Carinus had an affair with the officers wife. Rome and the Senate Rome had ceased to have the strategic importance it once had. It was too far from where the Emperors were required to be. Rome was still a huge city and its rich senators still met but had little no influence over the running of the Empire. Diocletian seems to have made a point of snubbing Rome and its senatorial classes. It is said that he did not visit Rome for 20 years after he was proclaimed Emperor. Although it is possible he made one fleeting visit very early on. However, Diocletian did replace the senate building in Rome when it accidently burnt down in 285AD. The Senate in Rome Threats From All Sides Diocletian's position as Emperor was by no means secure at the beginning of his reign. The frontier forts had been neglected and had fallen into disrepair. Germanic tribes continued to make raids into Roman territory plundering towns, villages and farms. Some provinces along the Danube had suffered from depopulation. The Romans allowed some tribes to settle in Roman territory - in exchange for providing troops for the army. In the East the Persian king became bolder and more aggressive. Internal Matters Constant civil wars during the 3rd century crisis had had also had an effect on the civil administration, the strength of the army, and the Empires finances. Previous Emperors had rushed from one region to another facing incursions to another without stabilizing the regions before moving on. In short the Empire with all these issues that needed to be addressed was too large for one man to govern alone. How to Tackle the Problems? Diocletian was 40 years of age when he came to power - he had no children. He appointed Maximian - a trusted friend and soldier - as his Caesar in 285 and later as his C0- Emperor later in 286AD. Maximian was also made Diocletian’s legal adopted son – although they were about the same age. Diocletian moved to the East to campaign on the Danube and Maximian remained in the West to tackle incursions on the lower Rhine. Maximian’s Character Maximian was not an educated or cultured man. He was a blunt military man who had proved himself on the battlefield His whole life's focus had been on military action Importantly for Diocletian Maximian had no ambition to be a politician or to step into Diocletian’s shoes. This changed later. Apparently he could be extremely cruel on occasions but the extreme description of this side of his nature by the Christian historian Lactinius must be a gross exaggeration. Maximian – Caesar 285 AD C0-Emperor 286AD Devine Right to Rule Diocletian and Maximian adopted god like titles. Diocletian is Jovious – likened to Jupiter and Maximian is likened to Hercules It was important for the Emperors to be seen to be ruling by divine right. The arms of the Gods embraced them. Later Diocletian saw Christianity to be a serious threat to this concept. The Court of the Emperor The Emperor’s courts became opulent with the Emperors dressed in bejewelled gowns and slippers. Those coming before the emperor had to prostrate themselves before him. (there is a good description of this in in Edward Gibbon –Growth of Court Ceremonial). No 0ne was allowed to sit in the presence of the Emperor to look him directly in the eye. In Julius Caesar’s time the rulers stood to greet guests and Julius Caesar was criticised by a contemporary when he failed to do so. Crausius – Usurper in Britain An army commander - Crausius who had been sent to deal with raids on Britain by Saxons and Frisians. He was accused of stealing the plunder he retrieved from the raiders. Rather than returning to Gaul to answer the charges against him set himself up as Emperor of Britain in 286 AD but he was careful not to commit an act of aggression against the Empire. The fact that Crausius had declared himself an Emperor was a major factor in Diocletian decision to swiftly elevate Maximian to Emperor. It would not seem to be right for a Caesar to defeat an Emperor. Crausius Crausius proved himself to be an efficient ruler and minted his own coins which were of better quality and value than those in circulation in the Empire. He paid his troops well and had the support of the landowners in Britain who had suffered hard times during the 3rd century crisis. He had also taken the Western Roman Navy and two legions with him to protect his position. Diocletian would have seen Crausius as a serious threat. He had lived through the period of the Gallic Empire. Crausius - Coin Diocletian and Maximian Meet in 287AD Diocletian and Maximian met in Mainz in 287AD to discuss and agree a campaigning strategy for the securing of the Rhine and Danube frontiers. Maximian had the added task of defeating Crausius. Whilst Diocletian was facing a threat from the Persian Empire and had to travel to the East. Maximian’s Early Years Apart from being tasked with defeating Crausius in Britain Maximian had to restore order in Gaul. Gaul had suffered continual Barbarian incursions along the Rhine frontier. Local towns and the country side had been raided and plundered. In some areas the villas and country estates had been abandoned. A band of outlaws known as the Baguadea also roamed the countryside plundering farms and estates. Maximian Fails to Defeat Crausius Eventually Maximian was able to turn his attention to tackling Crausius. Crausius was in a strong position as he also controlled the port of Boulogne and had employed Frankish mercenaries to bolster his army and navy. Maximian had to rebuild a navy to replace that which had been taken by Crausius and the Rhine fleet that had been destroyed in Barbarian raids. In 289AD Maximian’s rebuilt fleet set sail for Britain. It never landed. It was said to have been destroyed in bad weather but it also it suffered a major defeat. Persian Treaty 287AD In 287AD Diocletian felt it possible to move from the Danube to Syria with a huge army to put pressure on the Persians. Diocletian was open to negotiation and a peace treaty was settled with the Persian King Vahram. This treaty gave Diocletian some breathing space although it was to break down later. It was agreed Armenia was to be conceded by the Persians and ruled by a Roman ally. Armenia will be a bone of contention in later years The Empire and Its Problems are Still to Large. The Emperors not only had to engage themselves in continual warfare they also had to administer their portion of the Empire Emperors were expected to hear legal appeals and issue judgements (rescripts). A typical case has come down to us where a woman wanted to divorce her husband but he was obstructing her in every way he could and was threatening take back all her marriage gifts. Diocletian issued a rescript giving judgement in her favour and she was allowed to retain all he marriage gifts. Tetrarchy Formed in 293 AD In 291AD ( confusion about this date) a council was held to discuss the future governance of the empire. In 293AD Constantius 1 and Galerius are named Caesars – Tetrarchy (the rule of 4). Constantius Galerius Diocletian Emperor in the East Maximian Emperor in the West Galerius Caesar to Diocletian in the East Constantius 1 Caesar in the West The Tetrarchy Each Tetrarch was allowed his own body of troops – comitatus, sacrum cubiculum. And a large body of civil servants. The Empire was not formally divided into 4 parts but it operated in practice as follows; Gaul and Britain = Constantius Africa, Spain and Italy = Maximian Illyricum and the Danube territories = Galerius The East and Egypt = Diocletian The city of Rome lacked its former importance. The tetrarchs resided in the area where they were ruling or fighting E.g. Trier, Nicomedia, Antioch, Thessalonica and Sophia Role of the Caesars and the Praetorian Prefects The new Caesars were the servants of to their respective Emperors. Their administrative powers were restricted. However, all legislation was published in the name of the four tetrarchs. An important person within the Empire’s Government structure was the Praetorian Prefect. He was the most senior civil administrator in the regions governed by the Emperors. The Praetorian Prefect had no military responsibilities- these the Caesars retained The Prefect reported directly to the relevant Emperor and not to the Caesars. A citizen could appeal to the Prefect or to the Emperor but not to both. The Tetrarchy The tetrarchy was strengthened by the marriage of Diocletian’s daughter (Valeria) to Galerius whilst Constantius was already married to Maximian's daughter - Theodora. The tetrarchy proved to be a success. Galerius was the deputy to Diocletian and Constantius was deputy to Maximian. The Caesars were the mobile servants of their respective Emperors, the Praetorian Prefects (now the senior civil administrators) were accountable to the Emperors There is no doubt that Diocletian was the first amongst equals. He had the last say on legislation, foreign policy, the army and the administration of the Empire All legislation was enacted in the name of all four Emperors. The New Caesars Constantius had the nickname Chlorus (the pale). His first wife was Helena. It is alleged that she was either a bar maid or a stable girl who Constantius had married when he was very young. The couple had a son – Constantine who was 20 years old when his father was made Caesar. Helena was divorced in favour of a more suitable wife – Theodora (Maximian’s Daughter). Galerius resembled Maximian in physique i.e. tall and well-built but quicker witted and more ambitious. He had been a herdsman before joining the army and worked his way up through the ranks. The Tetrarchs – Venice The Emperors Embrace their Caesar – All Have Their Hands on Their Swords Ready to Protect the Empire. Britain Restored 296- AD Diocletian took the task of defeating Allectus away from Maximian because Maximian had failed to make any real progress. The task was given to Constantius. In 296AD Constantius defeated Allectus . Gaul and Britain are restored to the Empire London was under attack by Allectus’s Frankish Mercenaries when a Roman fleet arrived in the Thames. They are slaughtered in the streets by the Roman troops. A coin was struck in Trier to celebrate the recapture of London and the restoration of Britain to Empire. The coin known as the ‘Trier Medallion’ was discovered in Arras in 1922. Re Uniting Britain with the Empire Trier Medallion The Peace Treaty with Persia Breaks Down The Persian Empire at this time is known as the Sassanid Empire which was the name of the royal dynasty but for the purposes of this course it will be called the Persian Empire. Nares the new King of the Persians decided to invade and take back Armenia with a view to marching onto seize Mesopotamia. Galerius was tasked with confronting the Persian Army whilst Diocletian moved into Egypt to tackle a revolt. Another Usurper Another usurper Domitus Domitianus rebelled in Egypt and declared himself Emperor. Diocletian personally commanded the siege at Alexandria and defeated of the usurper. Allegedly commanded his troops to ‘Kill until the blood comes up to the knees of my horse’. The horse the fell to its knees and the slaughter was averted. Its more likely that Diocletian took a merciful line with the population. Note: Constantinius’s son Constantine (the future Emperor) probably accompanied Diocletian on this campaign. Galerius Suffers a Defeat at the Hands of the Persians Version 1. In 297AD Galerius had had suffered defeats at the hands of the Persians which apparently outraged Diocletian. Lactantius (a writer in Constantine’s court) states that Diocletian, after meeting Galerius, decided to admonish him and made him walk in front of his litter. This is doubtful it would have sent out a very poor message to Galerius’s troops. Galerius’s Second Campaign 298AD Diocletian returned to Antioch in 298AD after putting down the revolt in Egypt and Galerius again returned to the Danube to increase the strength of his army. Before a Persian campaign could be launched Diocletian had to leave for Africa to put down another revolt. At the Battle of Satala Galerius managed to pull of a great victory where by he captured the Persian King’s HQ seized his family, harem and treasury. Galerius Dominant In 298AD Galerius won a major victories against the Persians in the East. Galerius overran several major Persian strongholds. Narseh the Persian King was forced into making a treaty which greatly favoured the Romans. The Persian capital Ctesiphon which was under Roman control was exchanged for Armenia. The treaty held for another 40 years. Diocletian restrained Galerius from going onto invading the Persian Empire. The Roman army could not afford to be overstretched Arch of Galerius Thessalonica Diocletian’s Currency Reforms and Edict on Prices. In the third century the monetary economy had completely broken down. The senatorial class ceased to have a role in governing the state. The Army and its senior officers had become the main source of power. The 3rd Century Emperors concentrated on maintaining the power of the army at all costs. The wealth of the empire was slowly taxed away regardless of the consequences to the private economy. The currency became debased and the state authorities began to seize what was needed rather than purchase it. GOVERNANCE OF THE EMPIRE DIOCLETIAN’S REFORMS Currency Reform The Empire in order to finance the requirements of the state - mainly the army - debased the currency. By the reign of Claudius (Gothicus) 268-270 AD the silver content of the denarius was down to just .02%. The result was that prices skyrocketed. The state - and particularly the army relied on the coinage to buy supplies, unlike wealthy estate owners, the state could not trade by swapping one produce for another. Requisitioning supplies by the army had become the norm and the burden on the citizens was unfairly distributed. Currency Reform (2) Diocletian in reforming the coinage did three things 1. The upper classes were forced to exchange their hoards of gold in exchange for bronze. 2. New coins of both gold and silver of a much higher gold and silver content were put into circulation 3. A huge amount of silver washed coins were also put into circulation. Currency Reform (3) The result of the reform was that people began to hoard the high value coins all over again. The silver washed coins (nummi) , worth half the value of the old coin by the same name, could be used to pay debts incurred before the new coin came into circulation. (Edict on Coinage 301AD). This meant that old debts were reduced by 50%. Edict Controlling Prices and Services In attempt to control inflation Diocletian issued an edict to control the prices of goods and services. Diocletian believed that inflation was the result of speculation and hoarding rather than the debasement of the currency. The death penalty was the punishment for transgressing the Edict. The Edict set the maximum price that could be charged on goods and services. The Edict proved to be a complete failure and eventually repealed. Due mainly to a thriving black market. Edict on Maximum Prices WAGES PRICE PER DAY Sewer cleaner - Shepherd 20 denarii Carpenter - baker 50 denarii Advocate for pleading one case 1000 denarii GOODS COST Boots – farmworkers without hob nails 120 denarii Cleaned rice per litre 20 denarii Butter per pound 16 denarii One Chicken 30 denarii Note ;Average soldier’s annual pay was 300 denarii in 90AD and 750 denarii in 210AD Reform of the System of Taxation Requisitioning to provide the state and particularly the army with supplies had by Diocletian’s reign become the norm. However, it had become unfair as some regions were harder hit than others – especially in areas where the Roman Army was active. The failure of the currency and regulation of prices led to a new form of taxation based on the old requisitioning system which had to support the state and importantly the army A new more equitable system was implemented. The system was based on a census designed to calculate what each estate, district and province and the Empire could pay. The census was conducted every five years. The New System of Taxation (2) The calculation of what people had to provide was based on units of supply. Goods were compared and given a value equivalent to other goods. For example ten chickens = twenty loaves of bread and so on. So a baker would be given the number of supply units he had to supply. This would be fairly reckoned in the units of supply which would be, be for example, equivalent to what a farmer had to produce. This system proved to be successful. Changes in Roman Society Following the Tax Reform The new system of requisitioning placed a heavy burden on agricultural communities and it became essential that the manpower working the land remained stable. More people became tied to the land and land owners did everything in their power to prevent people from moving away from working on the land and were supported in this endeavour by the government. Freedom of movement and choice of occupation became more and more restricted – enforced by various laws. Members of certain guilds were forced to be tied to their professions and sons had to follow their fathers into the trade. Reorganisation of the Empire and its Regional Governance Many of the 50 provinces were subdivided into smaller administrative areas. 