Download Language Arts Handbook - Kennedy Middle School

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1
FORMAL RESPONSE:
Formal Responses
1. Paraphrase the question in the answer.
2. Use complete sentences.
- Capitals
- Punctuation
- Complete thoughts
3. Include all the information available.
- Details
- Examples
Who has been your favorite teacher?
My favorite teacher has been Mrs. Rapp. She was my
fifth grade P.E. teacher. Besides being a good teacher, Mrs.
Rapp always gave good advice. Frequent suggestions
about deodorant and acne products led many of us to better
hygiene. She also let us chew gum in class.
At the fifth grade picnic, when Wheezer dropped her
spicy Cajun chicken chunks on her leather skirt, Mrs. Rapp
ran right over and fixed her up. Her kindness brought us all
to tears. Mrs. Rapp was full of suggestions and kindness.
2
WORD PROCESSED PAPER CHECKLIST:
PLEASE CHECK YOUR PAPER TO SEE THAT IT FOLLOWS THESE GUIDELINES:
For essays and stories:
Heading is right justified at the top of the paper.
Title is centered and each important word is capitalized.
For letters only:
Heading with school address has left justified margin.
Inside address has left justified margin.
Greeting has left justified margin and all important words start with a
capital letter.
For all written work:
Body of paper is spaced at 2 lines.
Size of type is 12 or 14.
Font is readable—Chicago, Helvetica, Geneva, New York, etc.
(not Old English—not all capital letters).
Paragraphs are indented one tab space.
All sentences begin with a capital letter.
There is one space after each period or end punctuation.
No space between a period and the words in front of it.
One space after each comma.
Paragraphs have left justified margins.
Paper has been spell checked.
**Staple your work together in this order: Final copy on top, revised copy, first
draft, then pre-write activity. All work samples should be kept in your writing folder.
3
WRITING PROCESS:
Writing: A Process
Pre-write (plan)
Rough Draft—create first copy
Edit—get help
Revise—make changes
Final Draft—put it all together
Present—share
4
MODES OF WRITING:
Persuasive
Persuasive writing attempts to convince the reader that a point of view is valid or, to
persuade the reader to take specific action. It is based on a topic that is limited in
scope (and therefore manageable), and that is debatable. The topic could have more
than one point of view. Persuasive differs from expository writing in that it does more
than explain or enlighten; it also takes a stand, and endeavors to persuade the reader
to take that same stand.
Narrative
Narrative writing recounts a personal experience based on something which really
happened or might really have happened. All details work together in an integrated
way to create a complete story with beginning, development and turning point, and
resolution.
Expository
Expository writing gives information, explains something, clarifies, or defines. The
writing teaches, reveals, informs, or increases the reader’s understanding through a
carefully crafted mix of key points and critical support.
Imaginative
Imaginative writing invents a situation, perspective, or story based on the writer’s
imagination. The writer may create a scene, situation or character, may predict what
might happen under hypothetical circumstances, or use his/her creativity to solve a
hypothetical problem. The writer may use his/her knowledge of the world to bring a
special flair or flavor to the writing, but is not bound by the constraints of reality.
Imaginative writing may contain elements of fantasy. The key question, however, is
not how fantastic it is, but rather, how inventive is it?
5
6
WRITING TRAITS:
- Analytical Traits Key Words Word Choice:
 is fresh, precise, accurate
 uses specific nouns, energetic verbs
 may use effective images or
figurative language
Sentence Fluency:
 natural flow of language
 variety of sentence types or lengths
Conventions:
 demonstrates mastery of punctuation,
spelling, capitalization, usage, paragraph
indents, etc.
 errors do not significantly detract
7
WRITING TRAITS (Con’t.):
Ideas & Content:
 is clear
 is focused
 demonstrates control of topic
 develops topic with carefully selected details
Organization:
 makes sense
 is easy to follow
 contains beginning, middle, end
 uses transitions
Voice:
 engages reader
 shows “energy, individuality, concern”
 may be lively, humorous, compelling
 establishes appropriate distance
8
SCORING/REVISING GUIDES:
Ideas & Content
1
2
3
4
5
6
! Writing has a clear purpose or makes a point
