Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
ISA - JESUS THROUGH MUSLIM EYES Preliminary Remarks Jesus has to be seen in terms of the Muslim understanding that one of Islam’s major functions is to correct the misinterpretation by Christians of Jesus’ message, a disservice that they believe continues to this day. In seeking an understanding of Jesus their natural inclination would be to turn to the Qur’an, a scripture which, they believe, is far more reliable than the Bible, given that Christian theologians have ‘tampered with the texts’. That said, based on the Qur’an and tradition, Muslims would have little difficulty in affirming Jesus as an eminent prophet and messenger of God who has a special place in Muslim religious beliefs. How is Jesus described in the Qur’an? He is a prophet, one in a line of prophets sent by God (3.84f; 4.163; 5.46). He was an apostle sent to the children of Israel (3.49; 4.157; 5.75; 61.6) and to him a special message was given – the Injil or Gospel (3.48; 5.46; 19.30; 57.27). In it was a warning for the God-fearing and it confirmed the Torah (3.50; 5.46). A strict monotheist (3.51), he called people, as did other prophets, to surrender (islam) to the will of God (5.116f; 26.108; 43.63). Some prophets, however, are considered to be ‘more excellent’ than others (17.55) and amongst these was Jesus. God had made a covenant with him (33.7). He was born of a virgin (34.7), spoke from the cradle (3.46) and both he and his mother were protected from Satan (3.36). He was faultless and pure (19.19) and was brought near to God (3.45). Three titles are used of Jesus: Messiah: It is considered an honourific term showing that Jesus was blessed and the source of blessings. Some consider the term to derive from the Arabic msh meaning ‘one cleansed from every blemish and sin’, others think it derives from the verb saha meaning ‘to wonder’ or ‘roam’, whilst others associate it with the Hebrew verb meaning ‘to anoint’, i.e. Jesus was anointed – equipped for the ministry of prophethood and teaching. Word: Jesus is regarded as a word, not the word. It would appear that the term has more to do with God’s intervention in the birth of Jesus, demonstrating God’s creative power and unconditional freedom. God says, ‘Be’, and it is. The Virgin Birth is affirmed in the Qur’an and Jesus is referred to as ‘a word from God’. Spirit: Equal uncertainty surrounds this concept. In 4.171, there is a reference to Jesus’ being a ruh (spirit) from God. In 66.12 God says ‘we breathed into Mary [something] of our spirit’. To Muslims this does not mean that Jesus is divine or that he should be identified with God’s spirit. Jesus may be regarded as a spirit proceeding from God, but not God per se. That would be regarded as shirk – associating another being with the being of God. That, in Muslim eyes, is the worst possible sin. How have Muslims responded to Jesus as portrayed in the Qur’an? Jesus is considered to be a significant prophet because of his exalted position, an exceptional ‘event’ in history because he had a miraculous birth. He is believed to have been capable of raising the dead and is regarded as having no precedent in human history. However, Jesus’ birth was no more miraculous than that of Adam who had neither father nor mother. Further there are matters about Jesus which Muslims strongly deny. We have already seen that associating another being with the being of God is considered to be most sinful. Consequently it is regarded as blasphemy to ‘raise Jesus to the level of God’ (5.17). Nor indeed would any Muslim use the term ’Son of God’ (6.101ff; 19.92; 112.3). Perhaps the point of greatest difference is the outright rejection of the crucifixion: [T]hey did not slay him, and neither did they crucify him, but it only seemed to them [as if it had been] so. (4.157) It is claimed by some that Jesus was ‘raptured’ from the cross and taken into heaven. There is further a denial of the atonement since … No one can answer for the sins of another. For Muslims Jesus is nothing other than mortal. Claims for divinity are anathema. Jesus was a servant, a notion that affirms humanity and the dependence of Jesus upon God. He had to eat (5.75) unlike God and the angels who need no food (11.70). Jesus is said to have announced the coming of Muhammad (61.6) and consequently his being regarded as paradigmatic is called into question. Note that Muhammad’s message is not new. It is one of establishing