20 were divided into two but others into three or four smaller units. The provincial governors did not have military commands. There now was a general move towards a separation of military and civic governance. Where the responsibilities were split. A new military commander - a Dux (duke) emerged. This commander often had the responsibility for the armies of several provinces. These commanders did not have direct access to the provincial finances. The Commanders were financed by the provincial civil governors. Reorganisation of the Empire and its Regional Governance Italy was now treated like a province but was split into to eight districts. Although senators no longer ruled provinces these districts were usually administered by senatorial officials – and even so some of these came from the Equestrian Order. In order to better manage the increased number of provinces Diocletian grouped the provinces together into lager areas known as Diocese and were overseen by Vicarius - Vicars Reorganisation of the Empire and its Regional Governance Britain for example now became a Diocese with 4 provinces and its vicarius (vicar) was based in Londinium (London). The vicars were in turn responsible to one of the 4 Prefectus Praetorio (Praetorian Prefects) who were effectively the Emperor’s second in command. In the case of Britain the vicar was accountable to the Praetorian Prefect of Gaul Trier who was Constantinius’s deputy. The Prefects had lost their former military role and were now senior civil administrators. The Reform of the Army Our understanding of how the reform of the army was actually implemented is somewhat vague as we have limited written sources. Archaeology helps us understand some of the reforms. The reforms that started under Diocletian were carried on and developed under Constantine the Great. Each tetrarch had his own army in his own part of the Empire. The Comitatus, the Emperors’ bodyguard, is thought to have given birth to the concept of a mobile field army. It was not until Constantine that the field armies were fully developed. Diocletian’s Expansion of the Army We do know that under Diocletian the army numbers were increased. Further under Diocletian the number of legions and other units more than doubled. BUT it is unlikely that the numbers of troops doubled. The new legion sizes were smaller at about a 1000 men rather the 5,500 that made up the older legions. A legionary fort found in Jordan built at this time had accommodation for a thousand men. The army strength is estimated to have been between 375,000 and 400,000. The Notia Dignitatum (written in 395 AD) lists the establishment of the army but it does not reflect the actual number of troops. Army Training Recruits were required to undertake 4 months intensive training this was part of the enrolment process. Those who could not stand up to this hard test were not enrolled. The training focused on endurance and skills related to weapon handling. A soldier had to march 20 mile a day with 60lb load and undertake two sessions of weapon training a day. After enrolment (branding) the recruits were dispersed to various legions Their training continued under the legion’s training officer and unit commander. Auxiliary Units The later Roman Army became increasingly dependant on Barbarian soldiers. These units were formed mostly from the Germanic tribes who came from tribes allowed to settle within the Empire or from captured warriors. These units were commanded by their own Barbarian commanders and the rank structure mirrored the legionary command structure. Some of these Auxiliary Commanders rose to be the most senior army commanders. These units were loyal to the Empire and would not shirk from fighting against their own peoples. Field Armies – Frontier Troops A mobile field army could in theory combat attacks along the frontiers of the empire. The idea was that the field army would not be housed in forts along the frontier but stationed in towns and cities some distance behind the frontiers. The frontier troops the Limitanei now defended the frontiers from forts that Diocletian had restored or added to the frontiers. They no longer ventured out from the forts to attack the enemy. Their role was to hold up an attack until the field army arrived. The Army The field armies were regarded as higher in the army hierarchy than the frontier troops and were paid more. However, the frontier troops were professional soldiers and were often called on for larger campaigns to supplement the main army. Under Constantine the field armies were billeted in towns and cities in civilian dwellings. This was not always welcomed by some citizens although the presence of the army brought prosperity to others citizens. Zosimus Zosimus a pagan critic of Constantine says that Constantine took troops away from the frontiers that had be greatly fortified by Diocletian and this allowed the barbarians to raid the Roman territory. The troops were, he said, posted to the cities where – instead of training - they indulged themselves in shows and a life of luxury. And this way of running the army led to the disastrous situation that followed in the following years. The Army – supplies and logistics Supplying the army was a huge problem 1000 men required 2.3 tonnes of grain a day and about 200 pack animals to transport the grain. 25,000 men required about 5000 tonnes of grain a month. A huge amount of fodder was also required for the horses and pack animals. Soldiers had to be equipped with arms and clothing. In the later Roman Empire the arms were manufactured in imperial factories instead of the forts as they had been. Army Supply and Transport Over land wagons with a maximum load of 680 kilograms were used. 150 waggons required 600 oxen and 1500 drivers. Freighter ships could carry between 70 and 140 tonnes (the equivalent of 150 waggons) and had 20 men crews. The Army could cover between 15 and 20 miles a day but the wagons could travel at about 2.5miles an hour. This would slow the progress of the army. Soldiers could if required carry food for several days in their packs Roman River Patrol Boat Ox Cart – 1500 Waggons Required Foot Soldier Late Empire Army -Problems With Recruiting The Army perpetually in this era suffered from lack of soldiers to fill gaps in the legions. Diocletian made it compulsory for sons of soldiers to join the Army. Annual conscription was introduced – the burden fell on the large estate owners and cities to provide a stipulated number of recruits. Conscription was very unpopular and potential recruits even mutilated themselves to avoid it. Those who were discovered to have mutilated themselves faced death by burning and often their master too. Slaves were often freed to be recruited into the army Army – Recruiting Problems Finding troops for the Army continued to be a problem throughout the 4th and 5th Centuries. Barbarian tribes who were allowed to settle in the Empire were required to provide soldiers as part of being allowed to settle. Barbarian soldiers began to build successful careers and become senior officers as time went by. Senior Rank Structure of The Field Armies It is difficult to state definitely what changes took place under Diocletian or later under Constantine. The Commanders of the Field Armies from Constantine onwards were directly accountable to the Emperor. The Field Armies were made up of cavalry and infantry. The infantry out-numbered the cavalry although the cavalry was an extremely important part of the Field Armies. Later Roman Army Command Structure Under Constantine command of the Field Armies came under generals called ‘Comes’ (Counts) originally Comes was used to mean companion to the Emperor. It seems that these generals out ranked the ‘Duces’ (Dukes - introduced by Diocletian) who were commanders of troops in the provinces. Rank Structure of the Field Armies (2) Later new titles for Master Soldiers emerge – Magister Militum and Magister Utrisque Militae. These men were the most senior officers in the Roman Army (Field Marshalls). The development of these ranks was inconsistent and it appears that these appointments were made to suit specific circumstances of a specific time or situation. Field Armies A single Field Army would have been insufficient to protect the whole empire so Field armies were stationed in various regions where there were the greatest risks. There was however, a central Field Army attached to the Emperor and given the title Comitatenes Palatini. The Emperors bodyguard was know as the Protectores. This unit included the most talented officers and was used as the legion for development of the senior officer class. Billeting in Towns and Cities Billeting caused problems for the citizens as they were required to give up one third of their accommodation to the troops. Troops could only accept food or other things if they were freely given but this regulation was abused. Further legislation was passed under a number of later Emperors to control these abuses but it seems that the abuses continued. We know nothing about the army administration within the cities and towns or how the HQ structure worked. Field Armies It would appear that the track record for the Field Armies was fairly successful in the late 4th and early 5th century. The later Emperor Julian , for example, used his Field Army to great effect on the Rhine and won a major battle at Strasbourg. Frontier Armies In 325 AD an Edict was issued that made it clear that the Field Armies ranked above the Frontier Armies and soldiers in the Field Armies were paid more. Nevertheless the Frontier Troops were also professional troops. The Frontier Soldiers stationed in frontier forts had a more stable existence. Diocletian, during his reign, launched a large project to repair the frontier forts and defences and this work was carried on under Constantine. In times of crisis the Frontier troops bolstered the numbers in the Field Armies. As we will see this led to parts of the frontiers on the Rhine especially to be vulnerable. Defence of Cities and Towns The fortification of towns and cities should also be considered as part of the defence structure of the Empire. Barbarian raids and internal bands of brigands are a constant threat in the 4th and 5th centuries. The frontier defences were not impregnable and it may be sometime before -Roman troops of the Field Army could arrive to drive the raiders away. Defence of Cities and Towns The burden of providing urban defences fell upon the wealthy members of town and city councillors (Decurions). The rich became reluctant to become members of these councils but became (by law) locked into their offices. In the cities/towns the burden of having to provide defences at their own cost and pay taxes became more and more onerous as time went on. Back to the Story- The Civil Service The Tetrarchy worked well and was for 20 years a solid team effort. Each Emperor had his own administration and there were many more provinces. Compared to what had gone before the civil service has become vast. It is estimated to have grown to 30,000 civil servants across the empire. The ‘civil service’ becomes structured on military lines with ranks and an official uniform. As time went by strict rules about the method of promotion are introduced. Civil Servants were allowed to take on other employment but in the 4th century penalties are introduced for long periods of absences. Christianity and the Persecution Christians had been free from persecution for at least a generation They had built churches openly in many towns and cities. There had been a move away from what was a religion supported mainly by slaves and farm workers to city dwellers. Christians could be now found in all walks of life including the army and the imperial administration Diocletian is supposed to have become concerned when Christians in the crowd at an augury (a pagan ritual to divine whether the omens were favourable before embarking on an enterprise) made the sign of the cross causing it to fail - or so the pagan priests alleged. We All have to Make Sacrifices In 297Ad Diocletian required all imperial officials to display their loyalty by making a pagan sacrifice. Those who openly refused were executed. However, it is thought many made sacrifices to save themselves without giving up their religion. In 303 AD a major persecution was ordered, Churches were destroyed and their assets seized. The clergy were required to hand over Church books and manuscripts to be burnt. Senior Church Officials were targeted and subjected to torture and executed if they continued to resist. Differing Levels of Enthusiasm Diocletian was an enthusiastic persecutor. He also decreed in 302AD that the followers of Mani a Persian prophet (Manchaeans) should be persecuted. Maximinian and Constantius were less enthusiastic Constantius had Christians serving in his household. This gave rise for some historians to believe he was a closet Christian. There is no real evidence for this. Galerius proved to be a very enthusiastic persecutor until just before his death. The End of the Persecution Diocletian Died in 310/311 AD and so the keenest persecutor left the scene. 