! There are clear details and examples to help the reader understand the point
! Writing sticks to one main idea and leaves out details that don’t matter
! It is clear that the writing comes from something the writer knows
Organization
1
2
3
4
5
6
! The introduction is interesting and makes the reader want to keep reading
! Things are told in an order that makes sense
! Details in the paper go together well; they fit where they are placed
! The paper ends in a good spot; not too abrupt, not too long
Word Choice
1
2
3
4
5
6
! Choice of words help make the meaning clear
! Words help paint a picture in the reader’s mind
! Writer has tried to find their own way of saying things
! Sometimes they try to say something in a new or different way
Sentence Fluency
1
2
3
4
5
6
! Sentences make sense; they are clear
! The length of sentences is varied
! Sentences begin in different ways; they don’t all start the same
! The paper is easy to read out loud
Conventions
1
2
3
4
5
6
! Paragraphs begin in the right spots
! Capitalization and punctuation are correct
! The use of correct grammar makes the writing clear and easy to understand
! Paper has clearly been proofread and edited
Voice
1
2
3
4
5
6
! Writing shows what the author really thinks and feels
! It sounds like the author is proud of what they have written
! Writing sounds unique, not like another person
! The author thought about the person reading their work
COMMENTS:
9
PARAGRAPH TEMPLATES:
Use a new paragraph when you:
.
Change to a new idea
.
Change to a new time
.
Change to a new speaker
.
Change to a new action
Open a novel and count the number of paragraphs you
find on the two pages you see. A typical novel will have
between 8 and 15 paragraphs on these two pages!
Paragraph Organizer:
.
Main Idea
.
1st Sentence - introduction or topic sentence
.
2nd Sentence - supporting detail or fact
.
3rd Sentence - supporting detail or fact
.
4th Sentence - supporting detail or fact
.
5th Sentence - concluding sentence
10
Essay Template
Below is a sample persuasive essay. It has been labeled to illustrate a
beginning, middle and end of an essay. Transitions have been added to link
the paragraphs together.
Summer: 15 Days or 2 1/2 Months?
The final bell rings. It’s the last day of school, and summer has finally come! Students
don’t have to think about school for at least another 2 1/2 months. That is the way it should
always be. Schools should continue using the traditional calendar and not a year-round
Thesis Statement schedule. There are numerous downsides to year-round schooling. It has no positive effects
on education, it adds to costs, and it disrupts the long-awaited summer vacation.
Beginning
Paragraph
Transition
Middle
Paragraphs
Transition
Ending or
Concluding
paragraph
Contrary to the well-accepted belief, year-round schooling has no constructive impact
on education. Most year-round schedules use the 45-15 method: 45 days of school
followed by 15 days off. Because of this, there are many first and last days of school. All
those transitions disrupt the learning process. Also, there is no evidence of higher test
scores. Due to that, many schools that change to year-round schedules end up switching
back. For example, since 1980, 95 percent of schools that tried the year-round schedule
changed back to a traditional calendar. It is obvious that changing to year-round schooling
does not help students; therefore, why is the change necessary?
Like any other facility, keeping a school open requires a great deal of money. When a
school changes to a year-round schedule, the costs skyrocket. Keeping school open in the
middle of summer requires air conditioning, and that adds significantly to the school’s
expenses. The usual utility bills grow because of the additional open-school time. Finally,
teachers must be paid for all the weeks they are working. With all these factors, the cost of
keeping schools open becomes immensely high. For example, a high school in Arizona had
a cost increase of $157,000 when they switched to year-round schooling. Some schools
may not be able to handle such increases, and other schools that can handle these expenses
could be doing better things with the money. Is year-round school really where the money
should go?
In addition, an important part of a child’s life is summertime. With year-round
schedules, students would hardly have any time to relax. During the 15-day breaks, they
would be thinking about their quick return to school. It would also be difficult to
