Download jesus through muslim eyes

ISA - JESUS THROUGH MUSLIM EYES
Preliminary Remarks
Jesus has to be seen in terms of the Muslim understanding that one of Islam’s
major functions is to correct the misinterpretation by Christians of Jesus’
message, a disservice that they believe continues to this day. In seeking an
understanding of Jesus their natural inclination would be to turn to the Qur’an, a
scripture which, they believe, is far more reliable than the Bible, given that
Christian theologians have ‘tampered with the texts’. That said, based on the
Qur’an and tradition, Muslims would have little difficulty in affirming Jesus as an
eminent prophet and messenger of God who has a special place in Muslim
religious beliefs.
How is Jesus described in the Qur’an?
He is a prophet, one in a line of prophets sent by God (3.84f; 4.163; 5.46). He
was an apostle sent to the children of Israel (3.49; 4.157; 5.75; 61.6) and to him a
special message was given – the Injil or Gospel (3.48; 5.46; 19.30; 57.27). In it
was a warning for the God-fearing and it confirmed the Torah (3.50; 5.46). A
strict monotheist (3.51), he called people, as did other prophets, to surrender
(islam) to the will of God (5.116f; 26.108; 43.63).
Some prophets, however, are considered to be ‘more excellent’ than others
(17.55) and amongst these was Jesus. God had made a covenant with him
(33.7). He was born of a virgin (34.7), spoke from the cradle (3.46) and both he
and his mother were protected from Satan (3.36). He was faultless and pure
(19.19) and was brought near to God (3.45).
Three titles are used of Jesus:
Messiah: It is considered an honourific term showing that Jesus was blessed and
the source of blessings. Some consider the term to derive from the Arabic msh
meaning ‘one cleansed from every blemish and sin’, others think it derives from
the verb saha meaning ‘to wonder’ or ‘roam’, whilst others associate it with the
Hebrew verb meaning ‘to anoint’, i.e. Jesus was anointed – equipped for the
ministry of prophethood and teaching.
Word: Jesus is regarded as a word, not the word. It would appear that the term
has more to do with God’s intervention in the birth of Jesus, demonstrating God’s
creative power and unconditional freedom. God says, ‘Be’, and it is. The Virgin
Birth is affirmed in the Qur’an and Jesus is referred to as ‘a word from God’.
Spirit: Equal uncertainty surrounds this concept. In 4.171, there is a reference to
Jesus’ being a ruh (spirit) from God. In 66.12 God says ‘we breathed into Mary
[something] of our spirit’. To Muslims this does not mean that Jesus is divine or
that he should be identified with God’s spirit. Jesus may be regarded as
a spirit proceeding from God, but not God per se. That would be
regarded as shirk – associating another being with the being of God.
That, in Muslim eyes, is the worst possible sin.
How have Muslims responded to Jesus as portrayed in the Qur’an?
Jesus is considered to be a significant prophet because of his exalted
position, an exceptional ‘event’ in history because he had a miraculous
birth. He is believed to have been capable of raising the dead and is
regarded as having no precedent in human history.
However, Jesus’ birth was no more miraculous than that of Adam who
had neither father nor mother. Further there are matters about Jesus
which Muslims strongly deny. We have already seen that associating
another being with the being of God is considered to be most sinful.
Consequently it is regarded as blasphemy to ‘raise Jesus to the level of
God’ (5.17). Nor indeed would any Muslim use the term ’Son of God’
(6.101ff; 19.92; 112.3). Perhaps the point of greatest difference is the
outright rejection of the crucifixion:
[T]hey did not slay him, and neither did they crucify him, but it
only seemed to them [as if it had been] so. (4.157)
It is claimed by some that Jesus was ‘raptured’ from the cross and taken
into heaven. There is further a denial of the atonement since …
No one can answer for the sins of another.
For Muslims Jesus is nothing other than mortal. Claims for divinity are
anathema. Jesus was a servant, a notion that affirms humanity and the
dependence of Jesus upon God. He had to eat (5.75) unlike God and the
angels who need no food (11.70).
Jesus is said to have announced the coming of Muhammad (61.6) and
consequently his being regarded as paradigmatic is called into question.