311 AD Galerius whilst dying of cancer issued an edict allowing freedom of worship which had the effect of bringing the persecution to an end. The Christians were allowed to build churches again. However, Maximus Daia, a committed pagan, ignored the edict. More about this subsequent Caesar and Emperor later. The Start of the Collapse of the Tetrarchy In 303AD various monuments were set up in Rome ready to celebrate the 20th Anniversary of the Tetrarchy. The four Emperors made their way to Rome and meet in Northern Italy to discuss the future. Diocletian was determined to retire and ordered Maximian to retire at the same time. Maximian was not pleased with this idea. He was later forced to swear an oath that he would stand down. The suggestion was that Constantius and Galerius would become senior Emperors and two new Caesars would then be appointed. Planning for the Future For Maximian and Constantius the choice of Caesars was clear and obvious as both had adult sons. All four Emperors proceeded to Rome for the celebration. Diocletian had been a keen builder of public monuments throughout the empire and paid for buildings in Rome. e.g. enormous public baths. ROME Diocletian did not receive the fond reception that he was expecting. He had never visited Rome before - a large part of the population were Christian and had been subject to persecution. The unrest was made worse when a stand collapsed and 3,000 people were killed. Diocletian left Rome angered by the reception he received – he had been jeered by the crowds. The Succession Diocletian having left Rome – never to return – travelled to Nicomedia and fell ill. Rumours abounded that he was dead but he surfaced again in 305 AD. Galerius became dissatisfied with being a junior emperor and travelled to Nicomedia to put pressure on Diocletian. Diocletian brought his retirement forward together with that of Maximian. Galerius was also unhappy with the proposed Caesars i.e. Constantine and Maximentius. He proposed Severus and Maximinius Daia (They were probably his relatives). The Succession 2 Galerius had a huge army to back up his proposal. He struck a deal with Constantius that his son Constantine would succeed his father as Caesar should he die. In 305 after Diocletian and Maximian retired Constantius (West)and Galerius (East) become the senior Augusti (Emperors) Severus (West) and Maximinius Daia (East) become Caesars or junior Augusti (Emperors). Diocletian’s Palace Diocletian’s Palace Constantius’s Position Leadbetter, in his book on Galerius, points out that Constantius had always considered himself to be senior to Galerius. He was older and had been regarded as senior Caesar. Galerius on the other hand considered that his numerous military victories in Persia and on the Danube made him the Senor Emperor. Constantius had three other son’s apart from his favoured and oldest son Constantine. Constantinius was worried about their safety under the rule of Galerius Leadbetter believes that if Constantinius had not died there would have been a civil war between the two men. Rulers Post 305AD WEST EAST Constantius Galerius Emperor Severus Caesar Emperor Maximinius Daia Caesar The Apple Cart is Upset! Constantine was given leave to visit his father Constantius in Britain where he had been campaigning against the Picts in Scotland. They met in York where Constantius - after a brief campaign he suddenly died in 306 AD . Constantine was the popular choice of Constantinius’s loyal troops and they declared Constantine Emperor. Galerius forced Constantine to be demoted to Caesar and Severus was promoted to Emperor. Maxentius the son of the retired Emperor Maximian declared himself Emperor with the backing of Rome the Roman Senate and the citizens of Italy who felt that they have been demoted to the citizens of a backwater province. They were also stood to lose their tax exemptions if Galerius had his way. Severus Promoted to Emperor Maxentius Self Declared Emperor The Position in 306 AD Emperors = Severus (west) and Galerius (east) Caesars/Junior Emperors = Constantine (west) and Maximinius Daia (east). Self Declared Emperor = Maxentius who had effective rule of Italy, Sicily, Sardinia and North Africa 306AD WEST EAST Severus Galerius Emperor Emperor Constantine Caesar Maximinius Daia Caesar Maxentius Self declared Emperor in Rome/Italy/Africa The Plot Thickens! The self-declared Emperor Maxentius felt insecure and invited his father, Maximian (who did not really want to stand down), to come out of retirement to support him as Co-Emperor. He agreed. They formed an alliance with Constantine to recognise Constantine as Emperor and not Severus. Constantine married Maximian's daughter Fausta aged 8 years old to cement the alliance. Galerius ordered Severus to crush Maxentius. Severus Defeated and killed Severus marched with his army into Italy and unsuccessfully besieged Rome. Severus’s troops loyal Maxentius’s father- deserted him. Severus then abdicated and was killed. Constantine kept out of the conflict. Galerius having advanced into Italy decided not to continue further depose Maxentius and decided to compromise. Diocletian was brought out of retirement to chair a meeting that was convened to establish the new structure for the Empire 306AD WEST EAST Constantine Galerius (de facto Emperor) Emperor Maxentius Self declared Emperor in Rome/Italy/Africa. Supported by his father Maximian Maximinius Daia Caesar Constantine (West) Galerius (East) Maximinius Daia – Caesar East Maxentius and His Father Maximian (Rome Italy and Africa) Even Thicker! In 308AD Maximian decided to usurp his son’s position. His attempt failed and he fled to seek refuge with Constantine. In November 308AD a conference was held to thrash out the new ruling structure for the empire. Diocletian came out of retirement to chair the meeting. It was decided that a new Emperor Licinius would be appointed in the West with Constantine as his Caesar SIX EMPERORS!! There were in 308AD six Emperors Galerius Maximinius Daia Maxentius Constantine Maximian (now in the Court of Constantine) Licinius. Diocletian’s Tetrarchy had fallen apart The Position WEST EAST Licinius Galerius Constantine Maximinius Daia (Maximian at the Court of Constantine). Maxentius (Rome – Italy and Africa) LICINIUS AND CONSTANTINE Licinius (left) Constantine (right) Constantine (West) Galerius – Eastern Emperor Maximinius Daia – Caesar East The Position in 308 AD The Emperors = Licinius in Pannonia Galerius and Maximinius Daia in the East Constantine in the West. Maximian (was in the Court of Constantine having sought refuge from his son Maxentius) Maxentius carried on as before controlling Italy and Africa. Maxentius Puts Down a Rebellion In 308AD Maxentius was engaged in putting down a rebellion in North Africa by Domititus Alexander (Vicar of Africa). Alexander was finally defeated and killed in 309AD. A Last Desperate Throw of the Dice The old supposedly retired Emperor Maximian made one last bid for power in 310 AD. Whilst his host, Constantine, was away on a campaign he informed the court that he -Maximian had received news that Constantine has been killed and declared himself Emperor. When Constantine returned to court with his loyal troops Maximian fled south to Marseille Marseille offered a good fortified city. Maximian also had the support of a large portion of the Western Army. Last Throw of the Dice (2) Constantine had a smaller core of troops who were very loyal to him. Maximinian defended his position and refused to negotiate. What happened next is obscured by later pro Constantine propaganda. After two months Maximian was dead - allegedly at his own hand. It is possible Constantine had him executed 310 to 312 AD The Old Guard Die Out Maximian died in 310AD after a conflict with Constantine Galerius died painfully of cancer in 311AD. – before he died he issued an edict allowing the freedom of worship for all religions including Christianity. This was ignored by Maximinius Daia. In 311 or 312AD Diocletian died. The number of Emperors had now reduced from six to four. The Position in 311AD There were four Emperors/Rulers Constantine ruled in the West from Trier Maxentius ruled Italy, North Africa and parts of Spain Licinius (Ruled Lands between East and West) Maximinius Daia ruled the East. 312/13 AD WEST EAST Constantine Emperor Maximinius Daia Eastern Emperor Maxentius Self declared Emperor in Rome/Italy/Africa Licinius Emperor (ruler of land between East and West) The Rise of Constantine From this time on Constantine ruthlessly began his campaign to be sole Emperor. In order to wage a war against Maxentius Constantine needed an ally either Maximinius Daia or Licinius. Constantine was in Gaul and so he chose Licinius mainly because he was nearer to him in the Balkan region. Maximinius Daia had also overrun part of the territory governed by Licinius and considered himself to be the senior Emperor. Time Out –Constantine- Profile Constantine. Constantine - Profile Born about 273AD he was the son of Constantius 1 (Chlorus) and Helena. This may have not have been an official Roman Marriage. There was speculation that Constantine was a bastard. Allegedly Helena was a bar maid or a stable girl. Despite this she managed to make a match with a very powerful Roman general. Constantius always regarded Constantine as his true heir. In 269AD Constantius became a Prefect and Helena was no longer a suitable wife for the rising Constantius and she was divorced. Constantius then married Theodora Maximinan’s daughter. Constantine Profile (2) After the marriage between Constantius and Theodora. Helena and her son Constantine were sent to the Court of Diocletian. At some stage Helena became a Christian but when is unclear. Constantine was brought up in the imperial court and had close contact with Diocletian and accompanied him on various travels throughout the Empire. Constantine gained military experience campaigning on the Danube and against the Persians. Constantine was a pagan and a follower of ‘Sol Invictus’ later coins depict him as follower of this cult. Things changed later on. OR do they really? Back to the Story - Constantine v Maxentius A rivalry between Constantine and Maxentius developed. Both engaged in a propaganda campaign against each other. Constantine asserted he was descended from the family of Emperor Claudius Gothicus whose patron god was ‘Sol Invictus’ (the unconquered sun) of whom Constantine claimed to have had a vision. Maxentius claimed that Constantine was the bastard son of a concubine (Helena). Civil War – Milvian Bridge 312 AD Constantine Invaded Italy – He again has a relatively small army compared with Maxentius. 40,000 v 170,000 Maxentius had his troops in Northern Italy under general Pompianus. Milan fell to Constantine and a further battle at Adige was also won by Constantine. Cities throughout Italy surrendered and opened their gates to Constantine. Verona resisted but fell after an expeditionary force managed to breach a poorly guarded wall whilst other troops surrounded the city. The decisive battle was fought at the Milvian Bridge outside Rome. Maxentius decided to fight in the open and not to rely on Rome’s formidable defensive walls. The March to Rome Constantine contrary to normal practice refused to take defeated troops into his army. His army were well trained and fiercely loyal to him. He marched slowly towards Rome after resting his troops. The decisive battle was fought at the Milvian Bridge outside Rome. Maxentius decided to fight in the open and not to rely on Rome’s formidable defensive walls. It is not clear why he made this decision but it proved to be a fatal mistake Possible Reasons Maxentius Choose to Fight in the Open. Rome had huge walls built by Aurelian and could be easily defended. The Roman citizens had fallen out of love with Maxentius He had raised the Taxes to pay for his African expedition to put down a usurper. He also squandered tax payers money on public buildings. These were supposed to gain him popularity but the opposite was true The grain reserves had run down because of the African war the city could not survive a long siege. Milvian Bridge 312AD Later Christian writers assert either Constantine had a vision or a dream that indicated that the sign of the cross should be painted on his soldiers shields and he ordered that this should be done. A contemporaneous oration in praise of Constantine makes no reference to the dream or vision. There are no depiction of this sign on the Arch of Constantine in Rome. The Battle of the Milvian Bridge 28th October 312 Constantine marched his troops to the bridge but Maxentius had destroyed the middle of the bridge. However, he had built a pontoon bridge to allow his troops to retreat if required. Constantine, out-numbered, attacked Maxentius and forced a retreat. Maxentius had not left enough ground between his army and the river to allow for an orderly retreat. His troops crowded on to the pontoon bridge. Others jumped into the river. The pontoon bridge gave way – soldiers and horses ended up in the river as did Maxentius. Maxentius made for the opposite shore but his imperial armour made him stand out and he was cut down by Constantine's troops and thrown into the river. Milvian Bridge 2005 The Bridge across the Tiber Constantine Enters Rome The body of Maxentius was later fished out of the Tiber and decapitated. The victorious Constantine entered Rome and Maxentius's head was carried on display through the streets. His head was then packed up in a box and sent to Africa as a warning against any future uprising they might be thinking about. Maxentius had left a legacy of building works in Rome but Constantine did all he could to erase his memory. The Senate Recognise Constantine The citizens of Rome wanted a greater purge of Maxentius’s supporters than Constantine was willing to carry out and resolutely he refused to go further. Constantine disbanded the Roman Praetorian Guard still stationed in the city. He allowed the Senate and people to retain their old privileges and the Senate recognised Constantine as the senior Emperor. There were now three Emperors left – Constantine – Licinius and Maximinius Daia 312AD WEST EAST Constantine Emperor Maximinius Daia Eastern Emperor Licinius Emperor (ruler of land between East and West) Temple Dedicated to Maxentius’s Son Basilica in Rome Started by Maxentius and Completed by Constantine Constantine Architecture For Churches Christians, under Diocletian’s persecution, had to worship secretly in ‘church houses’. Constantine deliberately put the Christian church in a new and more powerful position. He decided that the Roman Basilica was to be the model for the new churches. Bishops were given legal powers to hold law courts in cases between Christians in the Basilicas. Bishops were allowed to use the imperial post system Basilica at Trier Basilica at Trier Trier City Gate 313 AD In February 313 AD Constantine formed an alliance with Licinius. Licinius married Constantine’s half sister Constantia They jointly issued a letter – known as the Edict of Milan – which allowed freedom of worship. Key sentence = ‘Our purpose is to grant both to Christians and to all others the freedom to follow whichever religion they might wish’. Christian prisoners were released and Church properties restored. A Polite Letter Following the declaration of the Senate that they recognised Constantine as the senior Emperor Constantine wrote a politely worded letter pointing this fact out to Maximinius Daia and looked forward to working with him Maximinius Daia was enraged by this. He regarded himself as the senior Emperor. Maximinius Daia also regarded the recognition of the Christians as a legitimate religion as tantamount to a criminal act. His view was that Christians should be wiped out. Licinius v Maximinius Daia Constantine was now free of rivals in the West but Licinius and Constantine had a rival in Maximinius Daia in the East. Maximinius Daia continued to ruthlessly persecute Christians and moved against Byzantium which was garrisoned by Licinius – the garrison was defeated. However, Licinius was alerted and moved eastward with an army of 30,000 Maximinius Daia took Heraclea but with a reduced army also of about 30,000 Licinius v Maximinius Daia Maximinius is Defeated On 30th April 313AD The armies met at the Battle of Tzirallum (near Adrianople in Turkey). On the eve of the battle Maximinus swore oaths to Jupiter that he would eradicate Christianity if he won the battle. Licinius circulated a written prayer to his troops that was to be read by the soldiers before the battle. Maximinus was defeated – and he rode off disguised as a slave. Half his troops deserted him. Maximinus made another stand at Nicomedia but again was forced to retreat to Tarsus. Now trapped within the walls of Tarsus and with no hope Maximinus committed suicide – there are various unreliable accounts of his death by Christian authors. It is thought he took poison. 