Download Literature - Iowa State University Digital Repository

Philosophy and Religious Studies Publications
Philosophy and Religious Studies
2009
Literature
Hector Avalos
Iowa State University, [email protected]
Follow this and additional works at: http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/philrs_pubs
Part of the Christian Denominations and Sects Commons, Latina/o Studies Commons, and the
Other Religion Commons
The complete bibliographic information for this item can be found at http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/
philrs_pubs/7. For information on how to cite this item, please visit http://lib.dr.iastate.edu/
howtocite.html.
This Book Chapter is brought to you for free and open access by the Philosophy and Religious Studies at Iowa State University Digital Repository. It has
been accepted for inclusion in Philosophy and Religious Studies Publications by an authorized administrator of Iowa State University Digital
Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected].
330 I
Literature
Martell-Otero, Loida I. Liberating News: An
Emerging U.S. Hispanic/Latina Soteriology of the Crossroads (PhD diss., Fordham University, 2005).
Rodriguez, Jose David, and Loida I. MartellOtero, eds. Teologia en Conjunto: A Collaborative Hispanic Protestant Theology
(Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox
Press, 1997).
liTERATURE
As has been the case from the dawn of
writing, U.S. Latino/a authors often
express religious themes and attitudes in
their literature. Although some scholars
begin the history of U.S. Latino/a literature with the arrival of the Spaniards, we
draw some very clear boundaries as follows: 1848 for Mexican American literature; 1898 for Puerto Rican literature;
1959 for Cuban American literature; and
later for other groups. Overall, U.S. Latino/a literature reflects a triadic interaction among indigenous, Christian, and
African religious traditions. The Christian tradition has been predominantly
Catholic, with Protestant writers becoming a more recent phenomenon.
Mexican American Literature
Insofar as religious expression is concerned, three periods of Mexican American literature may be tentatively
identified: "The Normative Religious"
period (1848-1959) where most literary
works still revered or supported the
Catholic Church; "The Reactionary
Religious" period (1959-1972), in
which works began actively to criticize
the Catholic Church; and "The Alternative Religious" period, (1972-present),
wherein writers have consciously constructed alternative and systematic
traditions that draw consciously from
non-Christian religions.
The literature of Mexican Americans
from our Normative Religious period
(1848-1959) is still being recovered and
categorized. Genres include corridos
(short narrative poems set to music), and
assorted devotional poetry and short stories. One of the exemplars of this period
would be Fray Angelico Chavez (191 01996), whose poetry and short stories
(e.g., New Mexico Triptych 1940) portray
the advent of Catholicism to the Americas and the Southwest as one of the
greatest achievements of Christendom.
The Reactionary Religious period in
Mexican American literature had a definite beginning with Jose Antonio Villarreal's Pocho (1959), which is often
acknowledged as the first Chicano novel.
The open criticism of the Catholic
Church and its espousal of frank atheism
by its protagonist were unprecedented in
Mexican American literature.
After the significant changes in
Catholic policy promulgated by
Vatican II (1962-1965), many more
Mexican American authors became quite
critical of the Church. One of the most
militant was the mysterious Oscar Zeta
Acosta (1935-1974?), who assumed the
alter ego of Buffalo Z. Brown in various
novels, including his Autobiography of a
Brown Buffalo ( 1972) and its sequel,
The Revolt of the Cockroach People
(1973), which discuss his rejection of
Christianity and religion altogether.
The early 1970s mark a sort of golden
age in Mexican American literature.
Presses such as Quinto Sol were established to publish works by Mexican
Americans. Especially notable is Tomas
Rivera's .. . And the Earth Did Not
Devour Him (1971), which tells a Joblike story of the miserable existence of
Literature
:onsciously from
..
exican Americans
Religious period
ing recovered and
include corridos
set to music), and
etry and short sto•Iars of this period
:o Chavez (1910and short stories
tych 1940) portray
ism to the Ameri:st as one of the
Jf Christendom.
~ligious period in
!rature had a defi~e Antonio Villar. which is often
rst Chicano novel.
of the Catholic
1 of frank atheism
unprecedented in
rature.