Note that Muhammad’s message is not new. It is one of establishing
radical obedience to God (6.163-166) and his role is not that of
establishing a new religion but that of confirming and restoring the
primordial monotheism or ‘eternal religion‘ that had been established
since the time of Adam. Associated with this is the issue of ‘success’. It
is part of Quranic doctrine that simply delivering the message is not
enough and to suffer frustration and not to succeed is failure and
immature spirituality. Thus Muhammad needed to succeed. Jesus had
failed because he was sentenced to death. The ‘evident success’ of
Muhammad confirmed him, in Muslim eyes as ‘the seal of the prophets’.
Muhammad is seen by Muslims as the one who came to correct and fulfil
the message which had been laid upon Jesus but this has not been
acknowledged by Christians. For Muslims Islam is seen as the most adequate
and perfect religion. Hence Jesus is not paradigmatic for Muslims whereas
Muhammad is certainly so. The prophet Muhammad is said to be identified in two
biblical verses:

Deut. 18.15: ‘The Lord your God will raise up a prophet from among you
like myself and you will listen to him.’

John 14.16: ‘I shall send you a counsellor…’ (Christians are thought to
have changed the Greek text to parakletos (counsellor) from periklutos,
meaning ‘one worthy of praise’ - ahmad in Arabic and the root of the
name Muhammad)).
In all the Qur’an does not give full details of Jesus’ life because his is only a
precursory role and he is only a prophet.
return, not as Messiah but as the one who helps the Mahdi in his final act
of redemption and judgement.
Developing Understanding of Jesus
Jesus as an ascetic prophet who called people to lead ascetic lives, who
walked barefoot, had no house, no adornment or goods or excessive
clothes. He submitted to God and encouraged others to live frugally.
This also led to an understanding of Jesus, the prophet of failure, an
other-worldly prophet who is said to have realised the gravity of his failure
but who did not consider any alternative life-style and who certainly would
not have used physical force to change the situation.
From the perspective of Hadith (the traditions) Jesus is seen as a forerunner
prophet whose function was to announce the coming of the ‘seal’ of the prophets,
Muhammad. ‘The way of Jesus, Prophet of Islam is over, the way of Muhammad,
Prophet of Islam has begun’ writes Md ‘Ata ur-Rahim in Jesus, Prophet of Islam
(p.228).
The notion of Jesus’ eschatological prophethood has been consistently
rejected by Sunni Muslims. In 1942 the Rector of Al-Azhar University in
Cairo indicated that there was nothing in either the Qur’an or the Hadith
which authorizes the belief that Jesus was taken up into haven and would
descend in the latter days. Hussein Djozo, also, claimed that since the
Qur’an is the final and definitive revelation there is neither need nor
cause for another embassy from God.
Over the years two further themes evolved:
However, Jesus was also said to have a future role as the eschatological prophet.
It is claimed by some that Muhammad said that Jesus would return as a just
judge, but there is no consensus of opinion with regard to this role. Some believe
that Jesus still remains active in heaven and will return as judge, but others
believe that this undermines the concept of Muhammad’s being the seal of the
prophets. For some Islam is the faith of finality and Jesus will lead Islam to final
victory. Jesus will overcome the antichrist, witness against false messages and
inaugurate millennial righteousness or the messianic era. He will fill the earth
with peace and establish justice. Such an era will continue for an unknown time
during which there will be no hatred, jealousy, grudges or the need for money.
Earth will enjoy peace to the extent that lions will pasture with camels and tigers
with oxen, wolves with sheep and so on (cf. Isaiah 2.2-4). Jesus, amongst others
will champion the cause of Islam.
Jesus the Prophet of Islam – developing trends
Among Sufi Muslims Jesus is considered to have an important eschatological
role and the Mahdi will serve him, but Jesus will continue to live as a member of
Muhammad’s community, he’ll marry and have children. Jesus is considered to
be the one who will inaugurate millennial righteousness independently of
Christianity. Jesus will continue to do what Muhammad failed to accomplish
because of his death, thus Islam will be the final and perfect religion through
which Jesus will operate.
The virgin birth is affirmed by Sunni Islam, but the response to it differs.