coordinate family vacations with parents’ work schedules. Similarly, children would not be
able to go to most summer camps. One expert, Dr. Peter Scales, says, “The biggest plus of
camp is that camps help young people discover and explore their talents, interests, and
values. Most schools don’t satisfy all these needs. Kids who have these kinds of [camp]
experiences end up being healthier and have fewer problems.” Obviously, the summer is
crucial to a child’s learning and development. Why should this invaluable part of a young
person’s life be taken away?
It is evident that year-round schooling is not the best option for the school calendar.
There is absolutely nothing wrong with the traditional school year. Why change something
that works so well? The final bell rings. Let’s make sure this bell means that the “real”
summer vacation has come
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12
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION:
The introduction is a very important part of reports, essays, compositions, articles,
speeches and other forms of communication. It prepares us for what is coming up. It leads us
into the subject matter at hand.
You may know that introductions are important, but you probably have trouble writing
them. Most people do. Some people cope by writing the introduction last, after they have
written the rest of the paper. That makes it easier for them to get started. Other people
wouldn’t dream of writing a paper until the introduction is written. Writing the introduction
helps them organize their thinking, making the rest of the paper easier to write. Still other
people write a very rough introduction first, coming back to it for more work after the paper is
written.
Unfortunately, there is no magic formula for writing an introduction. Different papers
need different kinds of introductions. Different people approach writing introductions in
different ways. Sometimes, especially when you aren’t very experienced at writing
introductions, it helps to have some examples or models to follow. That doesn’t mean you
should imitate them exactly. It means that you should use them for ideas. You can then adapt
them for your own work. Following are ideas for seven kinds of introductions. Try using one of
the ideas for the paper or speech you are working on now.
The Attention-Getter
An Anecdote
One effective type of introduction grabs
the interest of your audience with an
attention-getter. What is an attention-getter?
It is just what it says it is: something that gets
the reader’s attention.
The attention-getter might be a startling
statistic. It might be an interesting fact or a
surprising statement. It might be a fascinating
(and relevant) piece of trivia. A quick trip to
the library can be a great help in coming up
with information for an attention-getting
introduction.
Think about the way you sometimes tune
out in class. The teacher will be talking on and
on, and your mind will be far, far away. Then
the teacher will say something like this: “It
reminds me of the time I was in high school
and we had this special dance where
everyone wore…” Suddenly you will find
yourself listening. That is because the teacher
is telling an anecdote—an interesting personal
story from his or her life. Because people tend
to like anecdotes, using one can be an
effective introduction for a speech or for a
composition.
Example:
You may not realize it, but you share your
birthday with at least nine million other
people. Nine million people were born on the
same day you were, and nine million people
could be celebrating their “special” day at the
same time you are. Although our birthdays
may not be unique, the way we celebrate
them can be. For example, whenever anyone
in my family has a birthday, we do some
strange things. I’ll be there isn’t one single
family on earth who celebrates birthdays
quite the way we do.
Example:
Last Tuesday I raced toward my math
class, just as the bell was ringing. I had
mustard on my hands, and I needed to go to
the bathroom. My heart was pounding from my
frantic rush down the hall to be on time, and I
was so rushed I had grabbed the wrong
notebook from my locker. I slid into class, only
to run smack into my math teacher, knocking
him flat. No, I am not an irresponsible guy
trying to make up time I wasted during my
lunch hour. I am the victim of a lunch period
that is far too short for a student’s needs.
13
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION (Con’t.):
Quotations
Another way to begin an introduction is with a quotation. The quotation could be from a