:ant changes in
romulgated by
65), many more
bors became quite
One of the most
!rious Oscar Zeta
who assumed the
Brown in various
utobiography of a
) and its sequel,
1ckroach People
; his rejection of
n altogether.
k a sort of golden
rican literature.
) Sol were estabrks by Mexican
notable is Tomas
Earth Did Not
rhich tells a Jobable existence of
Chicanos in the fields, and the silence of
God regarding their plight. However, for
all of the criticism of Catholicism or religion, authors in this period usually do not
construct alternative religious visions.
This changed with the publication of
Bless Me Ultima by Rudolfo Anaya, a
native of New Mexico. From its publication in 1972, we mark the beginning of
the Alternative Religious period in which
authors went beyond criticizing traditional Catholicism and began a systematic exploration and active construction
of alternative religious traditions. In
Bless Me Ultima, Tony Marez, the main
character, opts for a pantheistic religion
that can mediate between a strict Catholicism represented by his mother, a
skepticism represented by his father, and
an indigenous tradition represented by
Ultima, a curandera who lives with
Tony's family.
The fl.oruit of the Alternative Religious period in Mexican American literature may be seen in Borderlands (1987)
by Gloria Anzaldua (1942-2004), who
constructs a woman-centered religion
based on Nahuatl traditions. Another
example is found in Ana Castillo's So
Far From God (1993), which centers on
a systematic critique of androcentric religions. For Castillo, religions must be
judged according to how they serve the
needs of women.
Some authors concentrated on how
ordinary women navigated their Latino/
a spirituality in American urban environments. John Rechy, an openly gay
Mexican-A)llerican author, published
The Miraculous Day of Amalia Gomez
(1991), which is about woman who
struggles to find God in the midst of an
urban life in Hollywood. Similarly,
Maria Amparo Escandon's Esperanza's
Box of Saints (1999) examines the life
of a woman who struggles to adjust
Catholic theology to the realities she
encounters as she moves from Mexico
to the United States. Indeed, the religious
lives of women were a hallmark of the
religious themes in the Latino/a literature
of the 1980s and 1990s.
Of course, not all books in this Alternative Religious period were intent on
creating alternative systematic theologies. In Alejandro Morales' Rag Doll
Plagues (1992) we find a science fiction
genre used to express religious themes.
Others concentrated on showing how
religion helped maintain cohesive bonds
in a Mexican Diaspora. For example,
Victor Villasenor's sprawling epic, Rain
of Gold (1991), tells the story of the two
sides of the author's semi-fictional family and its journey from Mexico to the
United States.
Puerto Rican Literature
For the purposes of our survey, the Puerto
Rican literature that is most significant
was that published from 1898 to the
present. It was in 1898 that the United
States acquired Puerto Rico as one of its
territories. In the U.S. mainland, Puerto
Rican literati have mainly concentrated
in the New York area and reflect closely
the immigration patterns of most Puerto
Ricans of the post-World War II era.
Thus, our treatment of religion concentrates on the works published in the
mainland since World War IT.
As in the case of Mexican American
literature, there is a mass of folk genres
(e.g., boleros, plenas) of lyric poetry and
song that have yet to be systematically
categorized in terms of religious content.
Although not published until 1977,
Memorias de Bernardo Vega (Memoirs
of Bernardo Vega), written originally in
I 331
332 I
Literature
the late 1940s, has come to represent the
period between World War I and World
War II in the United States. Its attitude
toward Catholicism does not seem to be
very strong, but it is not hostile. With
Jesus Colon (1901-1974), however, we
find a more nonreligious and openly
Marxist approach in A Puerto Rican in
New York and Other Sketches (1961).
One of the most prominent differences
of Mexican American literature is the
prevalence of African religious traditions
in Puerto Rican literature. Often this
acceptance of African religious traditions
is juxtaposed with a criticism of the
Catholic Church, as in the work of Tato
Laviera, reputed to be the best-selling
Latina/a poet in America. His work
La Carreta Made a U-Turn (1992) is a
powerful jeremiad against organized
Catholicism juxtaposed with a call to
acknowledge African traditions. Some
of the poems, in fact, form substitute
African rituals for Catholic liturgical
traditions.