313AD WEST EAST Constantine Emperor Licinius Emperor Constantine v Licinius Licinius - after the defeat of Maximinius – declared Maximinius a tyrant and engaged in a bloodbath. He murdered all M. Daia’s supporters he could find - and their families. These included Maximinius’s wife Valeria (Diocletian’s daughter), Galerius’s son, and the son of Severus and his wife. It seems Constantine was determined to tolerate Licinius for only as long as necessary to achieve his ambition to become sole emperor. The Appointment Of Bassianus Constantine proposed his brother- in-law Bassianus as Caesar to govern a buffer state between the two Emperors in Pannonia. Licinius refused to go along regarding this appointment as a provocation by Constantine. Licinius employed a general named Senecio to incite Bassianus to revolt against Constantine. The plot was discovered and Constantine executed Bassianus and demanded that Senecio be handed over for execution. Licinius refused to comply. Constantine v Licinius In 314 AD Constantine marched his army against Licinius on the pretext that he was plotting against him. A battle was fought in Pannonia on 8th October. Constantine. He gained the upper hand but has to negotiate. Both agree to share the Consulship in 315AD. Licinius named Valerius Valens as his co-emperor. A further battle was fought in Thrace and this again ended in a negotiated settlement. Licinius had his coEmperor executed. Ten Years of Peace and the Civil War Again In 324AD civil war broke out again. Friction was caused when Constantine entered Licinius’s territory whilst chasing barbarian invaders in 318AD . When in 321AD this happened again Licinius complained that their treaty has been breached. There is also a record (which may be a distorted account) that Licinius was suspicious of Christians who supported Constantine rather than him. Constantine defeated Licinius’s navy in 323AD and launched a full out land attack in 324 AD. Licinius the Final Chapter Licinius managed to muster a huge army - said to have been 170,000 strong but was defeated by Constantine at Adrianople on 3rd July 324AD. Crispus – Constantine’s eldest son and now his Caesar defeated Licinius’s fleet again. Licinius made a last stand at Chrysopolis (Sept 18th) with his newly appointed Caesar - Martianus - and was defeated. Licinius surrendered and due to the pleas of Constantine’s wife - Licinius was allowed to go into exile. BUT he was hanged a year later after an alleged plot that entailed his efforts to raise troops from the barbarians to fight against Constantine.. What Was Happening on the Frontier and Gaul During these Years Crispus was the son of Constantine by his first/wife mistress Minervina the date of his birth is uncertain. Constantine later married Fausta the daughter of Maximian. There is no record of a divorce from Minervina. In 317AD Constantine and Licinius named three new Caesars. Crispus, Licinius junior and Constantine junior. The latter two were infants. Crispus was trusted by his father who like his own father regarded him regarded Crispus as his heir. Crispus was given the Western Empire to rule from Trier. He conducted successful military campaigns against the Franks and Alamanni in 318, 320 and 323 AD Time Out – Constantine and Christianity Constantine’s relationship with Christianity and his actual beliefs are subject to different interpretations. The Christian writers had a huge influence on the subsequent historical interpretation but nonChristian contemporary writers whose works were discovered in the renaissance period have thrown a different light on Constantine and his motivation for adopting Christianity. The Christian Church In the 3rd Century pagans were moving towards the worship of a single god (Monotheism). Pagans were not a homogenous group. There were a huge number of sects. After the end of the ‘Diocletian persecution’ Christianity grew and had the attractive advantage of a single belief system. What percentage of the population was Christian is difficult to calculate – but it is thought to have been in excess of 10%. Christian Church (2) Some suggest that Constantine’s adoption of Christianity as the prime religion was a cynical method of gaining control and power. The truth is that Constantine won control of the empire by the ruthless use of military force. The adoption of Christianity had no guarantee of success and Constantine did not force people to become Christian – he merely supported it. Constantine had been a follower of a cult known as Sole Invictus (the undefeated sun) and he may have also followed the cult throughout his life time. The Christian Church (3) Constantine built many new churches – but perhaps not as many as attributed to him. St Peter’s Church was built on Vatican Hill on the site where St Peter was executed – the site of Nero’s Grand Circus. Constantine was anxious to create unity within the Church and took action to resolve disputes between Christian factions. Donatist - Dispute Donatism was a Christian sect that grew up in the 4th Century in North Africa. The sect was named after a North African Bishop (Donatus Magnus) A dispute arose over the selection of Bishops following the Edict of Milan Under the Diocletian persecution the Governor of North Africa had been lenient and the requirements of the persecution had been satisfied if the Bishops handed over their holy books. Those who handed over the books were viewed as Tradores (Traitors) by the Donatists and they contended these traitors should be excluded from administering formal services. Donatist Dispute (2) The Donatist posed several question. 1) Was a priest who handed over the Church books to be regarded as a traitor? The Donatist = Yes – the Catholics = No. 2)Was such a priest now capable of administering baptisms? The Donatist = No. Catholics = Yes 3) Did the Church admit the virtuous and exclude sinners? The Donatist = Yes. The Catholics = Sins can be forgiven. So there was a schism in North African Church. The Donatist had an equal share of intellectuals on their side. The Involvement of the Emperor Constantine without giving much thought to the issues decided to involve himself to sort the problem out . Africa was an important supplier of grain and he could not allow this decisive schism rumble on. Constantine made a ruling in favour of the Catholic Church in Africa. Quite unexpectedly a shocked Constantine received an appeal from the Donatists. His sole aim had been to bring about unity and it had failed. In 313AD Constantine appointed Bishop Militades to hold a council of bishops in Rome to hear the case. The Bishop and his council found against the Donatists who appealed yet again! The Dispute Rumbles On The Donatist claim that the deliberations of the Council of Bishops were held in secret and it had reached a verdict that suited its members. Constantine ordered another Council to be convened in Arles in 314AD with a wider representation of bishops. Again the Donatists lost. The Donatist refused to give up and in 317AD Constantine ordered that their assets be confiscated. BUT he hesitated and did not carry it through. The Catholic church persuaded the Army in Africa to get involved but they were reluctant. In 321AD Constantine issued an order of tolerance of the Donatist – the schism last until 409 AD when the Donatist were persecuted as heretics under the Emperor Honorius. Arian Philosophy Arius was a priest in Alexandria who preached that Jesus was the son of God and therefore inferior to God. Jesus according to Arius stood mid way between God and life on earth. God and Jesus could not be the same entity. This Arian view started to gain a following in the East and was a threat to the developing concept of the holy trinity. Arius’s teaching caused a serious crisis in the church and it had to be resolved. The Council of Nicaea 325A A Council of Bishops was summonsed to Nicaea to discuss the Schism and the fundamental issues of Church Doctrine. Not all were agreed but a creed was settled upon which in substance remains the same to day. Arianism did not die out and later Emperors and some barbarian tribes who converted to Christianity adhered to the Arian philosophy. Constantine oversaw the Council but he let the bishops debate and come to their own conclusion. BUT he was anxious to have the matter settled. Nicaean Creed 325AD ‘We believe in one God, the father Almighty maker of all things visible and invisible And in one with lord Jesus Christ, the son of God begotten the father the only begotten: that is the essence of the father God of God, light of light, true God of true God not made being of one substance with the father by whom all things were made both in heaven and on earth……’ Nicaean Creed (2) True God of true God‘…….by whom all thing s were made in heaven and on earth, who for us men and for our salvation came down and was made flesh and become man, suffered and rose on the third day, ascended into heaven and is coming to judge the living and dead. And is the holy spirit. And those who say ‘there when he was not’ and ‘Before not’ and those who allege that the son of God is of another substance’ or ‘created’ or ‘changeable’ or ‘alterable’ these the catholic and Apostolic Church anathematizes. WHC Friend The Rise of Christianity Eusebius Bishop of Caesarea Eusebius was a great Christian writer. His works are a major source for our understanding of Constantine. He wrote a ‘Church History’ and ‘The Life of Constantine’. His later writings contain exaggerations and distortions and contradict some of earlier works. He was present at the Council of Nicaea but gives no detail on the various arguments put forward. 325AD The Execution of Crispus (Caesar) Constantine was now the sole Emperor of a vast Empire. He no longer had to worry about rivals. He could now afford to be far more assertive. His eldest son by his first marriage - Crispus was his Caesar –a sound and a capable deputy or so it seemed. Constantine had him and his wife executed in 326 AD Tradition has it that Fausta his wife and daughter of Maximinian and sister of Maxentius was extremely jealous of Crispus and he thwarted the ambitions of her own sons by Constantine. Crispus Continued Crispus was most likely to succeed Constantine had her sons Contantine11, Constantius 11 And Constans are all too young. Fausta concocted a story that Crispus had attempted to make love to her and when she had refused he had raped her – and this led to the execution of Crispus and his wife by a furious Constantine. After the execution Constantine ordered all record of Crispus were to be deleted from all official records A few months later Constantine discovered the truth and executed Fusta by locking her in an overheated steam room. Crispus continued (3) This was the generally accepted accounts but there are others Plotting against Constantine ? Crispus had always been loyal and there is nothing to suggest he was plotting against his father. He had been at his father’s side for 20 years. Illegitimacy? There is no evidence that that Constantine was divorced from his first marriage to Minervina – could this mean they had not been formally married and Crispus was illegitimate and if so was this a reason for executing him – most unlikely Was their a consensual affair? Some historians believe Fausta did have an affair with Crispus and became pregnant and the execution was delayed until the baby was born. Helena – St Helena Shortly after the death of Crispus , Helena (Constantine’s mother) undertook a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. She established churches at various places in the Holy Land – the Church of the Nativity - the Church on the Mount Olives, to mark Christ's ascension Allegedly she discovered fragments of the true cross on her travels. St Helena Bust and Relics Trier Cathedral Running the Empire Constantine undertook a huge building project in Byzantium and renamed the city Constantinople. Although he did not intend it - Constantinople became the foremost city in the Empire. Constantine modelled his new Eastern Capital on Rome and filled the city statutes and grand buildings. The city expanded to six square kilometres surrounded by huge walls. Constantinople had its own senate. Wealthy senators in Rome were encouraged to transfer to the Senate in Constantinople. Running the Empire (1) The army reforms continued under Constantine. It is difficult to disentangle those reforms made under Diocletian and those made later under Constantine. He introduced a new four yearly tax to be paid in gold or silver by city dwellers. Torture and beating was introduced for those who did not pay. The tax burden shifted from the country to the cities. In 324AD Constantine as the sole Emperor decided to review the legislation and imperial orders of the recent past. Running the Empire (2) He wrote an open letter to the Governors of the Eastern provinces promoting Christianity. People who had been compelled to restore property seized in the years of the persecution had been compensated but now in this letter Constantine said they will be ‘pardoned’. He does not issue the same letter to Western Provinces. Rome has especially rich pagan senators that he needed to keep on side It is clear now that Christianity will be favoured over all other religions. Constantine introduced Sunday as the Christian Sabbath. Constantine started a large church building scheme as part of Christian promotion. Running the Empire (3) Legal Reforms The punishment for rape was made more severe – burning the perpetrator to death was introduced as the penalty. The horrific practice of killing babies (families could not afford to keep them) was penalised and a system of tax relief was introduced for impoverished families. Crucifixion was outlawed and hanging was substituted. Branding slaves on the face and gladiatorial combat was outlawed. The gladiatorial combats were reintroduced after Constantine and were not permanently banned until the reign of the later Emperor Honorius. Constantine’s Later Campaigns In 332AD Constantine campaigned against the Sarmantians and the Goths. The Goths suffered huge losses due to bad weather and a lack of food. He started to plan to recapture Dacia (modern Romania) Lost under the Emperor Aurelian. In 336AD a Persian prince invaded the Christian state of Armenia. Constantine treated this as a holy crusade.. A Persian peace mission was turned away in the winter of 336/7AD because Constantine was ill. Illness, Baptism and Death 337AD Constantine left Constantinople to take the healing baths at Helenopolis (named after his mother). He became worse and made his way back to Constantinople but got as far Nicomedia. His plan had been to be baptised in the river Jordan but he was to ill and had to be baptised in the villa where was saying. He died not long after on 22nd May. He was succeeded by his three sons by his wife Fausta. Constantine 11 Constantius 11 and Constans. Dalmatius, Constantine’s nephew, had been declared Caesar in 335AD and Hannibalianus declared the future king of Persia The New Dynasty Interregnum before the slaughter There was a four month period where none of the successors stepped up to be the senior Augustus. In fact all legislation in this period was issued in the dead Emperor’s name. This period was followed by a bloody purge in which Constantinious 11 played a key role. ‘And close kinsmen as we were how this emperor (Constantious11) treated us! Six of my cousins and my father who was an uncle on my father’s side and my eldest brother, he put to death without trial’ (Julian - future Emperor) Death Toll There is some evidence that rumours were circulating that one of Constantine’s half brothers had attempted to poison him and this may have been the pretext for the purge that followed. The half brothers who were killed were Dalmatius (Caesar) and Hannibalianus (future King of Persia). Two young boys Gallus aged 12 years ( a future Caesar) and Julian aged 6 years (a future Emperor) were considered too young to be a threat and were spared. It was also believed that the troops would only support the sons of Constantine and were instrumental in implementing the purge. The Purge Explained Constantius 1 – 1st marriage to Helena = Constantine 1 (The Great) 2nd Marriage – Theodora = Daimatius (executed 377 with his sons Dalmatius and Hannbalianus) Constantius (executed). His sons Gallus and Julian survive. Constantine 1st Marriage to Minervina = Crispus (executed 326 by Constantine) 2nd Marriage – Fausta = Constantine 11, Constantius 11 and Constans. The Empire in 337AD Christianity had not changed the ideology of the Roman Empire. Where in the past Emperors had claimed a special relationship with a particular god – now the Emperors ruled with the sanction of the Christian God. Constantine had hoped after the Council of Nicaea that the Church would be unified. But Arianism still flourished and in fact Constantine had been baptised by an Arian Bishop – Eusebius of Nicomedia Added to this Constantius 11 favoured Arianism. The Empire in 337AD (2) The Romans continued to be aggressive towards non Roman peoples and civil wars were carried out with extreme brutality. Barbarians were classed as inferior peoples and generally looked upon with distain. However, the Empire became more and more reliant on the barbarian tribes to supply troops for the Roman Army. Some of these barbarian soldiers progressed through the ranks to hold the most senior commands in the army. Civil War 340 AD There was serious friction between Constantine 11 and his younger brother Constans - Constantine regarded himself to be senior and civil war broke out in 340AD. Surprisingly Constantine 11 was killed in a minor skirmish prior to the planned main battle – Constans now found himself in control of two thirds of the Empire. Constantius 11 kept himself out of the war between the two brothers and was campaigning against the Persian’s in the East who had been provoked by Constantine 1 ‘s intention to invade their territory. The Persian King Shapur 11 had made several attempts to capture major cities in Mesopotamia. A