Smail Balic suggests that Jesus is accordingly ‘above ordinary mortals’
but ‘Abduh says it does not entitle him to be placed above the rest of
creation. Like Jesus, Adam too had an ‘unusual birth’. He was created
out of dust but Jesus was formed more orthodoxly through the womb of
Mary.
Shia Muslims, however, do not regard Jesus as the long awaited Messiah - that
is the Mahdi, the twelfth awaited messiah who will conquer the world. Jesus will
Sunni Islam presents the Quranic view of Jesus in a distinctly
uncompromising manner, Muhammad is the prophet, Jesus is a prophet.
He is one amongst many who are sent by God and holds no special
position. Messiah is simply a title. Even performing miracles does not
make him unique, he is not the only prophet to do so (7.107-109; 20.6570) That said, one has to recognise that he does so through God’s power
(4.49; 5.110), but these miracles are signs for people to believe. Jesus
may have made birds out of clay or raised people from the dead but
Moses miraculously led the people out of Egypt. The greatest of all
miracles, claim Muslims, is the advent of the Qur’an – it is the mightiest of
all ‘signs’.
Jesus was given the power of speech by God to preach from his cradle.
Thus God is able to transcend the usual order of things as well as effect
the birth of Jesus without a human father. Jesus as ‘word’ and ‘spirit’ is
not unusual since other prophets are referred to in this way.
The virgin birth does not mark Jesus out as ‘divine’. Balic writes ‘Islam rules out
any incursion of the human into the sphere of the divine … [there can be] no
human share in the divine uniqueness.’ The doctrine of shirk – associating the
being of God with any other being prevents claims regarding divinity.
Shia Muslims see Jesus as prophet and vice-regent. Jesus is regarded as one of
the ‘prophets of power’ but not as the prophet. Prophethood is believed by them
to have two aspects, an outward and an inward. The prophet’s task is to
encourage people to turn from their outward show of religion to clean their inner
hearts: ‘Turn to me with your hearts for I desire not your outward appearances.’
Jesus is described as an other-worldly prophet who attempts to bring people
away from a preoccupation with this world and to seek the next world, to bring
themselves nearer to God and do away with their hypocrisy. The inward role is
fulfilled by vice-regents and imams whose task it is to complete the work of the
prophets. They are endowed with esoteric knowledge and Shia Islam regards
Jesus also as God’s vice-regent – an imam whose task it is to complete God’s
mission. Ali is regarded as Muhammad’s vice-regent. He and his successors
continued the work of the prophets but did not themselves receive revelations but
were able to interpret secret knowledge. Both the Gospel and the Qur’an have
hidden (esoteric) and apparent (exoteric) meaning which is revealed through the
imams. Some Shias would consider them to be greater than the prophets prior to
Muhammad and to be the true mediators between God and human beings and,
thus, the source of salvation. Jesus is seen to be a contributory figure to the
understanding of imamate.
A further Shia understanding of Jesus is in terms of the suffering and martyrdom
of Hussein which they would see as mirroring the life of Jesus, even to the extent
of betrayal. Jesus is said to have wept when he considered the fate which was to
befall Hussein.
Jesus is also described as a friend of God and, therefore, near to God but he is
still a human-being and is humble. His life is filled with fear and hope. God both
reprimands and threatens Jesus and also counsels and exalts him. That is how
God deals with friends.
Two issues surround the understanding of Jesus by Sufis. First, Jesus is seen
as the model Sufi and their descriptions of him are experiential rather than
dogmatic. They have a ‘soul affection’ with him. Jesus is seen as a prophet and
teacher who fulfilled God’s will and asked others to do so too. ‘Evident success’
is not regarded as the mark of life their preference is ‘to be naked in the world’.
Jesus is seen as a model and guide for their mystical life as well as for the
dispossession of wealth and luxury. Therefore, Jesus is seen as an example of
asceticism and piety. There is one story that Jesus was only given a place in the
fourth heaven because although his coat had three hundred patches on it, he also
possessed a needle in his pocket.
Jesus piety is also praised. He is seen as a contemplative saint, ‘one of
those brought near to God’. (3.45) He is further admired because of his
service to others. In renunciation and humility no other apostle or
prophet is said to be equal to him – he gave joy to those who were in
need.