radical obedience to God (6.163-166) and his role is not that of establishing a new religion but that of confirming and restoring the primordial monotheism or ‘eternal religion‘ that had been established since the time of Adam. Associated with this is the issue of ‘success’. It is part of Quranic doctrine that simply delivering the message is not enough and to suffer frustration and not to succeed is failure and immature spirituality. Thus Muhammad needed to succeed. Jesus had failed because he was sentenced to death. The ‘evident success’ of Muhammad confirmed him, in Muslim eyes as ‘the seal of the prophets’. Muhammad is seen by Muslims as the one who came to correct and fulfil the message which had been laid upon Jesus but this has not been acknowledged by Christians. For Muslims Islam is seen as the most adequate and perfect religion. Hence Jesus is not paradigmatic for Muslims whereas Muhammad is certainly so. The prophet Muhammad is said to be identified in two biblical verses: Deut. 18.15: ‘The Lord your God will raise up a prophet from among you like myself and you will listen to him.’ John 14.16: ‘I shall send you a counsellor…’ (Christians are thought to have changed the Greek text to parakletos (counsellor) from periklutos, meaning ‘one worthy of praise’ - ahmad in Arabic and the root of the name Muhammad)). In all the Qur’an does not give full details of Jesus’ life because his is only a precursory role and he is only a prophet. return, not as Messiah but as the one who helps the Mahdi in his final act of redemption and judgement. Developing Understanding of Jesus Jesus as an ascetic prophet who called people to lead ascetic lives, who walked barefoot, had no house, no adornment or goods or excessive clothes. He submitted to God and encouraged others to live frugally. This also led to an understanding of Jesus, the prophet of failure, an other-worldly prophet who is said to have realised the gravity of his failure but who did not consider any alternative life-style and who certainly would not have used physical force to change the situation. From the perspective of Hadith (the traditions) Jesus is seen as a forerunner prophet whose function was to announce the coming of the ‘seal’ of the prophets, Muhammad. ‘The way of Jesus, Prophet of Islam is over, the way of Muhammad, Prophet of Islam has begun’ writes Md ‘Ata ur-Rahim in Jesus, Prophet of Islam (p.228). The notion of Jesus’ eschatological prophethood has been consistently rejected by Sunni Muslims. In 1942 the Rector of Al-Azhar University in Cairo indicated that there was nothing in either the Qur’an or the Hadith which authorizes the belief that Jesus was taken up into haven and would descend in the latter days. Hussein Djozo, also, claimed that since the Qur’an is the final and definitive revelation there is neither need nor cause for another embassy from God. Over the years two further themes evolved: However, Jesus was also said to have a future role as the eschatological prophet. It is claimed by some that Muhammad said that Jesus would return as a just judge, but there is no consensus of opinion with regard to this role. Some believe that Jesus still remains active in heaven and will return as judge, but others believe that this undermines the concept of Muhammad’s being the seal of the prophets. For some Islam is the faith of finality and Jesus will lead Islam to final victory. Jesus will overcome the antichrist, witness against false messages and inaugurate millennial righteousness or the messianic era. He will fill the earth with peace and establish justice. Such an era will continue for an unknown time during which there will be no hatred, jealousy, grudges or the need for money. Earth will enjoy peace to the extent that lions will pasture with camels and tigers with oxen, wolves with sheep and so on (cf. Isaiah 2.2-4). Jesus, amongst others will champion the cause of Islam. Jesus the Prophet of Islam – developing trends Among Sufi Muslims Jesus is considered to have an important eschatological role and the Mahdi will serve him, but Jesus will continue to live as a member of Muhammad’s community, he’ll marry and have children. Jesus is considered to be the one who will inaugurate millennial righteousness independently of Christianity. Jesus will continue to do what Muhammad failed to accomplish because of his death, thus Islam will be the final and perfect religion through which Jesus will operate. The virgin birth