Usurper Ends a Decade of Peace A decade of internal peace followed the death of Constantine 11. In 350AD a usurper - Magnentius, a general in Gaul, declared himself Emperor. Constans had become decadent and lost the support of his senior generals who abandoned him forcing him to flee. He his tracked down by Magnentius’s troops and executed. Constantius 11 refused to recognise Magnentius as his co-emperor and three years of civil war followed. Magnentius – After Dinner Emperor Apparently after dining with his fellow generals Magnentius left the room and returned wearing a purple gown. This met with approval and he was declared Emperor. Magnentius then set about executing any commander who did not support him and building up a field army to meet the inevitable confrontation with Constantius. In 351Ad Magnentius appointed Magnus Decentius as his Caesar to look after the Rhine frontier The Illyrian Troops Waver The murder of Constans left the troops in Illyricum with quandary. They were uncertain whether to follow Constantius or Magentius. Constantia -Constantius’s sister -took matters into her own hands and appointed the commander of the Illyrian troops Vetriano Caesar. She wrote to her brother begging him to recognise Vetriano which he did. When Constantius met up with Vetriano he made his troops swear loyalty to him and promptly stripped Vetriano of his title of Caesar and allowed him to retire from the army. The Civil War and Yet Another Usurper During the three years of civil war Nepotianus the son of Constantine’s half-sister - declared himself Emperor in Rome. He was quickly defeated and executed along with his mother. Magnentius decided to the offensive and invaded northern Italy after a number of victories he was finally halted at Mursa. . The Battle of Mursa September 351AD The action took place somewhere along the valley of the Drava River, a Danube tributary in present day Croatia. Before the battle, Constantius sent Flavius Philippus, his Praetorian prefect, to negotiate with Magnentius, requiring that the usurper withdraw back to Gaul. Silvanus - Magnentius’s senior general defected to Constantius 11 probably taking his loyal soldiers with him. Constantius won the Battle with huge casualties on both sides. The Location of Mursa The End of Magnentius 351AD Magnentius was driven back into Gaul. Constantius and Silvanus then set about retaking Gaul – This proves to be a lengthy affair. Magnentius failed to replace his field army losses with available frontier troops commanded by his Caesar – Decentius. Estimated to be about 20,000. Encouraged by Constantius the Alamanni continually raided across the Rhine. In 353AD Magnentius finally realised that the game was up and committed suicide Silvanus is Stitched Up! Silvanus had been a loyal general under Constantine 1 and supported Constantius 11 against Magnentius. However, he was the subject of a devious plot to have Constantius 11 turn against him. Ammianus (the historian) was a witness to the events that unfolded. Silvanus wrote a number of letters recommending people for advancement – which was perfectly normal. The letters had their content erased and substituted by what amounted to a plot against Constantius and these forged letters were then delivered to prominent officials in the Empire. Constantius is Informed of the Alleged Plot The Prefect of Gaul who was probably part of the ‘stich up’ had the right to have an audience with the Emperor without the normal tedious formalities handed some of these forged letters to Constantius. After investigation Constantius discovered the truth and cleared Silvanus of all suspicion. Unfortunately Silvanus was not informed of the judgement and felt that the only way to save himself from certain execution was to seize power himself. Silvanus’s 28 Day Reign Ends Constatinius sent a general called Ursicinius with orders that Silvanus should hand his command over to Ursicinius and return to Court. The idea was that Ursicinius was not to let on that Constantius knew that Silvanus had declared himself Emperor. Ursicinius realised that this ploy would not work. Instead he pretended to defect to Silvanus. Once involved in the command structure of Silvanus’s army he found two units that did not support Silvanus and employed them to raid Silvanus’s HQ and cut him to pieces. This was followed by the murder of Silvanus’s family members. Constantius 11 Appointed Gallus Caesar In 350AD Constantius was now heavily engaged with the usurpation of Magnentius and made Gallus (a survivor of the purge) his Caesar (deputy). Gallus was the grandson of the Western Emperor Constantius 1 and the half brother of Julian. Both escaped the purge because of their you and additionally Gallus was ill at the time of the purge and was not expected to survive. Gallus married Constantius’s sister Constantina to cement their relationship. Constantina may have taken the initiative and suggested the marriage. She could see that any male children she may have would have a claim to the throne. Constantius was childless. Gallus not Really Trusted From the start Constantius was suspicious of Gallus Constantius made sure he kept a weather eye on Gallus and appointed his senior officials for him and sent him to Antioch to take control in the East. On the way to Antioch Gallus called into see his half-brother Julian. One of the Officials appointed by Constantius was Thalassius who was appointed to the post of Praetorian prefect. Gallus started his first year as a Caesar in a competent way. A Persian attack was defeated and a Jewish revolt was supressed. A plot was discovered whereby Gallus court was infiltrated by agents sent by Magnentius (the usurper in Gaul). Gallus spurred on by his early successes and the discovery of the plot seems to have let power go to his head. Gallus spurred on by his wife engaged in executions of anybody they disliked on trumped up charges. Gallus Falls Out With the Senatorial Classes Gallus fell out with the Senatorial classes in Antioch when he proposed to lower the grain prices. The Senators were supported by Theophilus (the Corrector from Syria). The Antioch ‘mob’ were angered by this rioted and butchered Theophilus in the streets. Gallus The Praetorian Prefect Thalassius died of natural causes and was replaced by Constantius with a man named Domitianus. Gallus accused Domitianus and another man named Montius Magnus of conspiring against him. These two men were executed. Constantius was outraged that his appointee had been executed - Gallus’s behaviour was now seen as a threat to the Emperor. The End of Gallus Several invitations to Constantius’s court in Milan were ignored by Gallus On the pretext of celebrating Constantius’s recent victories Gallus was invited to join the festivities. Gallus may have also been led to believe he would be promoted to co-emperor. Gallus accepted the invitation on the way to visit Constantius Constantia died. Further on the journey Gallus was ambushed arrested by a general called Barbitio. Under interrogation Gallus blamed Constantina for all his misdeeds. This infuriated Constantius when it was reported to him and he immediately ordered the execution of Gallus. Constantius regretted this order and sent a messenger to rescind his order but the messenger failed to reach Barbitio in time Constantius 11 Ammianus Marcellinus - Historian From 353AD we have the writings of Ammianus Marcellinus described as the last great Roman historian and ranks alongside Livy and Tacitus. He chronicled a period of 25 years covering the lives of five emperors. As a senior officer in the Roman Army he was an eye witness to some of the events. He was on Julian’s ill-fated Persian Campaign. He gives a rather different view of the future pagan emperor Julian (the Apostate) than those given by contemporary Christian writers. Barbarian Incursions For 60 years the Empire had been free of substantial Barbarian incursions but now attacks were being launched all along the western frontiers. Constantinius 11 repelled a number of these attacks and regarded himself as a hero. He made his one and only visit to Rome and entered the city in triumph in a golden carriage with great pomp. He was amazed by the city’s magnificent buildings, culture and people. Anti-Pagan Measures Constantius 11 launched a very harsh anti-pagan campaign which included the removal of the highly symbolic ‘Alter of Victory’ from the Senate house in Rome. Constantius was an Arian but he tried to resolve the lingering dispute between the followers of the creed agreed at Nicaea and the Arians. He introduced a concept of ‘Semi -Arianism’. This was rejected by both sides of the Christian Schism. He was regarded by later orthodox Christians as a heretic. He also granted tax exemptions to the senior clergy. The Ascendency of Julian (the Apostate) Julian Julian Julian was a survivor of the great purge which followed the death of Constantine 1. He was a young son of one of Constantine’s half brothers and was not seen as threat at the time of the purge. He and his half brother Callas were allowed to live. He was brought up as a virtual prisoner in a strict Christian household. Later allowed to study in Athens and receive a classical education. Julian Julian’s later writings indicate that he was well educated At sometime in his youth, probably in Athens, he became attracted to a pagan cult. When Gallus died (killed). Julian was summonsed to Constantius’s court and accused of treason. Constantius’s wife Eusebia, played a great part in persuading her husband that the bookish Julian was innocent and presented no threat. Constantius needed a Caesar to deal with the barbarian raids in Gaul and Germany Julian Appointed Caesar 355AD Constantius 11 was a paranoid character and still distrusted Julian and was very suspicious of him. Constantius’s wife, Eusabia, a calming influence on him, persuaded him to appoint Julian. Julian then married Constantius’s sister Helena. This was a marriage of convenience. We know from Julian’s writing that they did not share the same bed very often. Helena died later in childbirth. Julian was 23 years old, bookish, with no army experience and had no real physical presence. Descriptions of him are not flattering. Constantius’s view of Julian It can be discerned from Julian’s own writing and from other sources that Constantius wanted an unambitious family member as his Caesar. Julian he thought would readily take advice, obey orders and not usurp him as Emperor. Constantius surrounded Julian with his own appointees to ensure that any untoward behaviour would be reported back to him. Julian wrote that he felt like a schoolboy being packed off to school. And that he was not the Commander in Gaul but a subordinate of the commanders stationed there. Eusabia and Julian Eusabia was, it seems, to attracted to Julian and he to her. In their respective positions there was nothing they could sensibly do about it. As a wedding present Julian asked for a library of new books which Eusabia provided. Contemporary writers also noted that there was a jealous conflict between Julian’s wife – Helena and Eusabia. Certainly – Eusabia was a supporter of Julian throughout her life and influenced his rise to Caesar Problems in the West We have a great deal of ancient source material describing Julian’s campaigns. Constantius had deliberately hidden the extent of the problems in Gaul and Julian did not get to know how bad things were until he began his march westward. In particular he was ignorant of the fact that Cologne had fallen to the Franks. It has been suggested that the tribes of the Franks and the Alamanni had formed a confederation to defeat the Romans but there is little evidence to support this. Problems in the West The frontier troop numbers had been greatly depleted by the recent civil wars. The Western Empire had become vulnerable to barbarian raids which had penetrated deep into Roman territory. Julian’s task was to re-establish strong frontiers and to instil fear into the barbarian raiders. The resources available to Julian were not lavish. Despite the rise in numbers of troops under Diocletian and Constantine. The numbers in the Field Armies were now smaller with large number of troops being recruited from the barbarians tribes allowed to settle within the Empire. Barbarians in the Roman Army It is often suggested that the recruitment of barbarian soldiers led to a decline in military efficiency – but there is no hard evidence for this. The evidence suggests that barbarian soldiers were, once recruited, very loyal to the Roman commanders in the region in which they were recruited and fought well. Julian’s First Campaign 356 AD Julian arrived in Gaul too late in the fighting season of 355 AD to launch a campaign. He spent the winter gathering intelligence and resources. He also undertook a military training course and lived like an ordinary soldier. Even eating the same army rations. In June 356 AD he received a report that the city of Augustodumnum, which had neglected its fortifications, was under attack by the Alamanni. The Alamanni lacked the skills necessary for a successful siege and they were being held at bay by an army veterans. Julian came to the rescue and drove the Alamanni away. First Campaign - Continued Julian then made his way to Rheims where he had stationed his Field Army. Julian held a council of his army commanders and it was decided to attack groups of the Alamanni who were nearby the very next day. The first attack nearly ended in disaster for part of his army. The Alamanni dodged the attack an came up at the rear of the army. The noise of the attack alerted another nearby legion who came to the rescue. Ammianus Marcellinus says that this valuable experience made Julian ‘prudent and cautious’. The End of the First Campaign Julian now marched northwards to meet the Franks but they agreed a treaty before any conflict began and the raids stopped. Julian then spent the winter re-establishing the frontier system and replenishing his supplies that had become dangerously low. However, deserters informed the Franks that Julian had very few troops. The Franks attacked Julian’s winter quarters at Senonae. The attack failed after a month long blockade of the town. NOTE: Towns in the West were now building walls to withstand such attacks. Marcellus – Unfaithful Commander? Marcellus was stationed with his army less than 100 miles from Julian during the siege of Senonae. Despite Julian’s plea for help Marcellus failed to send troops. The event is shrouded in mystery and it is not clear why this blatant disregard of orders occurred. It is an example of how the senior commanders regarded the young inexperienced Julian Julian complained to Constantius. Campaign Leading to the Battle of Strasburg Constantius replaced Marcellus with the more experienced Severus. Constantius 11 sent 25,000 troops to Julian which indicates the seriousness of the level of threat in Gaul. A plan was formed whereby Julian would attack the Alamanni from the north and General Barbitio would attack from the south. Coming through Italy with his army In the event the Alamanni attacked Lyon and Julian drove them towards Barbitio who failed to ambush them as was agreed. Barbatio - A Treacherous General We know little of his background Ammianus (Ancient Historian) states Barbitio would undermine anyone he did not like even though they had done nothing to him According to Ammianus, Barbatio was a man of "rough manners and vaulting ambition, who incurred general hatred by his treacherous betrayal of Caesar Gallus". “Having betrayed one Caesar, he soon found himself in a position to attempt to betray another (Julian)’’. Barbitio sent a disparaging reports back to Constantinius about Julian’s competence He also slandered one of Julian's trusted commanders Valentinian (the future Emperor) forcing Valentinian into retirement. Barbatio’s Attempt to Undermine Julian The late Roman army was dogged by rivalry . There was a lack of accountability and those who could wield power could also seize control. Barbitio was asked by Julian for river barges so that he could attack the Alamanni stationed on the islands in the Rhine but Barbitio refused to comply. Barbitio was part of a court whispering campaign against Julian causing the paranoid Constantius to doubt Julian’s loyalty. Julian led a murderous attack on the Alamanni on the Rhine killing not only warriors but women and children too. Julian seized further supplies from the Alamanni for his army and these supplies were used to support his future campaign for that year. Barbitio Suffers a Major Defeat The Alamanni launched a devastating surprise attack on Barbitio and his army was routed. Barbatio was unable to take any further part in the campaign and returned to Constantinius’s Court where he continued his campaign to undermine Julian. Later Barbitio’s lies were discovered and he was executed. Meanwhile the Alamanni tribes formed an army of 35,000 troops. This army was led by kings and princes of a confederation of Alamanni tribes. (The Alamanni strength can only be estimated). TIME OUT THE BARBARIAN TRIBES The Barbarians Our knowledge of the barbarian culture and organisation is sketchy no barbarian writing for this period has come down to us. The Romans regarded barbarians in a very prejudiced low esteem. What we know of their culture and organisation is fragmentary. The Germanic tribes farmed the land living in villages and had no towns or cities that matched those in the Roman Empire. The villages had populations of about 200-300 people Barbarians The tribes near the boarder traded with the Romans who needed grain and cattle to feed the frontier armies . The tribes benefited from the receipt of Roman luxury goods as part of their trading arrangements with the Empire. There was a gradual movement of tribes towards the Rhine and Danube frontiers from the 1st century AD onwards. By the mid 4th century the main tribes on the Rhine from West to East are; the Frisians, Saxons, Burgundians, Franks, Alamanni, Quadi. The Goths On the Danube we find the Goths in two main groupings. 