famous person or a leading authority on your subject. It could be from an ordinary person who
has said something particularly interesting or colorful about your topic. It could be from a
character in a movie or a book. It could be from a newspaper or magazine story. It could be
from just about anywhere, so long as the quotation is related to your topic. It also helps if the
quotation is particularly clever, humorous, interesting or wise. In general, it is not a good idea
to start out by saying, “according to Webster’s Dictionary, ...“ That kind of quotation has been
overused, and it is not usually very interesting.
Example:
The great jazz musician Eubie Blake said on his 101st birthday, “If I’d known I was going
to live this long, I’d have taken better care of myself.” Blake had the right idea, even if it was
a little late. We should take care of ourselves, and one of the best ways is with regular
exercise. For both children and adults, one of the best exercises is one of the easiest and
least expensive—plain old walking.
Example (using a quotation by an ordinary person):
“I hate kids,” my Uncle Dave always said when he came to visit. “I don’t know why on
earth anyone would have them.” His voice was gruff and he didn’t smile when he said it. But
he always said it while bouncing my little sister on his knee, or slipping my brother a candy
bar, or handing me a new comic book. Uncle Dave was a man with a tough outside but a
gentle inside.
Who-What-When-Where-WhyHow
Sometimes the best introduction is a
straightforward introduction, one that gives
just the facts. In this type of introduction the
writer answers these basic questions:
Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?
Example:
Last weekend, the Longview Lancers
won a stunning victory over the cross-town
rival, the Templeton Tigers, at the county
basketball tournament. The Lancers won,
largely because of the extraordinary agility
of player Scott Girard.
Present the Problem
Another kind of introduction presents a
problem and then produces a solution.
Example:
One of the most serious problems to
confront teenagers today is suicide. It is a
problem that touches every teenager at
some time or another. It is not a problem to
be hushed up, whispered about or ignored.
By the time he or she graduates from high
school, nearly every teenager will know at
least one person who has attempted
suicide, and a growing number of teenagers
will have considered it themselves. The
best way to help teenagers deal with
suicide is to take it seriously.
14
WRITING AN INTRODUCTION (Con’t.):
A List or Series
Sometimes you can use a series or a list
to introduce a subject. The list might take
the form of several interesting figures, a
number of facts or a series of examples
related to the subject of your paper.
Example:
Bob eats only at restaurants with
pictures on the menus. Sam always finds
an excuse not to help his daughter with her
homework. Linda turned down a promotion
because she knew her new responsibilities
would include reading reports. Bob, Sam
and Linda are among the growing number
of adults in this country who can’t read. The
problem is becoming a serious one
nationwide, and it’s time we try to do
something about it.
Whatever kind of introduction you write, keep the following tips in mind:
.
Don’t use the title as part of your introduction; begin your paper as if
the title weren’t there.
NO:
Is There Life in Outer Space?
Many people think there is. Even some scientists are starting to think
chances are good. Someday, we may even…
YES:
Is There Life in Outer Space?
Perhaps from the beginning of time, people have wondered if there could
be life in outer space. Today, no one knows for sure, but many people believe there is. Even some scientists are starting to think that chances are
good. Someday, we may even…
15
TYPES OF ENDINGS FOR FICTIONAL WRITING:
The Summary
And to round off tonight’s newscast, here are the highlights once again. A summary
ending repeats the main points of a story, trying to tie together any loose ends. This
type of ending works well in speeches that are trying to hammer home a point or
snowballing stories like Dr. Seuss’s Green Eggs and Ham or songs like The Twelve
Days of Christmas, which snowballs along to the end.
The Happy Ending
Most fairy tales have happy endings (depending on whether you are a wolf-lover, of
course). A happy ending such as the one in Cinderella leaves the reader with no
feeling of sadness. Like a good warm blanket, it covers us from the cold of life. Does it