‘Without compromising the Muslim faith that a human can never become
like God, Sufis believe that through love, goodness, mercy, truth and
loyalty they can become like God.’ Jesus is said to have had such a lifestyle. He is called ‘the man of sorrows’ because his otherworldly
attitudes did not enable him to have ‘evident success’. Nevertheless, in
and through his asceticism and piety he has become ‘the crowning
perfection of purity or sanctity’. Sufis believe that those who pattern
themselves on Jesus can and will lead a holy life like him. Jesus is
referred to as ‘the cup-bearer’ since wine is a symbol of joy and mystical
ecstasy.
Secondly, Jesus is regarded as the ‘seal of the saints’ – those who have
received ‘the highest of the essence of God’. God only manifests Godself
when a person is thoroughly prepared and through knowledge a saint
realises his/her unity with God, the Creator, but God still remains hidden
from him/her.
Sainthood includes both prophethood and apostleship but every prophet
and apostle should be a saint. Saints receive personal laws directly from
God who puts them into their hearts – such laws are not meant for
propagation. Note, however, that no new law would abrogate or
contradict the law given through Muhammad. Whilst prophethood and
apostleship are temporal, sainthood is eternal.
Jesus is the ‘seal of the saints’ because he received the highest
knowledge of God, but Muhammad is ‘the seal of the prophets’. Jesus’
inner sanctuary is the source of the perfect knowledge of God. His
sainthood is not limited by time. He has a more perfect knowledge of God
than Muhammad and that knowledge is received directly from God.
Hence he is the seal of the saints and in terms of ability his prophecy
knows no bounds. He will return to earth as the inheritor and seal.
Jesus as ‘seal of the saints’ is not part of authentic Muslim belief. Such a
role depends heavily on the eschatological task in which Jesus will ‘come
down during the last days as an inheritor and a seal’. Normative Islam
questions whether Jesus should have such a role. Some, however, see
Ali as sealing sainthood.
Later trends in the understanding of Jesus
Jesus, a prophet of Israel.
Jesus is seen as one whose mission is to the Jews. He is the anointed one – the
Messiah – but the Jews rejected him. It was believed that Jesus would act as king
by establishing justice among the people and reforming Judaism. He is said to
have encouraged the Jews to free themselves from the influence of the Scribes
and Pharisees, to eradicate prevailing evils and to enter into a new relationship as
brothers and sisters.
Whilst Jesus is seen as the ‘prophet of Israel’, Muhammad as the ‘seal of the
prophets’ is considered the universal prophet. However, the church is seen as
‘de-semitising’ the work of Jesus and of having read universality into the Jesus’
mission. Further, a ‘misrepresentation’ of Jesus pushing him into a western alien
context has taken place. Thereby his role among the Jews has been violated.
The Qur’an is seen as repossessing Jesus, bringing him back from Europe. St
Paul is described as a ‘Christianist’ who has corrupted the lofty ethics of Jesus
(Isma’il Ragi A. al-Fauqi: Christian Ethics: A Historical and Systematic Analysis of
Its dominant Ideas. The Hague, Djambatan, 1967)
Ahmadiyyas, a group rejected by normative Islam, claimed that Jesus escaped
from the Cross and travelled to Kashmir. Here is another attempt to detach Jesus
from Western possession. It is claimed that he first went to Nasibain, 450 miles,
east of Jerusalem, then to Media – Persia, then to Afghanistan where he is said
to have married. (One of the hill tribes is known as the Isa Khel.) From there
Jesus is said to have gone to Kashmir, Tibet and then into the Panjab where he is
said to have invited the lost Jews to return to Islam before he returned to
Kashmir.
However, the Qur’an indicates that Jesus’ work was ‘for all peoples’ (21.93).
Quranic doctrine shows that although they were placed in context, the messages
of the prophets are not confined but have universal application for all people.
Jesus is said to claim that his birth was akin to that of Adam (3.59 cf. 3.45; 4.171).
Therefore, it could be argued that Jesus’ prophethood embraces all people not
just Israelites.
Jesus as a Universal Prophet
Jesus is seen (by Fathi Uthman: Ma’al-Masih fi-I Anajil al Arab’ah) as a prophet
who has universal significance. The four Gospels, he says, are sure and the
closest source for knowledge of Jesus who is seen as a reformer of Judaism
because the ethical principles of the Torah had been reduced to formal legalism.