Relations between Puerto Rican and
Irish Catholics in New York have been a
point of contention. One expression of
these tense relations is found in Edward
Rivera's "First Communion," a story
that is part of a larger work, Family
Installments (1982). "First Communion"
is about a boy, Santos Malanguez, and
his transition from Puerto Rico to New
York, where he learns about the various
ways in which Puerto Ricans maintained
their identity in an Irish-dominated
parish.
It is ,to be expected that Jews and
Puerto Ricans would interact in New
York City in a manner that may not happen in many other places in the United
States. Nicholasa Mohr has explored
these relationships in a number of stories
featured in her book El Bronx
Remembered (1986). Piri Thomas, one
of the most salient of Nuyorican authors,
exemplifies the experimentation of Latina/as with Islam in Down These Mean
Streets (1967), while his later book Savior, Savior, Hold My Hand (1973) details
his disillusionment with Pentecostalism.
The difficulty in finding books written
by Protestants attests to the position of
Protestantism in Puerto Rican culture
(and in Latina/a culture). And although
nearly a third of Puerto Ricans are now
Protestant, one finds very few positive
depictions of Protestantism. In fact, we
find that Protestants are largely missing
from the canon of U.S. Latino/a literature
found in most anthologies of Latino/a literature. One omission is Nicky Cruz,
whose book, Run, Baby, Run (1968), differs very little, on formal and content
grounds, from what Piri Thomas writes.
Despite the fact that Cruz probably outsells Piri Thomas, Cruz, who is vocally
evangelical and criticizes non-Protestant
religions, is not normally viewed as part
of the canon in academia.
Ed Vega represents a more secularist
approach in his writings. His book The
Comeback (1985) is perhaps one of the
most intricate and sardonic works in all
of U.S. Latina/a literature. Vega's The
Comeback is a literary expression of the
idea that God and religion are products
of the human imagination. In many ways,
The Comeback mirrors Vega's rejection
of his religious upbringing.
Puerto Rican literature also seems to
have had more women writers earlier
than Mexican American literature. These
women include Julia de Burgos, Sandra
Marfa Estevez, Judith Ortiz Cofer, Aurora Levins Morales, and Esmeralda
Santiago. Often, these women also comment on religion. For example, Judith
Ortiz Cofer's poem, "Cada Dia" [Each
Literature
>iri Thomas, one
uyorican authors,
mentation of La·own These Mean
.s later book Savmd (1973) details
1Pentecostalism.
ing books written
o the position of
to Rican culture
e). And although
) Ricans are now
·ery few positive
1tism. In fact, we
e largely missing
l.atino/a literature
.es of Latino/a lit1 is Nicky Cruz,
~Run (1968), difmal and content
i. Thomas writes.
ruz probably outz, who is vocally
es non-Protestant
ly viewed as part
ia.
a more secularist
gs. His book The
~rhaps one of the
onic works in all
ture. Vega's The
expression of the
~ion are products
m. In many ways,
Vega's rejection
ing.
Jre also seems to
n writers earlier
1 literature. These
e Burgos, Sandra
Ortiz Cofer, Auand Esmeralda
.vomen also comexample, Judith
:ada Dia" [Each
Day] in Terms of Survival (1976) offers a
feminist and somewhat satirical version
of the Lord's Prayer. In Terms of Survival
one finds another poem, "Costumbre"
[Custom], wherein she comments on
how piety and hypocrisy mix in Puerto
Rican culture. Aurora Levins Morales
has alluded to the issues and problems
of being Puerto Rican and Jewish in
works such as Getting Home Alive
(1986) and Medicine Stories: History,
Culture, and the Politics of Integrity
(1998).