want to end happily, or would it be stronger and more real if it ended sadly?
The Mysterious Ending
A mysterious ending leaves a lot to the reader’s imagination. This is the kind of ending
that leaves a big question mark in the reader’s mind. Do you want to keep the reader
guessing? Try writing an ending like Lois Lowry does in the book The Giver.
The Sad but True Ending
When we read that Charlotte dies at the end of Charlotte’s Web, we are sad. But it has
to end that way. Try saving Charlotte and the story loses its power. It becomes a lie. I
call this the “sad but true” ending. Does your story need to end sadly? Does your
happy ending have a false ring? If so, you may want to write a sad but true ending.
Other books include: A Bridge to Teribithia by Katherine Paterson, Where the Red
Fern Grows by Wilson Rowls, and A Taste of Blackberries by Doris Buchanan Smith.
(adapted from What a Writer Needs by Ralph Fletcher)
C 1999 Discover Writing Press--1.800.613.8055--www.discoverwriting.com
16
HOW TO TITLE AN ESSAY:
- 11 Ways to Title a Story 1.
Name a character in your story
2.
Name a place in your story
3.
Name a thing in your story
4.
Quote a line in your story
5.
Tell a theme in your story
6.
Write a mysterious title
7.
Write a straightforward title
8.
Write a one-word title
9.
Describe the key action in the story
10. Describe exactly what you want the
reader to take away
11. Find your own unique way to title it
17
PLAGIARISM:
What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism is the act of using another person’s ideas or expressions in your
writing without acknowledging the source. To plagiarize is to give the impression
that you have written or thought of something that you have, in fact, borrowed
from someone else. The Web makes is more tempting to plagiarize ideas
because copying and pasting is so simple. However, the Web makes it easier for
teachers to check particularly eloquent writing by doing a Google search on your
writing in quotes, and locating sources that clearly match your wording.
it is illegal, unethical, and if discovered, will result in a loss of credit for the
project and perhaps a failure for the course.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Plagiarism is:
Copying any direct quotation from your source material without providing
quotation marks or crediting your source
Paraphrasing of a borrowed idea without introducing and documenting the
source of the idea
Copying another paper
You may avoid plagiarism by:
Acknowledging borrowed material with an introduction and citing the
source page number:
− “According to Smith,” “Smith points out, 24,” etc.
Paraphrasing material by writing in your style and language, and citing the
source of the information
Enclosing quotation marks around all material that is directly quoted and
citing the source for the information
18
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24
LITERATURE GENRES:
Novel:
A book length, fictional prose story
Prose:
Writing that uses ordinary language to express ideas
Short Story:
Shorter than a novel, this piece of literature can usually be read in one
sitting
Humor:
The quality of a literary work that makes the character and their situations
seem funny, amusing or ludicrous
Fable:
A short story that often uses talking animals as the main characters and
teaches an explicit moral or lesson
Mystery:
A novel, story or play involving a crime or secret activity and its gradual
solution
Folktale:
A story originally passed from one generation to another by word of
mouth only
Historical Fiction: A made-up story that is based on a real time and place in history, so fact
is mixed with fiction
Science Fiction:
Writing based on real or imaginary scientific developments, and often set
in the future
Realistic Fiction: Writing that attempts to show life as it really is
Satire:
Any writing that ridicules human weakness, vice or folly in order to bring
about social reform
Poems:
A literary work that uses concise, colorful, often rhythmic language to
express ideas or emotions
Plays:
Also called drama, this writing form uses dialogue to share its message
and is meant to be performed in front of an audience
Nonfiction:
True writing, based on factual information
Biography:
A writer’s account of some other person’s life
Autobiography:
A writer’s story of his or her own life
Informational
Article:
A complete piece of writing, as a report or essay, that is part of a
newspaper, magazine or book
25
THE READING PROCESS:
Before
Reading