Jesus’ message is not time-bound nor superseded, therefore, the ethics of the
Gospels are equally valid for both Christians and Muslims. Seen in this
light the mission of Jesus cannot be considered a failure if one sees it in
a historical context.
In ‘Abqariyyat al Masih (The Genius of Christ) ‘Abba al-Aqqad (d.1964)
suggests that Jesus is a prophet/teacher in context whose message
meets the socio-political character of his day.
But, although he
encountered powerful opposition, he was loyal and obedient to his
mission. Jesus had an inner struggle with his soul and was enabled to
understand the meaning of suffering and despair. He is portrayed as one
of the prophets ‘for whom spiritual warfare knew no truce’, a prime
example being the Temptations.
Jesus was faithful in that he
surrendered even his despair to God, but God rescued him by ‘rapturing
him into heaven’. He gave people the new law of the Beatitudes and
encouraged them to free themselves from their orientation to self and
mammon and to adapt to a new life-style in accordance with the Gospel.
He appealed, it was claimed, to their ‘freedom of conscience’. Jesus also
showed compassion to women and the disadvantaged and offered
forgiveness. This message, says the author, became a universal gospel
and is reflected by Muhammad’s own experience in, and move from,
Mecca to Medina because of enmity and rejection.
It has to be noted here that what is seen as important is not Jesus as a
person but his ethical and universal message. He is a prophet but not the
prophet – that is Muhammad. That he and his message were opposed is
not denied but what is rejected is the crucifixion. The rapture into heaven
is affirmed strongly. For the Muslim that is the point where ‘the role of
history ends and the role of the creed begins’. (Cragg: Jesus and the
Muslim, p. 53f.)
al Aqqad quotes from the Gospels but is rather selective in choosing that
which supports his thesis. But, note that he does actually quote from the
Gospels, a significant change in attitude given traditional Muslim views.
Jesus’ achievement is only ‘spiritual’. His prophethood lacked the
‘historical realism’ of Muhammad. The Sermon on the Mount is viewed as
‘a vision of absolute values … a dream passionate and divine.’ The
historical realism of Muhammad presents, in Muslim eyes, a more
balanced view of life. Jesus’ humility, docility and meekness do not match
Muhammad’s ‘evident success’.
Jesus as the non-successful prophet.
Muslims believe that ‘evident success’ is one of the marks of prophethood
(5.16; 45.30). Jesus did not have such evident external success,
therefore, his prophethood was ‘incomplete’ or ‘partial’.
The ideal man is said to have the sword of Caesar in his hand and the heart of
Jesus in his breast. Jesus lacks the first and is, therefore, not an ideal prophet.
His message is seen as one in which people are encouraged to change their
orientation from pleasure and worldliness to asceticism and contemplation of the
hereafter.
Jesus is seen as someone who prefers olive branches and words of peace not the
use of force. Therefore, failure was inevitable. Jesus’ inadequacy contrasted with
Muhammad’s evident success.
Jesus as a complementary prophet.
In his book Mi’an ‘ala-l-Tariq: Muhammad wa-l-Masih, (On the road together,
Muhammad and Christ, c. 1958), Khalid Md Khalid suggests that Jesus and
Muhammad were complementary prophets. The author goes beyond the Qur’anic
understanding of Jesus’ prophethood and draws insights from the Hadith
describing the brotherhood of prophets. He also quotes from the passion
narratives and recognises the significance of Jesus’ sufferings.
Khalid reckons that Jesus contrasts necessarily with Muhammad’s prophethood,
the return of Jesus being a significant illustration. His final chapter is significant
and is entitled: ‘And now, Barabbas or Jesus?’ It is a question that confronts all
societies now. Christ is seen as a supreme example of his own message of love
which shows no hatred. Jesus is to return: ‘With Muhammad and the faithful we
declare: ‘Christ not Barabbas, the true not the false, love not hatred, peace not
war, life not extinction. The spirit of Barabbas glorifies force, violence and tyranny,
the spirit of Jesus symbolises the ultimacy of the way of love. Khalid says that
Muhammad and Jesus complement each other and that Muslims and Christians
should work together for the betterment of human life.