Cuban American Literature
For Cuban American history, 1959 is a
crucial date. In that year, Fidel Castro
created a communist dictatorship, which
led to the emigration of thousands of
Cubans to the United States. Cuban
American literature may be periodized
easily into at least two phases: (1) the
immigrant adult generation; and
(2) younger immigrant and Americanborn generations. It is the second group
that has produced the bulk of what is
called Cuban American literature. A
major theme involves the interplay
between life and religion in Cuba and
America. Also important is the role of
race relations, a subject often suppressed
in Cuba, but given new vigor by the role
of race in the United States. Most Cuban
American literature has been the domain
of White Cubans. One of the works that
integrates these themes is Cristina Garcia's Dreaming in Cuban (1992), which
presents a multivalent view of Santeria,
one of the main African traditions
brought to, and transformed in, Cuba.
But not all Cuban American literary
attitudes toward religion are negative.
The attitudes found in Mr. Ives' Christmas (1995) are quite positive toward the
Writer Oscar Hijuelos displays his new
book, A Simple Habana Melody, on June
18, 2002, in West Hollywood, California.
Hijuelos won the Pulitzer Prize for the book
Mambo Kings. (Getty Images)
Catholic Church. Mr. Ives' Christmas
was authored by Oscar Hijuelos, who
was the first U.S. Latinalo author to have
garnered a Pulitzer Prize (1990) for literature. Furthermore, Achy Obejas has
opened up new paths in exploring a Latino/Cuban Jewish identity (e.g., Days of
Awe, 2001). A more eclectic approach to
religion is found in the works of Pulitzer
Prize winning playwright Nilo Cruz.
Dominican Literature and
Other Groups
Authors from other Latino/a subgroups,
while still a minority, are increasingly
producing significant works. The themes
are quite similar to those found in
I 333
334 I Literature
Mexican American, Puerto Rican, and
Cuban American literature. For example,
in How the Garda Girls Lost Their
Accents (1991), Julia Alvarez, the
Dominican American writer, illustrates
how American consumerism replaces
their Dominican Catholic traditions.
Central and South Americans still do
not have a significant voice in Latino/a
literature. In fact, some of the bestknown works involving Central American characters are authored by Mexican
American authors. One illustration is In
Search of Bernabe (1993) written by
Graciela Limon, a native of Los Angeles
who worked in El Salvador. The plot of
the book centers on a Salvadoran woman
who seeks a son who was lost amidst the
chaos that resulted from the assassination
of Oscar Romero, the Archbishop of
El Salvador. The book focuses on the
political struggles of El Salvador, but
alludes frequently to the Catholic milieu
of Salvadoran culture. Similarly, in
Mother Tongue (1994), Demetria Martinez, a Mexican American author, voices
the real-life struggles of Salvadorans
who are involved in the American church
sanctuary movement for undocumented
persons.
Conclusion
Latina/o literature reflects the religious
experience of Latinas/os only partially.
One significant reflection is the role of
Catholicism in the U.S. Latino/a experience. Cultural differences are also
reflected in literature as we compare Caribbean with Mexican American authors.
Certainly, we find more evidence of the
influence of African traditions in the
works of Puerto Rican and Cuban writers. We find many allusions to Aztec
religious traditions in Mexican American
literature.
However, many authors are part of the
elite educated strata of Anglo-American
society who hold PhDs. Many are academics. These are not the experiences of
most Latinas/os. Nor is the general religious profile like that of most Latinas/os
now. Although perhaps over 25 percent
of Puerto Ricans are Protestant (and positive toward Protestantism), one will not
find a quarter of all Puerto Rican authors
writing positively about Protestantism.
From at least 1959 onward, we see in
most Mexican American writers an
antipathy toward organized religion. At
the same time, many of these writers
have emphasized individualism. This
individualism is consistent with AngloAmerican religious traditions. We also
see a marked increase in tolerance
toward non-Christian traditions, especially since Vatican II. The works of Laviera and Garcia exemplify some of the
diverse attitudes that Latinas/os have
toward African religions.
There are still many areas unexplored
in Latina/o religion and literature. There
needs to be a more systematic study that
integrates different genres (including
folk songs, corridos, etc.) into a more
synthetic study of religion and literature.