Set purpose—know
reason for reading,
make predictions,
develop questions,
be motivated
Activate prior
knowledge—think
about what you
already know about
this topic
Build prior
knowledge—learn
new concepts or
vocabulary
During Reading After Reading



Set pace based on
purpose—how will you
read this?
Concentrate through
active reading—
visualize, connect,
question, review, judge,
predict




Check understanding
Decide if purpose
met
Apply learning
Reflect on strategies
used
Monitor
comprehension—am I
understanding this?
Solve problems, reread, summarize
Understand text
structure—preview
format, look at
heading and key
words as clues
26
THE PARTS OF A BOOK:
Half-Title Page: The first printed page in a book and the page on which only the main part of the book title is
listed. Both the subtitle and the author’s name are omitted from this page.
Allusion: The second printed page in a book and the page on which the full title of the book, the name of the
author, the name of the illustrator, and the name of the publisher are listed.



author
illustrator
publisher
the person who wrote the book
the person who drew the pictures
the company that printed the book
Copyright Page: Usually the back of the title page, this page includes the copyright notice, the name of the
person or publishing company holding the copyright, and the year in which the book was copyrighted.
Dedication Page: Page that carries a brief statement in which the author inscribes or addresses his book to
someone as a way or recognizing or complimenting that person.
Table of Contents: A list of the significant parts of a book by title and page number in the order in which they
appear. It is usually near the front of the book and includes the introduction, all chapter titles, the bibliography
and the index (if there is one).
Preface: A statement by the author telling how or why he or she wrote the book and acknowledging any help he
or she had in doing so.
Introduction: An essay that sets the scene for the book, explains the subject or format of the book, or tells how
to use the book.
Body or Text: The main part of the book.
Notes: Additional explanatory information about the facts in the text or about the sources from which they have
been gathered.
Glossary: An alphabetical listing of the difficult, special or technical words used in a book with their definitions
and, sometimes, their pronunciations.
Bibliography: A list of articles and other books referred to in the book or used by the author in writing it, or a list
of writings relating to the same subject as the text. The works in a bibliography are usually arranged in
alphabetical order based on the authors’ last names.
Index: An alphabetical list of names or topics covered in a book, together with the numbers of the pages on
which they are defined, explained or discussed. The index usually appears at the end of the book.
27
INFORMATIVE TEXT STRUCTURES:
COMPARE - CONTRAST


DIRECTIONS
Issues being compared are clearly
stated
Comparisons are explained with
details showing their importance


DESCRIPTION



TIME ORDER
Emphasis on key concepts
Details support but do not override
key concepts
Text conveys a clear visual image


CAUSE - EFFECT


Why something happened is
clearly explained
Why something is important is
clearly explained
Step by step explanations
Given in chronological order
Events listed in chronological order
Details support key concepts
PROBLEM - SOLUTION


Problem is clearly stated
Details are included in problem’s
solution
28
LITERATURE ELEMENTS:
Story Begins
Increased
Interest
 Rising Action
 Climax
 Resolution



Conflict:
Internal or
External



Some
Devices:
Suspense

Cause &
Effect
 Characterization:
Personalities
of the
Characters

Motivation
Words & Actions
Thoughts &
Feelings
The
Action or
Sequence
of Events
 Traits:
Physical
Social
Psychological
Foreshadowing
Flashback


First
Person (1)
Creates an
Atmosphere
(Mood)
 Tells
When & Where
Place & Time

Narrator

Affects
Plot &
Characters
 Third
Person
(She - He)
Told by
Author from
Outside the
Story




Premise
Statement
Topic
Underlying
Meaning
 Discovered in:

Stated or
Implied
-Relationships
-Ideas
-Conflicts
-Title
29
RISING ACTION
EXPOSITION
(List examples that create complications or suspense)
Setting:
Situation/climate:
Characters:
CONFLICT
CLIMAX
PROTAGONIST vs. ANTAGONIST
______________vs. _____________
THEME
PLOT
TITLE: ________________________
AUTHOR: _____________________
FALLING ACTION
RESOLUTION
30
QUESTIONING CUES & PROMPTS:
Focusing







What is the problem?
What are our goals?
What is our level or attention and commitment?
What is the situation?
What has been done?
What is the consequence of inaction?
What predictions can you make about this project?
Remembering