Three comments need to be made. First, Khalid’s description is very unique,, but if
Muhammad is the ‘seal of the prophets’ then should Jesus have such a significant
eschatological role? Secondly, the ultimacy of the way of love may not fit into the
concept of ‘evident success’. Thirdly, Khalid is a man of vision who spares no
pains to encourage a religious basis for links and co-operation between Muslims
and Christians.
An overview of the issues.
Jesus may be a paradigm for Christianity but in Islam he is still only a prophet. He
is not central as in Christianity. Islam is an autonomous religion but Islam’s own
self-understanding takes shape because of its relationship to Christianity and
Judaism. Perhaps a most significant illustration of the patterns of affirmation and
rejection of the Christian faith and the nature of Jesus is drawn up by Hasan Askari
seen in the end table.
Jesus, in Muslim eyes, has only a minor role by comparison with
Muhammad and although paradigmatic for Christianity is certainly not for
Islam where Muhammad is the paradigm without parallel. Muslims,
however, would claim that theirs is not a distorted or heretical
understanding based on a false view of the Gospels but is based on the
soundness of the authentic Qur’an. Islam does not permit self-definition
by Christians because the Qur’an is seen as a later book which corrects
Christianity. Historical Christianity is seen as pseudo-Christianity. Indeed
the Qur’an portrays Jesus as distancing himself from the doctrines his own
community holds about him (3.55). The Qur’an reckons that Christianity
has deviated from the true message (2.75-79, 159, 174-176; 3. 65-70;
4.46; 5.13; 5.41) Further Christianity has become a ‘Western’ religion
which is compromising the teaching of Jesus.
Corruption has taken place either because of wilful or unwitting abuse of
the text or literal falsification or mistaken exegesis. Christians, it is
believed, do not possess the authentic Gospel. The Gospel of Barnabas,
seen as authentic by many Muslims, is totally rejected by Christians as a
spurious document.
The figure of Jesus known to most Muslims today is an amalgam of ideas
taken from the Qur’an and later Muslim tradition. Here, in Jesus, is to be
found one who is deeply revered but who is a not central, paradigmatic
figure. That is Muhammad, claim Muslims, for whom Jesus prepared the
way.
From: Hasan Askari: Islam: A Theology of Religious Diversity,
London, Macmillan, 1988
Muslim perceptions of Christianity
Pattern of Affirmation
Pattern of Rejection
Jesus(‘Isa) son of Mary
‘Son of God’
Jesus, prophet and messenger of
God to the children of Israel
Universal/eternal mission
Miracles of Jesus birth and life
Incarnational understanding of
miracles
Moral teaching of Jesus
Doctrines of his redemptive power
Jesus’ ascension to heaven
Crucifixion
Jesus as uplifted
Jesus as risen from the dead
Jesus as word/sign/spirit
Jesus as the Word made flesh
Jesus as Messiah
Implications in Christian theology
Special status of Jesus
Uniqueness of Jesus
Jesus’ prophecy of the paraclete affirmed as ‘ahmad
Doctrine of the Holy Spirit
The Last Supper
Its sacramental significance
Disciples of Jesus as helpers of God
–
‘ansar Allah
Disciples united ‘in Christ’ by the
power of the Spirit/Eucharist
Its authenticity in biblical form
The injil (Gospel in the form of a
book)
Christians as ‘People of the book’
Christian piety
Church as the Body of Christ
Christian belief about the divinity of
Christ
Select Bibliography
Chapman, C: Cross and Crescent, Leicester, IVP, 1995
Cragg, K: The Call of the Minaret, London, Collins, 1986
Fletcher, R: The Cross and the Crescent, London, Allen Lane, 2003
Tarif Khalidi: The Muslim Jesus, Cambridge, Mass, Harvard Press, 2001
Lawrence, C: Jesus as Prophet in Christianity and Islam,
Delhi, ISPCK, 1997
Md ‘Ata ur-Rahim: Jesus: A Prophet of Islam,
London, MWH Publishers, 1979
Parrinder, G: Jesus in the Qur’an,
London, Faber and Faber, 1965
Robinson, N: Christ in Islam and Christianity, London, Macmillan, 1991