1) The Trevengi and 2) The Grethungi Further north of the Danube were the Vandals . Later these tribes become known as the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths respectively. For now they will be referred to by their original tribal names where relevant. The Trevengi will play the major role in the history of the era and will be simply referred to as Goths. Barbarians The Barbarian tribes had no standing army. Armies were formed as and when they were needed. Plundering the lands of other tribes and Roman territory provided riches which improved the life of the tribal aristocracy and provided the means of rewarding the warriors. There seems to have been a decimal system that allowed men to join a fighting force and leaving others to tend the farms. Barbarians The villages were organised into cantons the largest of these could muster up to 200 men but the average number of warriors recruited in this way is thought to be about 100 from each canton. The tribes had kings but they were generally not hereditary kings but selected from a wider aristocracy. For Example - The Alamanni Kings did follow a dynastic line. Barbarians Tribal chieftains had a band of loyal followers (up to 200 men). These men were the chieftain’s personal retainers and were armed and trained warriors. Their role was to protect him in battle. These warriors were rewarded with gold ,weapons and were treated to fine feasts. Other fighting men were armed normally with a spear and a shield. As time went on more swords and body armour became available. Not many fighting men were mounted but this changed in later times. Barbarians The chieftain's retinue of loyal fighters would surround and protect him battle. Loyalty was paramount and for a warrior it was better to die than to survive his chieftain. The barbarian warriors formed a triangular wedges which were known as a boar’s heads when attacking an enemy. The barbarians would on occasion use a shield wall usually on high ground to stave of an enemy attack. It is interesting that this tactic was used at the Battle of Hastings by King Harold over 500 years later.. Shield Wall 1066 Shield Wall Barbarians The Tacitus had described the Germanic warriors as being very tall with blue eyes and said their fierce looks scared the Roman troops. Some of the soldiers who served with the Romans returned to their tribes and brought back military knowledge and skills which improved their own battle tactics. The Romans had been in the habit of paying the tribal chieftains/kings a tribute as a ‘bribe’ on agreement that they would not raid Roman territory. This practice plays a major part in the history of the Roman Empire from now on. Barbarians The raiding of other barbarian tribes was endemic . Roman territory was dangerous but attractive when the frontier was seen to be vulnerable. A powerful chieftain could dominate a tribe but his position was always precarious. Kings and chieftains were often friendly to Rome and were supported by Rome with subsidies and provided with military aid if needed. Often tribesmen joined the Roman Army and some chieftains brought their followers with them. BACK TO THE PLOT JULIAN’S CAMPAIGNS CONTINUED Julian’s Campaign on the Western Frontiers Constantius provided Julian with military advisers to accompany on his campaign and he read Julius Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic Wars on his way into Gaul. Julian took the imitative and began to attack the Alamanni settlements (referred to earlier). When he arrived at Argentorium near Strasbourg he was confronted by a large army of Alamanni and mercenaries. This Germanic army consisted of a confederation of tribes led by seven Kings. The two leading kings were Chnodomarius and his nephew Serapio. Battle of Strasburg – 357 AD (Argentoraum) The Alamanni leaders received accurate information that Julian only had 13,000 men. 300 cavalry and 10,000 on foot. This lack of troops encouraged Alamanni having easily defeated Barbatio's larger army. The Alamanni sent envoys to warn Julian that unless he retreated he would be attacked by huge Alamanni army. Julian delayed in making any response to this demand and did not attack immediately. He wanted the Alamanni to have the majority of their warriors in the field in order inflict a massive defeat upon them. Strasburg 357AD Ammianus says the Alamanni had 35,000 warriors but this is thought to be an exaggeration. Being outnumbered Julian was cautious and consulted his army commanders. Julian came under pressure from the majority of his Commanders not to delay the attack. The decision was made to launch an immediate attack.. The Battle of Strasburg Battle lines were drawn up with Severus commanding Julian’s the left wing. Severus halted his advance while the rest of the army marshalled itself. Julian took advantage of the delay to address the troops urging them to advance steadily. Some relatively minor events caused panic in parts of the Roman Army. Most stood firm but some fled. Julian rode after them and rallied them and got them back into the fray. Battle of Strasburg At one stage the Alamanni broke through the Roman lines but ran into the Roman reserve lines. The reserves were more than up to it and drove them back. This turn of events led to a sudden collapse in spirit in the Alamanni army. There was a headlong retreat by the Alamanni but they were obstructed by a river. Julian worried that his soldiers would rush into the river in the chase and drown. He rode into the fray, rounded up his troops and restrained them. The Romans lost only 243 men and 4 tribunes in the battle. Battle of Strasburg 1. Battle of Strasburg 2 Barbarian Locations at the time of the Battle Post Strasburg Julian took an interest in the method of taxation and this caused a rift between him and the Praetorian Prefect for Gaul - Florentinus. Julian ordered that the rate of taxation on the middle classes should be lowered and the amount owed by the upper classes should be enforced. Florentinus had been operating a tax exemption scheme for the very rich. Florentinus complained bitterly to Constantius that Julian’s interference contravened the concept separation of civil and military administration. Constantius’s Persian Problem King Shapur 11 of the Persians was now attacking the Eastern frontiers of the Roman Empire. Shapur sent an embassy to Constantius demanding the return of Armenia and the whole of Mesopotamia to the Persian Empire. Shapur threatened that if these demands were not conceded to he would attack the Roman Empire as soon as the winter of 359AD was over. By the end of the year Shapur had made several important gains in Mesopotamia. Constantius Orders Julian to Send Troops Constantius was desperately need to strengthen his army in the East. Six legions had been lost defending the Eastern frontiers. Constantius issued a blunt order to Julian to send a large army to him in the East. The order is seen as a blatant move to undermine the popular Caesar. Julian and his commanders probably had no real picture of what was happening in the East. The army flatly refused to move to the East Julian Declared Emperor 360AD Julian called a council of army commander in Paris and tried to persuade them to obey the order. The commanders decide that the only way to countermand Constantius’s order is to declare Julian joint Emperor with Constantius 11. Julian wrote to Constantius telling informing him of what had happened and that he had no option but to bow to the wishes of the army Constantius 11, incandescent with rage, ordered Julian to remain as Caesar but Julian ignored the order. Eusabia had died by this time - Julian had lost her influence over Constantius and his supporter at Court Preparation for Civil War Julian prepared for civil war. He divided his army into three units in order to travel quickly eastwards to Sirmium where they would reunite. Constantius was able to agree a truce with Shapur in order to deal with Julian. However, Constantius suddenly died on his way back from Persia to confront Julian. Julian was still named as Constantius’s successor in his will Julian was now the Emperor – he led Constantius’s funeral procession in Constantinople. (A Christian funeral) Its only after the funeral of Constantius that he made his pagan beliefs known. The Character of Julian the Apostate Julian has a complex character and has the ability to win support and create animosity. He was clever and well educated which is evidenced in his writing. He had little appreciation of other peoples views or feelings Despite his successful campaign in the West he went on to make flawed judgements. The Character of Julian the Apostate (2) Julian planned to restore the temple in Jerusalem to signify the defeat of Christianity. He issued an edict banning Christians from teaching. This was not supported by the majority of Pagans who valued Christian teaching skills. Julian set up a commission to decide who had plotted against him within Constantius’s court and these people were exiled. He also cut down the numbers of unnecessary court officials in his own court. Julian’s Persian Campaign (1). Julian desperately needed a successful campaign in the East to establish himself as Emperor and decides to invade Persia. Things get off to a bad start as the omens and other warnings advised against such a campaign. His planned campaign against Persia meant that he would come up against a very shrewd campaigner in Shapur 11 the king of the Persians. A king who reigned for 70 years! Julian’s Persian Campaign (2) On reaching Antioch to start his Persian campaign he was enraged by the citizens lack of enthusiasm for him. Julian angered the citizens of Antioch by sacrificing almost the entire heards of cattle owned by the local farmers. He also made a complete mess of dealing with the corn shortage in the region. He lowered the price of grain. The rich bought up huge quantities and sold it on at greatly increased prices. Julian made matters even worse by publically berating the citizens of Antioch. This resulted in Julian becoming the butt of insulting jokes. King Shapur 11 of Persia Shrewd leader who reigned for 70 years! Julian’s Persian Campaign (3) Julian mustered a huge army of 83,000 soldiers (we always have to be circumspect about troop numbers) but it was undoubtedly a huge army. It was the largest army formed in the 4th century. Some of these troops had followed him from the West despite their previous reluctance to serve in the East. The early campaign started well and Julian advanced deep into enemy territory defeating all resistance on the way. The main problem was that there were no clear objectives for the campaign. Was it to capture Ctesiphon the Persian capital or to completely overrun Persia? Julian’s Persian Campaign Julian choose to follow the River Euphrates rather than the easier Tigris route on his way to his target Ctesiphon the Persian capital. A quarter of his army was engaged in towing a fleet of a thousands supply boats along the Euphrates. Julian decided to send a diversionary army under a Procopius ( a relative who survived the purge) to join up with Armenian allies to follow a more conventional route down the Tigris into Mesopotamia. Shapur took the bait and sent his main army towards the diversionary army. Julian’s Campaign Against Shapur Persian Campaign – Gamble in the Desert Julian travelled on towards Ctesiphon the Persian capital and laid waste to the surrounding land as he does so. Julian personally led high risk and foolhardy attacks with small bands of men – mainly to impress his troops. His army engineers cleared and flooded an old, dried up and disused canal built by the Emperor Trajan linking the Euphrates and the Tigris to give his army easier access to Ctesiphon. Now things start to go very wrong! The Persian Campaign Ctesiphon was extremely well fortified and the Romans lack the adequate siege equipment to take the capital. There were not enough supplies to sustain a siege of the length necessary to take the well fortified and supplied city. Julian was now deep into enemy territory . He could not advance further or stay where he was. The decision was taken to retreat along the Tigris. Retreat The route along the Euphrates has been devastated by Julian and there would have been insufficient resources to live off the land on the return journey. The story that has come down to us is that Persians pretending to be deserters told Julian there would be plenty for his army if he were to retreat along the Tigris. Julian’s Persian Campaign Julian’s Demise Julian decided that the supply boats had t0 be burnt. Shapur, now aware of the fact that Julian’s was now moving up the Tigris, adopted a scorched earth policy in front of Julian’s retreating army. Shapur was not drawn into a set piece battle but harassed Julian’s retreating column. Julian, in a rash moment, rushed out of his tent to lead troops in a skirmish but in his rush he does not put on his breast plate. He was struck by a spear and later died of this wound. Jovian 363 t0 364 Julian had no heir and it is thought even though he was wounded Julian was not expected to die. He did not therefore name a successor before he unexpectedly died. The army generals quickly held a counsel and named one of their number Jovian as emperor after offering it to Salutus an ageing prefect who turned it down. There seems to have been some confusion as to which of two Jovians that some of the generals had voted for. Later the Jovian who was selected held a dinner party to which the other Jovian was invited. He was run through by a centurion. Jovian Jovian was born in what is now modern Belgrade. He was the son of the commander of the emperor’s body guard. This was the same position held by Jovian when he became emperor. Jovian restored Christianity to its former status. NOTE Christianity was not made the official state religion until the reign of Theodosius 1 circa 392AD Jovian issued an edict allowing full liberty of individual conscience in matters of region. But later issued edicts ordering; the burning of the library at Antioch, introducing the death penalty for the worship of ancestral gods and banned pagan ceremonies. Jovian Jovian made, what was viewed at the time, a humiliating peace treaty with Shapur in order to save his army in which he conceded; a) Five Roman provinces east of the Tigris which had been conquered by Galerius in 298AD b) The fortress at Nibis which had been won and held at the cost of the lives many Roman soldiers over many years. c) The fortresses at Castra, Nignum and Sangria are also surrendered. d) These concessions were seen as a disgrace and are the cause of conflict in the East for years to come. In Defence of Jovian Did Jovian really have a choice? As he saw it – his army was short of supplies and surrounded - the diversionary army had not re-joined the main body of troops and his troops were exhausted. Marcellinus was very critical of Jovian but he was biased as Julian (who got the army into this mess) was his hero. What Jovian did not appreciate was that Shapur’s army was not as strong as he thought it to be. If Shapur had really been that strong he could have forced a lot more concessions from Jovian. E.g. He could have forced the Romans to give up the whole of Mesopotamia. Jovian Dies Jovian was anxious to get to Constantinople to consolidate his position having been declared Emperor in the middle of the desert. He was also unpopular having conceded so much to the Persians. On a temporary haul on his way back he was found dead in his tent. He had apparently died from the fumes given off from the brazier keeping his tent warm. (or did he??) The generals are anxious to have a new emperor in place quickly and were unwilling to wait for any nominee to travel across the Empire. It had to be someone within a few days travel of the army Valentinian 1 - Chosen Valentinian is with Army unit 7 days away and was declared Emperor on 25th February 364AD Valentinian 1 Careful analysis by historians discovered that Valentinian fell out of favour twice in his career as a soldier. 