Our periodizations need to be refined
and perhaps even abandoned when more
systematic study of all literary genres is
completed. And, of course, we need
more reliable demographic data on Latino/a religion so that we can gauge how
Latinos compare with Latino/a authors.
The future is difficult to predict, but certainly we can expect Central and South
Americans to make their voices heard in
U.S. Latino/a literature. Eclectic forms
of religious literary expression, drawn
La Lucha
lexican American
ors are part of the
Anglo-American
s. Many are acahe experiences of
; the general reli,f most Latinas/os
s over 25 percent
otestant (and pos[sm), one will not
:rto Rican authors
t Protestantism.
mward, we see in
'ican writers an
1ized religion. At
of these writers
ividualism. This
;tent with Angloiditions. We also
tse in tolerance
traditions, espefhe works ofLavJlify some of the
Latinas/os have
lS.
areas unexplored
i literature. There
tematic study that
enres (including
etc.) into a more
ion and literature.
!ed to be refined
doned when more
literary genres is
::ourse, we need
1phic data on Lave can gauge how
Latino/a authors.
o predict, but cer:entral and South
:ir voices heard in
e. Eclectic forms
Kpression, drawn
from traditions all over the globe, may be
the dominant trend for the foreseeable
future.
Hector Avalos
References and
Further Reading
Avalos, Hector. Strangers in our Own Land:
Religion in U.S. Latina/o Literature
(Nashville: Abingdon, 2005).
Borland, Isabel Alvarez. Cuban-American
Literature of Exile: From Person to Personas (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1998).
Christian, B. Marie. Belief in Dialogue: U.S.
Latina Writers Confront Their Religious
Heritage (New York: Other Press, 2005).
Dalleo, Raphael, and Elena Machado. The
Latino!a Canon and the Emergence of
Post-Sixties Literature (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).
Kevane, Bridget. Profane and Sacred:
Latino!a American Writers Reveal the
Interplay of the Secular and the Religious
(Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield,
2008).
Menes, Orlando Ricardo. Renaming Ecstasy:
Latino!a Writing on the Sacred (Tempe,
AZ: Bilingual Press, 2004).
LALUCHA
La lucha (the struggle) is an intrinsic
element of Latina/o culture, influencing
the way Latina/os learn, look at life, face
life, and think about themselves. La
lucha is a fundamental concept that captures and synthesizes a variety of Latina/o cultur~ insights, values, and ways
of dealing with life. This dynamic, foundational concept is expressed in a variety
of words and expressions, among them
bregar for Puerto Ricans; sf se puede for
Chicanas/os and Mexican Americans;
and resolver for Cubans. La lucha takes
on a particular meaning for Latina/os in
the United States who historically have
been and continue to be minoritized,
marginalized, and exploited by the dominant group. Given the social, economic,
political, and religious context of oppression in which the majority of Latina/os in
the United States live, la lucha takes on a
particular meaning, concerned not just
with the efforts all living entails, but particularly with the struggle for liberation/
fullness of life. La lucha, in this sense of
struggle for liberation/fullness of life, is
a concrete reality in the life of Latina/os
in the United States, a first horizon in
the way life is experienced and engaged.
La lucha is an element of the way Latina/os understand themselves-as social
beings who struggle-not as an individualistic act but as a family affair, a community enterprise, a societal endeavor.
La lucha is very much part of the way
Latina/os come to know reality, being
central to Latina/o experiences, and at
the heart of the three-pronged process
for acquiring knowledge: immersion in
the material mediations of the reality
one is learning; apprehending it, that is,
grasping it as fully as possible; and, in
the process of apprehending it, changing
it. La lucha makes clear that to know
reality is to change reality. La lucha also
identifies the perspective from which
Latinalos look at life; it is the grounding
point of view of the perennial search for
ways to struggle because not to struggle
is to perish. La lucha likewise refers to
reflective action on behalf of liberation/
fullness of life, negating the erroneous
idea that the oppressed do not have anything to contribute in the creation of a
just world order. La lucha as a liberative
praxis is not just any action, but one
grounded in rational analysis and passionate intentionality, manifested in
I 335