is affirmed by Sunni Islam, but the response to it differs. Smail Balic suggests that Jesus is accordingly ‘above ordinary mortals’ but ‘Abduh says it does not entitle him to be placed above the rest of creation. Like Jesus, Adam too had an ‘unusual birth’. He was created out of dust but Jesus was formed more orthodoxly through the womb of Mary. Shia Muslims, however, do not regard Jesus as the long awaited Messiah - that is the Mahdi, the twelfth awaited messiah who will conquer the world. Jesus will Sunni Islam presents the Quranic view of Jesus in a distinctly uncompromising manner, Muhammad is the prophet, Jesus is a prophet. He is one amongst many who are sent by God and holds no special position. Messiah is simply a title. Even performing miracles does not make him unique, he is not the only prophet to do so (7.107-109; 20.6570) That said, one has to recognise that he does so through God’s power (4.49; 5.110), but these miracles are signs for people to believe. Jesus may have made birds out of clay or raised people from the dead but Moses miraculously led the people out of Egypt. The greatest of all miracles, claim Muslims, is the advent of the Qur’an – it is the mightiest of all ‘signs’. Jesus was given the power of speech by God to preach from his cradle. Thus God is able to transcend the usual order of things as well as effect the birth of Jesus without a human father. Jesus as ‘word’ and ‘spirit’ is not unusual since other prophets are referred to in this way. The virgin birth does not mark Jesus out as ‘divine’. Balic writes ‘Islam rules out any incursion of the human into the sphere of the divine … [there can be] no human share in the divine uniqueness.’ The doctrine of shirk – associating the being of God with any other being prevents claims regarding divinity. Shia Muslims see Jesus as prophet and vice-regent. Jesus is regarded as one of the ‘prophets of power’ but not as the prophet. Prophethood is believed by them to have two aspects, an outward and an inward. The prophet’s task is to encourage people to turn from their outward show of religion to clean their inner hearts: ‘Turn to me with your hearts for I desire not your outward appearances.’ Jesus is described as an other-worldly prophet who attempts to bring people away from a preoccupation with this world and to seek the next world, to bring themselves nearer to God and do away with their hypocrisy. The inward role is fulfilled by vice-regents and imams whose task it is to complete the work of the prophets. They are endowed with esoteric knowledge and Shia Islam regards Jesus also as God’s vice-regent – an imam whose task it is to complete God’s mission. Ali is regarded as Muhammad’s vice-regent. He and his successors continued the work of the prophets but did not themselves receive revelations but were able to interpret secret knowledge. Both the Gospel and the Qur’an have hidden (esoteric) and apparent (exoteric) meaning which is revealed through the imams. Some Shias would consider them to be greater than the prophets prior to Muhammad and to be the true mediators between God and human beings and, thus, the source of salvation. Jesus is seen to be a contributory figure to the understanding of imamate. A further Shia understanding of Jesus is in terms of the suffering and martyrdom of Hussein which they would see as mirroring the life of Jesus, even to the extent of betrayal. Jesus is said to have wept when he considered the fate which was to befall Hussein. Jesus is also described as a friend of God and, therefore, near to God but he is still a human-being and is humble. His life is filled with fear and hope. God both reprimands and threatens Jesus and also counsels and exalts him. That is how God deals with friends. Two issues surround the understanding of Jesus by Sufis. First, Jesus is seen as the model Sufi and their descriptions of him are experiential rather than dogmatic. They have a ‘soul affection’ with him. Jesus is seen as a prophet and teacher who fulfilled God’s will and asked others to do so too. ‘Evident success’ is not regarded as the mark of life their preference is ‘to be naked in the world’. Jesus is seen as a model and guide for their mystical life as well as for the dispossession of wealth and luxury. Therefore, Jesus is seen as an example of asceticism and piety. There is one story that Jesus was only given a place in the fourth heaven because although his coat had three hundred patches on it, he also possessed a needle in his pocket. Jesus piety is also praised. He is seen as a contemplative saint, ‘one of those brought near to God’. (3.45) He is further admired because of his service to others. In renunciation and humility no other apostle or prophet is said to be equal to him – he gave joy to those who were in need. ‘Without compromising the Muslim faith that a human can never become like God, Sufis believe that through love, goodness, mercy, truth and loyalty they can become like God.’ Jesus is said to have had such a lifestyle. He is called ‘the man of sorrows’ because his otherworldly attitudes did not enable him to have ‘evident success’. Nevertheless, in and through his asceticism and piety he has become ‘the crowning perfection of purity or sanctity’. Sufis believe that those who pattern themselves on Jesus can and will lead a holy life like him. Jesus is referred to as ‘the cup-bearer’ since wine is a symbol of joy and mystical ecstasy. Secondly, Jesus is regarded as the ‘seal of the saints’ – those who have received ‘the highest of the essence of God’. God only manifests Godself when a person is thoroughly prepared and through knowledge a saint realises his/her unity with God, the Creator, but God still remains hidden from him/her. Sainthood includes both prophethood and apostleship but every prophet and apostle should be a saint. Saints receive personal laws directly from God who puts them into their hearts – such laws are not meant for propagation. Note, however, that no new law would abrogate or contradict the law given through Muhammad. Whilst prophethood and apostleship are temporal, sainthood is eternal. Jesus is the ‘seal of the saints’ because he received the highest knowledge of God, but Muhammad is ‘the seal of the prophets’. Jesus’ inner sanctuary is the source of the perfect knowledge of God. His sainthood is not limited by time. He has a more perfect knowledge of God than Muhammad and that knowledge is received directly from God. Hence he is the seal of the saints and in terms of ability his prophecy knows no bounds. He will return to earth as the inheritor and seal. Jesus as ‘seal of the saints’ is not part of authentic Muslim belief. Such a role depends heavily on the eschatological task in which Jesus will ‘come down during the last days as an inheritor and a seal’. Normative Islam questions whether Jesus should have such a role. Some, however, see Ali as sealing sainthood. Later trends in the understanding of Jesus Jesus, a prophet of Israel. Jesus is seen as one whose mission is to the Jews. He is the anointed one – the Messiah – but the Jews rejected him. It was believed that Jesus would act as king by establishing justice among the people and reforming Judaism. He is said to have encouraged the Jews to free themselves from the influence of the Scribes and Pharisees, to eradicate prevailing evils and to enter into a new relationship as brothers and sisters. Whilst Jesus is seen as the ‘prophet of Israel’, Muhammad as the ‘seal of the prophets’ is considered the universal prophet. However, the church is seen as ‘de-semitising’ the work of Jesus and of having read universality into the Jesus’ mission. Further, a ‘misrepresentation’ of Jesus pushing him into a western alien context has taken place. Thereby his role among the Jews has been violated. The Qur’an is seen as repossessing Jesus, bringing him back from Europe. St Paul is described as a ‘Christianist’ who has corrupted the lofty ethics of Jesus (Isma’il Ragi A. al-Fauqi: Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of Its dominant Ideas. The Hague, Djambatan, 1967) Ahmadiyyas, a group rejected by normative Islam, claimed that Jesus escaped from the Cross and travelled to Kashmir. Here is another attempt to detach Jesus from Western possession. It is claimed that he first went to Nasibain, 450 miles, east of Jerusalem, then to Media – Persia, then to Afghanistan where he is said to have married. (One of the hill tribes is known as the Isa Khel.) From there Jesus is said to have gone to Kashmir, Tibet and then into the Panjab where he is said to have invited the lost Jews to return to Islam before he returned to Kashmir. However, the Qur’an indicates that Jesus’ work was ‘for all peoples’ (21.93). Quranic doctrine shows that although they were placed in context, the messages of the prophets are not confined but have universal application for all people. Jesus is said to claim that his birth was