1) When he was subject of the plotting by Barbatio against Julian but was reinstated when the truth was established. 2) Valentinian purportedly gave up Christianity as a show of loyalty to Julian. Julian became suspicious of his loyalty to him and dismissed him. Valentinian 1 Valentinian had by this time worked his way back into favour of Julian and had re-joined the army. By the time of Julian’s death he was well regarded by the leading army commanders. It is interesting that although Valentinian was a staunch Christian Julian brought him back from exile. Religious difference do not seem to be taken to extremes by Julian he appears to have been more concerned with a persons loyalty and merit. Valentinian Valentinian was chosen by a council of both military and civil officers. He was in Ancyra and it took seven days for him to catch up with the army. He made a speech to the disgruntled troops who demanded that there should be a second emperor. He promised that there would be - as soon as a trusted and loyal candidate could be found. It would have been obvious to Valentinian that continued campaigning was required in the east and that the western frontiers and provinces would need separate governance. Valentinian 1 (The Great) C0-emperor? Valentinian called a council of senior army officers and civil servants to decide on a co-emperor. He wanted his brother Valens to be his co-emperor. Valentinian persuaded the council that this was the best course of action. Valens would help form a family dynasty and he obviously trusted him. It was a risky choice because Valens lacked military experience. Valentinian 1 (The Great) Born 321 AD in Croatia son of an army commander Brought up on family estates with his brother He appears to have been a likeable and calm person. However on occasions he would display had a fierce almost uncontrollable temper which led to fits of rage. He had little time for pompous, well off studious types. He preferred practical and knowledgeable people. He also showed concern for less well off citizens. Valens (Background) Valens was born in 328AD in Croatia and spent most of his adult life running the family estates. He was an Arian- Christian. He joined the army at the beginning of Julian’s ill fated expedition and had very limited military experience. He was described as knock-kneed, with a pot belly and a bad eye. Despite all this he acquitted himself well until his disastrous end. But that’s for much later. Valens Valentinian and Valens The brothers inherited a financial mess. Julian’s expedition had cost a fortune and Jovian had promised the soldiers donations to ensure he had their loyalty. Valens and Valentinian made matters worse by promising even more donations. The estimated cost of these donations is - 80,000 pounds of gold and 100,000 pounds of silver. The Empire simply could not provide this. Governance of The Empire The two emperors embarked on a tour of their home lands in the Balkans and the Danube frontier. They appointed trusted countrymen to senior positions within their respective royal courts. When the two emperors reach Naissus (Nis) it was decided that Valens would rule in the East from Constantinople and Valentinian would rule in the West from Milan. East and West It has been said that the Alamanni were invading and devastating Gaul and this was why Valentinian the senior emperor took the West. But this in 346AD is a greatly exaggerated view of the position. A better view is that Valentinian had a much more experience of warfare on the Rhine and Danube than his inexperienced brother Valens. East and West - c. 364AD East and West The split of the Empire into East and West was a major milestone in the history of the Roman empire although it was not seen as such at the time. The army was carefully split on East and West lines. There had been a minor revolt when Julian ordered troops to support his campaign in the East. Valentinian was careful not cause unrest in the army Likewise army commanders were carefully chosen. Lupicinius was made Master of Cavalry in the East and Juvinus was made Master of the Cavalry in the West. The Alamanni Whilst holding court at Milan Valentinian received various delegations. The Alamanni leaders came to Valentian’s court. The Alamanni tribes were only strong when they banded together. Their purpose was to seek the customary tributes that were paid to them over the years (A bribe to keep them from raiding Roman territory). The receipt of the rewards helped maintain the status of the chieftains in their own clans. Valentinian refused to see them and was outraged by the practice and the chieftains were sent away without being granted an audience - empty handed. The Alamanni Attack The Alamanni attacked across the Rhine in July 365AD in revenge for Valentinian’s treatment of them. The first attempt to put the Alamanni down failed and senior Roman commanders were wounded and killed. In August 365AD Valentinian received the distressing news about the failed campaign against the Alamanni. AND His brother has been killed by a usurper called Procopius who had declared himself emperor in Constantinople. Soon afterwards he learned his brother was still alive. He decided under pressure from his commanders to stay in the West and tackle the Alamanni. Procopius Procopius was Julian’s cousin and the only living survivor of the purge under Constantinius11 . He claims Julian had nominated him as his successor. But cannot provide a document or a witness to support this. Valens had put his father in law Petronius in charge of tax collection at Constantinople. He was cruel and greedy. The population were mightily disgruntled. Valens had moved Eastwards with his army to tackle Shapur who was making incursions into Roman territory and was trying to exert his influence over the King of Armenia who under the treaty with Jovian was supposed to be neutral. Procopius At some stage after Valentinian 1 became emperor and attempt was made to arrest Procopius but he managed to escape. Procopius turned up in Constantinople knowing the discontent of the people and with nothing to lose decides to make a bid for the throne. Procopius Valens sent two legions northward to tackle a Gothic threat. As they passed through Constantinople they were won over by Procopius. Eugenius ( a eunuch) had been sacked from Valens court. Was extremely rich and decided to become Procopius’s financial backer. Procopius sent a message to the Goths that they were honour bound to support him as the last of the Constantinian dynasty – the Goths having agreed an earlier treaty with Constantine 1. The Goths saw nothing but gain from a Roman civil war and started to prepare for it. Valens’ Response Valens did not have the full picture and had no idea that his two legions deserted him. Procopius had managed to seize territory north of Constantinople and was expanding his territory Valens leaves nothing to chance and sends to Antioch for more troops and in the mean time he sends two fairly small units ahead of him hoping to snatch a quick victory. This proves disastrous Procopius persuades these units to join him! However , despite the sizeable army Procopius now had, this was the high water mark. From now on it was all down hill for him. The Downfall of Procopius Valens waited for new troops to arrive under his master soldier Lupicinus. The whole army was put under the command of another senior commander called Arintheus. The first success for Valens was he managed to get the Procopius’s troops commanded by Hypercheus to desert to his side. Procopius had become arrogant and had made an enemy of Arbito a much respected general who served Constantine. Arbito refused to join Procopius Arbito joined Valens and this proved to be a huge moral boost for the troops. Procopius – The End 366AD Valens then won several battles against Procopius and the tide began to turn in his favour. Equitus a general serving Valentinian in Thrace decided to attack Procopius’s new territory to the North of Constantinople with success. The final battle took place on 26th May 366AD - as the battle started Procopius’s general (Agilo) changed sides. Procopius fled to a nearby wood but was captured by two of his own troops who hoped to be rewarded by Valens. Alas they were executed along with Procopius. Valens followed up this victory with savage reprisals. The Court and the Trouble with Long Distance Governance Julian had dismissed a large number of civil servant surrounding his court but under Valentinian the numbers grew again. Emperors were dependent on accurate information – they needed to know what was going on in the Empire. Much was based on trust placed on those appointed to high office throughout the Empire.. Two types of agents carried out investigations on the Emperor's behalf 1, Agents in Rebus and 2. senior clerks known as Notari. BUT we are dealing with human beings and at huge distances all was not always as it seemed. As we will see from an episode in far off Africa. Long Distance Communication The African Story Romanus was the dishonest and devious Comes (Count) of the province of Africa. The city of Lepcis Magna was under frequent attack from a local tribe – the Austoriani. The citizens asked Romanus for protection from this tribe. Romanus demanded 4000 camels for his assistance. The citizens of Lepcis were outraged and complained to Valentinian who was a thousand miles away in Trier. Romanus had substantial support at Court and Valentinian could not decide who was in the right. The African Story Valentinian sent a tribune named Paulus to pay the army in Africa and use the trip to make enquiries and report back on the situation to him. Romanus threatened Paulus with an allegation of fraud in respect of the soldiers pay if he did not report back favourably to Valentinian. The result was that Romanus got away with his misdeeds. For now that is – but we will return to Romanus later. Corruption in General Officials at every level in the state bureaucracy supplemented their modest income by taking bribes or by obtaining favours. Taking a court action against another involved paying bribes at each stage otherwise the case got nowhere. Rules were broken or bent but all was hidden from the emperor and his officials. Back in the West 366AD - Recap It will be remembered that Valentinian had decided not to go to his brother’s aid and stay to deal with the Alamanni threat. The Alamanni had raided across the Rhine and defeated the Roman general Charietto. The Alamanni had then returned to the homelands north of the Rhine. Charietto Valentinian’s commander in charge of the campaign was replaced by Jovinus who re-equipped and trained the soldiers. In 366AD Jovinus isolated and routed a main division of the Alamanni army. This proves to a great boost to the army and several victories follow. The West In 366AD Jovinus fights and wins a major battle at Chalon sur Marne and the Alamanni are driven out of Roman territory. In 367AD Valentinian and Valens agree that attacks will be launched across the Rhine against the Alamanni in the West and against the Goths in the East. BUT news arrives that Britain has been invaded by bands of Picts from the North, Saxons and Franks in the South. The Island was in chaos! Chaos in Britain Hadrian’s Wall had been breached – dissatisfied troops may have let the invaders in. Soldiers had deserted their legions. A general - Severus was sent to sort out the problem and requested more troops but failed to regain control even with more troops. Then Jovinus (the recent successful commander) was sent to Britain and finds a situation far worse than he expected. Jovinus was required back in Gaul and Theodosius (father of the future Emperor) was then sent to replace Jovinus.. Theodosius (The Elder) Sorts it Out Theodosius was of Spanish origin and a very able commander was appointed to lead a campaign in Britain and restore order. Before acting he carries out a fact finding mission and discovered that the army had been split into three commands. The split in leadership which was poor had caused utter confusion when the attacks happened. Soldiers rather than suffer defeat under their incompetent commanders deserted. Some had joined the invaders. Theodosius Sorts it Out (2) Theodosius realised that the invaders had no overall strategy but were simply pillaging the countryside in relatively small bands. In similar fashion Theodosius created a large number of efficient mobile fighting units to track down and defeat these bands of invaders. He promised the troops a pardon if they re-join the army – which they do - now there was a respected commander in charge. The campaign was very successful and much of the stolen property was recovered and the troops are well rewarded. 367AD Valentinian Falls Ill Valentinian becomes seriously ill in 367AD and his troops fear he will not recover. The troops acclaim Gratian, Valentinian’s infant son from his first marriage, as emperor in order to ensure the Valentinian dynasty. However, Valentinian makes a full recovery. Gratian remains in office as junior emperor. THE EAST THE GOTHS - ARMENIA AND KING SHAPUR11 369 -371AD The Goths Threaten the East The nature of Gothic society is poorly understood. There were two major confederations of Goths. The GREUTHUNGI and the TERIVINGI. The Greuthungi occupied the area from the river Dniester eastwards to river Don and northward to Kiev. They were farmers and had a substantial cavalry having access to horses from the steppes The Goths Continued The Trevingi occupied the region north of Thrace. They organised themselves in groups of villages each village had a Magnate who attended a council that made decisions for all their people. In times of crisis a iudex (Latin for Judge) was elected to lead their army in war. The Trevingi had been accustomed to trade with Rome and had made a treaty with Constantine (still in place) part of which was to supply troops for the Roman army. The Goths were beginning to convert to Christianity – but to Arian Christianity. Romantic Version of the Conversion by Ulfilas The Goths Gothic Warrior Late Roman Empire Gothic Campaign 366-7 Valens was desperate to have a glorious military victory and plans a campaign against the Goths. He starts with a building campaign to strengthen the frontier along the Danube. The Goths get wind of the intended attack and retreat to the Carpathian Mountains abandoning their farms Valens scours the country side trying to find some Goths to defeat but this proves fruitless. The retreat was devastating for the Goths as they have no food and they suffer a severe famine. 