Download Social, Ethnic & Racial transformation in the cities

Three Groupings in United States Cities

Exodus from the rural south to urban
ghettos
◦ After World War I: a trickle
◦ After World War II: mass migration
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Informal covenants kept African
Americans in ghettos
Even more extensive in southern cities
Booker T. Washington as
spokesman for individualistic
integration
 NAACP – first national African
American advocacy group
 Civil Rights Movement & African
American Establishment
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◦ Returning veterans from World War II
◦ SCLC and Martin Luther King Jr.
◦ African Urban Churches

Martin Luther King: “I
have a dream”
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Huey P. Newton &
Bobby Seale
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Elijah Muhammad
Established Muslim
Temple in Detroit (1934)
Complete separation
from white society
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Louis Farrakan:
current leader
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Began as a
collaborator of Elijah
Muhammad
Mission to the urban
poor
Radical anti-white
perspective that
modified toward the
end
Assassinated – 1965
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Trajectory of Riots/Urban Violence
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Cleveland 1966
Newark 1967
Detroit 1967
Washington, D.C. 1968
Los Angeles again 1992
Cincinnati 2001
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Triggered by arrest
for drunk driving
by California patrol
People gathered
and resentment
toward police
boiled over
Anger over repeal
of fair housing act
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$35 million in
property damage –
mostly in AfricanAmerican areas
34 people killed
1032 injured

1965 Voting Rights Act
◦ Federal government could appoint voting
examiners who could register people
◦ Suspended literacy tests
◦ Justice Department must approve changes
voting laws and voter qualifications
◦ Attorney General has authority to enforce
provisions of the act
Controversy Surrounding “at large”
elections
 Courts and at large elections

◦ Rejected attempts to move from ward to at large
elections
◦ Hasn’t struck down existing at large systems
◦ When changes requested federal government
has forced cities to guarantee representation to
minorities
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Nature of redistricting
How much minority population should a
minority district have?
65% majority rule of thumb

Levels of political incorporation
◦ Weak mobilization and exclusion
◦ Protest and exclusion (Oakland before 1977)
◦ Weak mobilization and incorporation (San Francisco
during 1970’s)
◦ Biracial electoral alliance and strong incorporation
(Berkeley)

Mayor Tom Bradley
of Los Angeles,
1973-1993
100
50
0
1st 3rd
Qtr Qtr
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Expands public sector opportunities for
minorities
African American Mayors (strategies of
responsiveness)
◦ Private sector investment in areas where there
are large numbers of African-Americans
◦ Aggressive affirmative action in competition for
public sector jobs in the cities
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Hispanics constitute the largest minority
group in the United States
Hispanics account for 41.3 million people in
the US
14.3 % of the US population is of Hispanic
origin
Growth rate for Hispanics is 3.6 % compared
to 1.0 % overall population growth

Hispanic population in each region:
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Northeast – 9.8 %
Midwest – 4.9 %
South – 11.6 %
West – 24.3 %
Top Three States:
◦ New Mexico – 42.1 %
◦ California – 32.4 %
◦ Texas – 32 %

2006:
◦ 73 % voted Democrat
◦ 26% voted Republican

2004:
◦ 55 % voted Democrat
◦ 42% voted Republican

Cubans and Colombians tend to favor conservative political
ideologies and support the Republicans

Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, and Dominicans lean more towards the
Democrats
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Mexicans make up approximately 63% of all Hispanics in the US
while Cubans only constitute 4%. Dominicans and Puerto Ricans
make up another 13%.
Note that the location of the Hispanic population also influences
party affiliation.
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California Latinos voted 63-32 for John Kerry in 2004
Arizona and New Mexico Latinos by a smaller 56-43 margin
Texas Latinos were split nearly evenly
Florida Latinos (mostly being Cuban American) backed President
Bush by a 54-45 margin.
◦ Hispanics voted overwhelmingly Democrat, with a lopsided
69-30 margin. For the first time Florida Latinos were split
evenly.
◦ The key element leading to this voting behavior
was the heated immigration debate and H.R. 4437 (The
Border
Protection, Anti-terrorism, and Illegal Immigration
Control Act of 2005).
- H.R. 4437 passed the House by a vote of 239 to
182, with 92% of Republicans supporting, 82%
of Democrats opposing.
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70% are Roman Catholic
23% are Protestant, 85% of which are
Evangelical or Pentecostal.
Less than 1% are Jewish.
◦ Most are descendants of
Ashkenazi Jews who migrated from
Europe particularly to Argentina.
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Less than 1% are Muslims.
MEXICANS
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Pre-Colonization:
Southwest inhabited by
Native Americans and
Spanish
1810: Miguel Hidalgo y
Costilla – Mexican
Independence
1821: Mexico opens
borders to United States
◦ Trade regions
◦ Hunting
◦ Settlement
Highly unstable government
 U.S.-Mexico War: 1846
 Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo:
1848

◦ $15 million for the northern third of Mexico
◦ Recognized prior land grants in the
Southwest
◦ Offered citizenship to any Mexicans residing
in the area

1845-1854: the United States
acquires half of Mexico
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1848: <15,000 Mexican Americans (outside of New
Mexico)
1890: 75,000+ Mexicans had migrated to the United
States.
1900: Mexicans (immigrants and native-born) totaled
between 381,000 and 562,000
Cycles of mass immigration from Mexico followed by
efforts at deportation and voluntary departure