akin to that of Adam (3.59 cf. 3.45; 4.171). Therefore, it could be argued that Jesus’ prophethood embraces all people not just Israelites. Jesus as a Universal Prophet Jesus is seen (by Fathi Uthman: Ma’al-Masih fi-I Anajil al Arab’ah) as a prophet who has universal significance. The four Gospels, he says, are sure and the closest source for knowledge of Jesus who is seen as a reformer of Judaism because the ethical principles of the Torah had been reduced to formal legalism. Jesus’ message is not time-bound nor superseded, therefore, the ethics of the Gospels are equally valid for both Christians and Muslims. Seen in this light the mission of Jesus cannot be considered a failure if one sees it in a historical context. In ‘Abqariyyat al Masih (The Genius of Christ) ‘Abba al-Aqqad (d.1964) suggests that Jesus is a prophet/teacher in context whose message meets the socio-political character of his day. But, although he encountered powerful opposition, he was loyal and obedient to his mission. Jesus had an inner struggle with his soul and was enabled to understand the meaning of suffering and despair. He is portrayed as one of the prophets ‘for whom spiritual warfare knew no truce’, a prime example being the Temptations. Jesus was faithful in that he surrendered even his despair to God, but God rescued him by ‘rapturing him into heaven’. He gave people the new law of the Beatitudes and encouraged them to free themselves from their orientation to self and mammon and to adapt to a new life-style in accordance with the Gospel. He appealed, it was claimed, to their ‘freedom of conscience’. Jesus also showed compassion to women and the disadvantaged and offered forgiveness. This message, says the author, became a universal gospel and is reflected by Muhammad’s own experience in, and move from, Mecca to Medina because of enmity and rejection. It has to be noted here that what is seen as important is not Jesus as a person but his ethical and universal message. He is a prophet but not the prophet – that is Muhammad. That he and his message were opposed is not denied but what is rejected is the crucifixion. The rapture into heaven is affirmed strongly. For the Muslim that is the point where ‘the role of history ends and the role of the creed begins’. (Cragg: Jesus and the Muslim, p. 53f.) al Aqqad quotes from the Gospels but is rather selective in choosing that which supports his thesis. But, note that he does actually quote from the Gospels, a significant change in attitude given traditional Muslim views. Jesus’ achievement is only ‘spiritual’. His prophethood lacked the ‘historical realism’ of Muhammad. The Sermon on the Mount is viewed as ‘a vision of absolute values … a dream passionate and divine.’ The historical realism of Muhammad presents, in Muslim eyes, a more balanced view of life. Jesus’ humility, docility and meekness do not match Muhammad’s ‘evident success’. Jesus as the non-successful prophet. Muslims believe that ‘evident success’ is one of the marks of prophethood (5.16; 45.30). Jesus did not have such evident external success, therefore, his prophethood was ‘incomplete’ or ‘partial’. The ideal man is said to have the sword of Caesar in his hand and the heart of Jesus in his breast. Jesus lacks the first and is, therefore, not an ideal prophet. His message is seen as one in which people are encouraged to change their orientation from pleasure and worldliness to asceticism and contemplation of the hereafter. Jesus is seen as someone who prefers olive branches and words of peace not the use of force. Therefore, failure was inevitable. Jesus’ inadequacy contrasted with Muhammad’s evident success. Jesus as a complementary prophet. In his book Mi’an ‘ala-l-Tariq: Muhammad wa-l-Masih, (On the road together, Muhammad and Christ, c. 1958), Khalid Md Khalid suggests that Jesus and Muhammad were complementary prophets. The author goes beyond the Qur’anic understanding of Jesus’ prophethood and draws insights from the Hadith describing the brotherhood of prophets. He also quotes from the passion narratives and recognises the significance of Jesus’ sufferings. Khalid reckons that Jesus contrasts necessarily with Muhammad’s prophethood, the return of Jesus being a significant illustration. His final chapter is significant and is entitled: ‘And now, Barabbas or Jesus?’ It is a question that confronts all societies now. Christ is seen as a supreme example of his own message of love which shows no hatred. Jesus is to return: ‘With Muhammad and the faithful we declare: ‘Christ not Barabbas, the true not the false, love not hatred, peace not war, life not extinction. The spirit of Barabbas glorifies force, violence and tyranny, the spirit of Jesus symbolises the ultimacy of the way of love. Khalid says that Muhammad and Jesus complement each other and that Muslims and Christians should work together for the betterment of human life. Three comments need to be made. First, Khalid’s description is very unique,, but if Muhammad is the ‘seal of the prophets’ then should Jesus have such a significant eschatological role? Secondly, the ultimacy of the way of love may not fit into the concept of ‘evident success’. Thirdly, Khalid is a man of vision who spares no pains to encourage a religious basis for links and co-operation between Muslims and Christians. An overview of the issues. Jesus may be a paradigm for Christianity but in Islam he is still only a prophet. He is not central as in Christianity. Islam is an autonomous religion but Islam’s own self-understanding takes shape because of its relationship to Christianity and Judaism. Perhaps a most significant illustration of the patterns of affirmation and rejection of the Christian faith and the nature of Jesus is drawn up by Hasan Askari seen in the end table. Jesus, in Muslim eyes, has only a minor role by comparison with Muhammad and although paradigmatic for Christianity is certainly not for Islam where Muhammad is the paradigm without parallel. Muslims, however, would claim that theirs is not a distorted or heretical understanding based on a false view of the Gospels but is based on the soundness of the authentic Qur’an. Islam does not permit self-definition by Christians because the Qur’an is seen as a later book which corrects Christianity. Historical Christianity is seen as pseudo-Christianity. Indeed the Qur’an portrays Jesus as distancing himself from the doctrines his own community holds about him (3.55). The Qur’an reckons that Christianity has deviated from the true message (2.75-79, 159, 174-176; 3. 65-70; 4.46; 5.13; 5.41) Further Christianity has become a ‘Western’ religion which is compromising the teaching of Jesus. Corruption has taken place either because of wilful or unwitting abuse of the text or literal falsification or mistaken exegesis. Christians, it is believed, do not possess the authentic Gospel. The Gospel of Barnabas, seen as authentic by many Muslims, is totally rejected by Christians as a spurious document. The figure of Jesus known to most Muslims today is an amalgam of ideas taken from the Qur’an and later Muslim tradition. Here, in Jesus, is to be found one who is deeply revered but who is a not central, paradigmatic figure. That is Muhammad, claim Muslims, for whom Jesus prepared the way. From: Hasan Askari: Islam: A Theology of Religious Diversity, London, Macmillan, 1988 Muslim perceptions of Christianity Pattern of Affirmation Pattern of Rejection Jesus(‘Isa) son of Mary ‘Son of God’ Jesus, prophet and messenger of God to the children of Israel Universal/eternal mission Miracles of Jesus birth and life Incarnational understanding of miracles Moral teaching of Jesus Doctrines of his redemptive power Jesus’ ascension to heaven Crucifixion Jesus as uplifted Jesus as risen from the dead Jesus as word/sign/spirit Jesus as the Word made flesh Jesus as Messiah Implications in Christian theology Special status of Jesus Uniqueness of Jesus Jesus’ prophecy of the paraclete affirmed as ‘ahmad Doctrine of the Holy Spirit The Last Supper Its sacramental significance Disciples of Jesus as helpers of God – ‘ansar Allah Disciples united ‘in Christ’ by the power of the Spirit/Eucharist Its authenticity in biblical form The injil (Gospel in the form of a book) Christians as ‘People of the book’ Christian piety Church as the Body of Christ Christian belief about the divinity of Christ Select Bibliography Chapman, C: Cross and Crescent, Leicester, IVP, 1995 Cragg, K: The Call of the Minaret, London, Collins, 1986 Fletcher, R: The Cross and the Crescent, London, Allen Lane, 2003 Tarif Khalidi: The Muslim Jesus, Cambridge, Mass, Harvard Press, 2001 Lawrence, C: Jesus as Prophet in Christianity and Islam, Delhi, ISPCK, 1997 Md ‘Ata ur-Rahim: Jesus: A Prophet of Islam, London, MWH Publishers, 1979 Parrinder, G: Jesus in the Qur’an, London, Faber and Faber, 1965 Robinson, N: Christ in Islam and Christianity, London, Macmillan, 1991