369AD Valens Engineers a Victory Valens was determined to have a major victory of some kind. A pontoon bridge was built across the Danube and his army attacked the Goths in Romania and defeats the Gothic King Athanaric. Athanaric sues for peace and offers a treaty but the terms are not good enough for Valens. The negotiations take place on an island in the River Danube – a face saving exercise for both sides. Valens needs terms that make the defeat of the Goths appear like a huge triumph. The terms actually were not good for either side. The Goths were over taxed and the Romans were deprived of recruits for the army. King Pap A complex story Armenia Shapur 11 Causes Problems in the East Shapur who had adopted a policy of bribery backed up with force was starting to make inroads on the eastern boarder of the Roman Empire. Shapur attacked neutral Armenia after many of the Armenian lords defected to him. In the end the Armenian king (Arshak) abandoned his alliance to Rome. Shapur invited Arshak to a feast where his eyes are gauged out! Shapur then puts his own puppet King on the thrown The Armenian Lords flee and support the heir to the throne a prince known as ‘Pap’. King Pap and Armenia This is a complex story and much might be lost in this brief précis. Under the treaty between Jovian and Shapur 11 0f 363AD it was agreed that Armenia would remain neutral. BUT both sides tried to influence the neutral government of Armenia. Valens installed King Pap as his client King after Shapur’s first attempt to install his own man. Shapur then sent an army into Iberia and another army to besiege Pap. Pap escapes to the Imperial Court of Valens. King Pap – Armenia (Cont.) Valens sent his general with a large force to reinstate Pap. However, Shapur again sends forces into Armenia and Pap fled again. Valens now sends a much lager force into Armenia and Shapur was defeated at the Battle of Bavagan a treaty was agreed and Pap was reinstated once again. Pap began a persecution of the orthodox Christians and executes Nerses the Bishop of Armenia. Valens suspects Pap will change allegiance to Shapur. King Pap (cont,) Valens sent a general to Armenia to meet and win over Pap then arrest him. The first attempt fails as Pap had become suspicious about the reason for the meeting . Another more subtle general was sent with the same objective and this time Pap accepts an invitation to a banquet where – surprise, surprise – he was brutally murdered. Pap was replaced by another client king and all was well- for time being. THE WEST VALENTINIAN’S BUILDING CAMPAIGN AND BOARDER PROBLEMS 364AD ONWARDS Valentinian Becomes Seriously Ill In 364 AD Valentinian became seriously ill. It was suspected that he would not recover. It was decided that his infant son Gratian would be declared Valentinian’s co-emperor. This was done to ensure that the new dynasty survived. Valentinian survived but did not depose his son or alter his rank to Caesar. 368AD Valentinian Campaigns Across the Rhine Jovianus won an important battle at Chalons-sur-Marne in 366AD 6000 Alamanni are killed in the battle and the resulting chase. Jovianus is rewarded by being made Consul the following year. Valentinian having driven the Alamanni back to their homelands wanted to drive home Roman superiority and started to lay Alamanni territory to waste. The campaign ends in a battle at Solcinium. This was the last major victory by a Roman army North of the Rhine. The losses on both sides were considerable. The scale of the victory was greatly exaggerated by the Romans. Religious Strife in Rome In 366AD there was an election campaign for Pope between Damasus and Viventius. The followers of each candidate engaged in riots in the streets of Rome and many were killed. The Prefect of the City proved unable to quell the riots and sat back to await the outcome. Damasus won declared himself Pope and threw his opponent out of the city declaring him to be an ‘antipope’. Valentinian seems not to have paid much attention to this event. Building Campaign on the Rhine Valentinian launched a building campaign along the Rhine frontier building bridges and new watch towers to combat incursions. The building campaign continued for a decade. In 369AD as a result of building a fort in Alamanni territory The Alamanni chiefs sought an audience with Valentinian but they were refused. The Alamanni under their leader Marcionus attacked the fort and drove the Romans out. Valentinian then sought to engage the Burgundians as allies knowing their animosity towards the Alamanni. He promised support them once the Burgundians attack. A Decade of Building The Burgundian v Alamanni Valentinian sought to engage the Burgundians as allies in an attack on the Alamanni. The Burgundians sought a meeting with Valentinian. They wanted something in writing before launching the attack. as usual Valentinian refused to meet them. The Burgundians backed out of the deal. However, the Alamanni got wind of the possible Roman/Burgundian attack and scattered. Theodosius (Mr Fix It) was sent over the Rhine to attack the Alamanni. He inflicted losses on them and took numerous prisoners. These captured people were settled in the Po Valley in Northern Italy. 370AD – A bit of Scandal at Valentinian’s Court. Valentinian’s first wife Marina had befriended Justina the widow of the usurper Magnentius (who died 350AD). They bathed in the nude together. Marina foolishly described the beauty of Justina’s body to Valentinian who was intrigued and when he found out just how beautiful she was he fell for her. He wanted to marry Justina but did not want to divorce Marina. The story goes that he passed legislation to allow him to have two wives. No record of this legislation has been found. Justina’s Children Justina bore Valentinian four children. A son Valentinian 11 (future emperor) and three daughters one of whom Galla later marries and becomes the second wife of the future Emperor Theodosius 1. Galla and Theodosius 1 have daughter Galla Placidia who in turn becomes regent and rules the empire. – But this all in the future. Valentinian had a son from his first marriage to Marina - Gratian who became his co-emperor in 364AD . Sorcery Trial in Rome 370AD Valentinian ordered an investigation in Rome after a man called Chilo accused three men of trying to poison him. One of these men was a soothsayer. Valentinian had suspected sorcery when he fell ill in 364AD. A man called Maxminus was appointed as investigator and found that the suspected senators had been leading a decadent life (in strong contrast to Valentinian’s court) and had meddled in sorcery. This led to senators being executed and some sent in exile. Marcellinus- says this was a vicious biased attack by Valentinian on pagan members of the senate. But this ignores the fact that many pagan senators were found not guilty. Firmus Revolts In Africa 372 AD It will be remembered that Romanus the African Dux had managed to escape being prosecuted for his corrupt dealings in Africa several years before 372AD. He had continued extorting money for giving protection. Firmus, a Moor who had joined the Roman Army, decided enough was enough and led a revolt against Romanus. Theodosius was sent to Africa and arrested Romanus. Firmus then tried to make peace with Theodosius but he had revolted and had to be regarded as a traitor. This led to a war in Africa. In the end Firmus was betrayed by one of his own men and committed suicide before he could be captured. Building Campaign in Quadi Territory As with the Alamanni Valentinian decided to build a fort in Quadi territory which causes outrage amongst the Quadi. A general named Marcellinus was sent to progress what had become a drawn out building project. Marcellinus invited Cabinius a king of the Quadi for a banquet and executed him. He thought this would send the appropriate message to the Quadi people. The Quadi invade Pannonia and kill the Romans working on the fort in their territory The Quadi also capture Constantina (daughter of Constantius 11) The Quadi 375 AD The Quadi occupy the region to the East of the Rhine. Valentinian faced with fighting both the Alamanni and the Quadi decided to agree a treaty with the Alamanni and then moved eastwards from his base in Trier. This was the last time that Trier will be used as a permanent base for a Roman emperor. Valentinian leads a number of unsuccessful incursions into Quadi territory before the end of the fighting season occurs. Temper - Temper The Quadi sued for peace and agreed to supply troops for the Roman Army as part of the deal. A peace treaty was agreed on 15th November 375AD The Quadi envoys seek an audience with Valentinian and this against his normal practice it was granted. The Quadi maintain that they were not really responsible for the attacks on the Romans and it had been bands of brigands purporting to be Quadi. Valentinian flew into a violent rage and became abusive when suddenly he suffered a seizure and died. Gratian and Valentinian 11 375AD The Army Commanders were concerned about the possibility usurpers seizing power as Gratian Valentian’s co-emperor and son was only sixteen years old. The generals invite Valentinian 11 –(Gratian’s infant brother) to be co–emperor in order to reinforce the dynasty. This was not done with Gratian’s consent and we do not know how he viewed this appointment. There were a number of high ranking courtiers and army officers were unwilling to serve Valentinian 11 as his mother (Justina – Valentinian’s widow) was an Arian Christian. Merobaudes Merobaudes had overseen the transport of Julian’s corpse to Tarsus. (now reburied in Istanbul). Merobaudes was a Frank who had risen under Valentinian 1 to the rank of Master Soldier and was influential in the elevation of Valentinian 11 to emperor. It was felt that Gratian who had campaigned with his father showed no military talents at all. The Regime Change in the West In reality the Western Empire was at this time was being run by senior Commanders. Gratian was 16 years old and Valentinian 11 was 4 years old. The Western Empire was split into two parts ; 1) The Court of Gratian ruling Gaul, Britain and Spain 2) The Court of Valentinian 11 ruling Illyricum, Africa and Italy. Theodosius (the elder) - the general that had provided such great service was arrested and executed. Probably as he had the support of the troops and could have seized power himself. Theodosius has a son (a future emperor) who discretely retires to his family estates and escapes his own execution. The Influence of Justina Gratian is Valentinian’s son by his first marriage and Valentinian 11 is the son of his second wife Justina. She uses here influence at court as the mother of the infant Emperor to impose her Arian form of Christianity. She is opposed by Bishop Ambrose (his appointment was supported by Gratian). Ambrose refuses to hand over the Basilica in Milan for Arian worship in contravention of an imperial order. Ambrose and his supporter lock themselves in the Basilica – eventually the unpopular order is rescinded. New Emperors in the West Gratian and Valentinian 11 THE EAST VALENS HAS PROBLEMS OF HIS OWN Uprising in Isauria and Shapur 375AD Valens had to act quickly to react an uprising in Isauria (Western Turkey) The cause is not known but it was speedily put down. Shapur 11 had now won a Persio-Kushan war on his frontiers and now demanded Valens either gives up Iberia or Armenia. Valens refused to do either. Shapur 11 sent envoys to negotiate seeking favourable terms. Valens demanded that Shapur should give up all claims to Armenia or face all out war. However, Valens had a severe troop shortage and caused resentment with a new harsh recruitment campaign. Valens was now also involved in the persecution (perhaps too strong a word) of orthodox Christians trying to oppose Arian Christianity. THE GOTHS THE GOTHS ARRIVE ON THE DANUBE BOARDER IN LATE 376AD Goths Seek Asylum After the treaty with Valens in 370AD a civil war broke out between the Tervingi tribes. Firtigen an Arian Christian was supported by Valens in his civil war against Athanaric. The War ended in a stalemate but in acknowledgement of Valens's support Firtigen converted all his followers to Arian Christianity. The Huns, not yet united, attacked the Goths in their home lands forcing them to move Westward. A large number of Trevingi Goths (about 90,000) arrive on the Danube. They send envoys to Valens asking for asylum. The Unwritten Rules for Settlement 1) Entry to the empire had to be carefully supervised by overwhelming force. 2) The tribes had to be split up and settled in different parts of the Empire. 3) There had to be a clear understanding of the conditions upon which they were allowed to settle. 4) The settlers had to give up their arms, (Ammianus Marcellinus is unclear as to whether the Goths were disarmed). These rules were not applied to the Goths. Valens Allows the Goths to Cross into Roman Territory After a long period whilst the envoys travelled to and from the Court of Valens . The Tervingi Goths were allowed to cross the Rhine into Roman territory with a view that they should settle in Thrace. Valens was desperate for troops in the East and part of the agreement was that the Goths would supply men for the army in return for being allowed to settle in Roman territory. Valens had greatly underestimated the numbers seeking asylum and the whole project was disastrously handled. The Goths The other Gothic tribe the Greuthungi were refused permission to enter Roman territory but nevertheless they forced their way across the Danube. The Danube frontier had been denuded of troops who had been withdrawn to deal with the Tervingi crossing the Rhine. Two generals Lupicinus and Maximus are the two officers blamed by Ammianus (the historian) for the mishandling of the migration of the Tervingi. The Mishandling of the Migration. The Tervingi were desperately short of food. This was not solely an army but a whole tribe of people . They had run out of food waiting for the response from Valens. Crossing the Rhine had been difficult as it was in flood and many Tervingi had died in crossing the Rhine. Lupicinus and Maximus sought to make profit from the Goths by charging exorbitant prices for food, accepting bribes and even took slaves for money or in exchange for food. The Mishandling of the Migration There must have been reserves of food stored in walled cities along the frontiers for the army but for some reason these were not used – either as a deliberate tactic or just plain bad management. Things were becoming very tense and Lupicinius decided to march the Trevingi to Marcianopolis where he had his headquarters. The Goths were not allowed into the city and the Romans were beginning to lose control of the situation outside the city where the Goths were camped. Marcianopolis (Devnya Bulgaria) The Mishandling of the Migration Under the pretence of trying to find solutions and improve relationships – guess what? Lupicinius invited the Chieftains including King Fritigern to a banquet. His intention was to kill them. It is very unlikely due to the time lag that he was acting under orders from Valens. Word of the plan got out to the Gothic warriors outside the city and the Goths began fighting their Roman guards Fritigern managed to talk his way out of his potential execution on the understanding that he would stop the fighting which was escalating into a full scale battle. The Romans Attack the Goths and Lose Lupicinus gathered what troops he could and marched towards the Gothic camp some miles outside the city. The Goths managed to ambush the Roman column and routed the Roman army. The Goths seized swords and armour from the dead soldiers. Lupicinus managed to escape from the battle field Fritigern’s band of Goths was reinforced when a large group of Greuthungi joined him. Meanwhile A group of Goths who had settled near the city of Adrianople (Hadrianople) were attacked by the city magistrate and a makeshift army made up of workers from the local arms factory. The Goths win the battle and help themselves to the arms stored in the factory. They then travel to join up with Fritigern’s army of warriors who are now much better armed. The numbers of Goths are further expanded by deserting Gothic slaves. The Goths Become a Serious Problem The Goths now wander the countryside plundering as they go. They are by now a huge travelling group and need to keep moving to find supplies. The Goths are not raiders by nature but they have no home land to return to. The Goths really needed a treaty with the Empire and a place to settle. From the Roman point of view a war with the Goths would not be easy to win. Valens makes peace with the Persians and returns to Constantinople. His plan was to deal with the Goths in 378AD