Correlation between the need for labor and the
increase/decrease of Mexican immigrants
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Make up 64% of the Hispanic population in the
United States.
Cities with high Mexican population:
◦ Chicago (IL)
◦ Houston (TX)
◦ Los Angeles (CA)

Median Income of Mexican-American families
(2000): $27,600
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The Catholic Church
Unions
◦ Industrial Workers of the World
◦ United Mine Workers of America
◦ United Farm Workers
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Democratic Party
Republican Party
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Making undocumented immigrants legal
Defense of immigrant workers’ rights.
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Growing numbers of Mexican Americans in
1960s/1970s
Annexation in 1975
 Diluted Mexican American voting strength
 Council seat districts created to insure representation to
African Americans and Mexican Americans
 Broad coalition elects Henry Cisneros
CUBANS
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Former Spanish Colony
Independence movement – Ten Years’ War
(1868)
Short truce, then Spanish American War (1898)
U.S. granted Cuba independence with certain
guidelines (1902)
Fall of the Cuban Republic government and
U.S. relations – Depression, Batista, Mafia
(1902-1959)
Rise of Fidel Castro and the fall of U.S.
investments. (1959)
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1st Wave (1960-1980):
◦ Followed Castro’s Cuban Revolution
◦ Hundreds of thousands, upper/middle classes
2nd Wave (1980s):
◦ Followed economic downturn
◦ Est. 120,000 – some from jails/mental asylums
◦ Mariel Boatlift Crisis – disliked by Cuban Americans
3rd Wave (1994):
◦ Followed political turmoil
◦ Est. 35,000 during summer months
◦ Aug. 23: 3,253 intercepted by Coast Guard
◦ Balsero Rafter Crisis
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Largest populations of Cuban Americans
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Miami, FL
Hialeah, FL
Union City, NJ
New York, NY
Key West, FL
Tampa, FL
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Transformed Miami into a distinct modern
city
Outside of Miami, have assimilated into
American Culture
States with high Cuban population growth:
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California
Georgia
Illinois
North Carolina
Virginia
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1.5 million Cuban Americans
4 % of US Hispanic population
Compared to overall Hispanic population
◦ Older
◦ More educated
◦ More wealthy
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Felt most markedly in city of Miami
◦ Cubans a slight majority of population
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Anti-communism and conservatism more
important than in other Hispanic-American
communities
Tensions in African-American - Cuban
relations in Miami
Corruption & electoral fraud led voters to
approve (1997) a strong mayor system
Puerto Ricans
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Pop. of 3.95 million living on the island
Puerto Ricans have US citizenship, currency,
and defense
Can’t vote in presidential elections
Spanish and English are the official
languages
Racial breakdown
◦ Spanish (European)
◦ Taino (Amerindian)
◦ Africans

Peak period of migration came
after World War II.
◦ During the 1940s, the population grew
from 70,000 to 226,000.
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By 1970
◦ 810,000 Puerto Rican migrants and
another 581,000 mainland-born Puerto
Ricans lived in the United States.
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Currently there are 3.4 million Puerto
Ricans living on the U.S. mainland
Puerto Ricans are the second largest
Latino group in the United States
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Employment
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Poverty
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Education
◦ In 2003, 20.7% were in professional-managerial
occupations, 33.7 percent were in service-sales
jobs.
◦ 22.8 % for families
◦ Of those 25 years and older, 63.2 % have graduated
from high school
◦ 9.9% have 4 yr. college degree
BRAZIL
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Largest and most populous country in South
America
Only Portuguese speaking country in the
Americas
Multiracial
Largest Roman Catholic population in the
world
Largest protestant population in Latin
America
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87 % of Brazilians in US born in Brazil
70% of Brazilians in US are illegal
Why Immigrate?
◦ More than ½ have friends or relatives
already in US
◦ ¼ Permanently Immigrate
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Largest Brazilian Settlements on East
Coast
By Population
◦ Boston: 150,000
◦ New York: 80,000-150,000
◦ Florida: 65000
◦ California: 20,000
◦ Houston: 10,000
◦ Washington D.C.: 10,000
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Central Pacific
working from
Sacramento toward
Nebraska
9,000 – 12,000
Chinese worked for
Central Pacific
Paid only 60% of
wages received by
European immigrants
3,336,966
(1.2% of the US
population)
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First wave of Japanese immigrants to provide agricultural
labor
 Hawaii sugarcane and pineapple plantations,
 California fruit and produce farms
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1924 United States Immigration Act banned immigration from
Japan (Yellow Peril)
Japanese Americans placed in internment camps during
Second World War
President Regan and Congress apologize for internment
Current number of Japanese-Americans 1.2million (0.4%
population)
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Battle of Manila
Bay
U.S. colonialism
(1898 – 1946)
Second largest
source of
immigrants in
some years of
1990’s
2.2 million in the
USA
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1943 Republican Clara
Booth Luce and Democrat
Emanuel Celler introduce
a bill to open
naturalization to Indian
immigrants to the US.
Immigrants from India are
generally well educated
and high achieving
2,479,424
0.9% of US population
SubrahmanyanChandrasekh
ar (shown above) and Har
Gobind Khorana are the 2
Indian Americans to have
won the Nobel Prize
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South Vietnamese civilians scramble to board a
1,418,334
US helicopter during the American evacuation of
0.5% of the US
Saigon.
population
Concentrated in:
California, Texas,
Washington, Virginia
Disproportionately
large number of
VietnameseAmericans are
Christians
◦ Immigration
◦ Bilingualism
◦ Jobs