Retell ________ in your own words.
What are the parts of ________?
Describe...
Who, what, when, where...?
Name...
What can help us remember ________?
Analyzing





What are the attributes of ________?
What is the central point of ________?
What is the relationship between ________ and
________?
How is ________ an example of ________?
What evidence can you list for ________?
Information Gathering






Comprehending/Organizing














What ideas can you add to ________?
How would you create/design a new ________?
What solutions would you suggest for ________?
What might happen if you combined ________
with ________?
What is an analogy for ________?
Simulate… Construct… Sketch/draw…
Employ… Collect… Assemble...
Classify ________ according to ________.
What belongs together?
What shall we call these groups?
Outline… Diagram… Web...
How does _______ compare/contrast to _______?
How is ________ related to ________?
Differentiate… Categorize… Contrast…
Make a drawing to show the concept of ________.
Generating









Integrating/Combining
What do you see, hear, feel, taste, smell?
Where can we find information about ________?
What do you know about ________?
List… Define...
How would an outsider look at the situation?
In what ways could you record information?
What does/could ________ mean?
What would you predict from ________?
What are the possibilities?
What are the alternatives?
Brainstorm...
Can ________ be generalized?
What does the relationship between ________ and
________ mean?
What could explain ________?
What are the pros, cons and consequences of
each possibility?
Evaluating





What do you think about ________? Why?
Why is ________ significant? By what criteria?
Prioritize ________. What criteria did you use?
Which is true/right? By what standards?
Judge… Appraise… Rate… Argue… Decide…
Debate… Choose… Assess… Defend…
Evaluate...
31
QAR: QUESTTON ANSWER RELATIONSHIP
ANSWERTNG QUEsrrONs ABOUT THE TEXT
There arefour types of guestions. ff you understond the type of guestion thqt is
osked, it will help you understond how to onswer thot guestion.
The onswers ore in the book.
Right There
The onswer is in one ploce in the
text. Words from the question
Think & Search
ond words thot onswer the
question are off en "right there"
The onswer is in the text. T need to "think ond
seorch," or put together different ports of the
text, to f ind the onswer. The onswer con be
within o porogroph, ocross porogrophs, or even
ocross chopters ond books.
in the some sentence.
The onswers sre in my heod.
:
rl-
:
Author & Me
The onswer is nof in the text. To
onswer the question, f need to
think obout how the text ond whot
f olready know fit together.
On My Own
The onswer is not in the text. T need to use my own
ideos and experiences to onswer the guestion.
71
32
TYPES OF CONTEXT CLUES:
I don’t know what that word means. Ever find yourself reading and you come
across a trail of words that you don’t know? Don’t panic. Good writers leave
clues for you to follow so you can figure out words you don’t know! Look at the
words surrounding the word you don’t know. Reading those words a few times
and looking at the sentence will put you on the trail to understanding what that
word means. Below are seven clues to look for:
Clues from synonyms:
Sara had an ominous feeling when she woke up, but the feeling was less threatening
when she saw she was in her own room.
Clues from antonyms:
Boniface had always been quite heavy, but he looked gaunt when he returned from
the hospital.
Clues contained in comparisons and contrasts:
Riding a mountain bike in a remote area is my idea of a great day. I wonder why some
people like to ride motorcycles on busy six-lane highways.
Clues contained in a definition or description:
Manatees, large aquatic mammals (sometimes called sea cows), can be found in the
warm coastal waters of Florida.
Clues that appear in a series:
The campers spotted sparrows, chickadees, cardinals, and indigo buntings on
Saturday morning.
Clues provided by the tone and setting:
It was a cool and breezy fall afternoon. Hundreds of fans were gathering for the last
game of the season, and the student jazz band was entertaining the crowd. It was an
auspicious event.
Clues derived from cause and effect:
The amount of traffic at 6th and Main doubled last year, so crossing lights were placed
at that corner to avert an accident.
* A context clue does not always appear in the same sentence as the word you don’t know.
33
How to search the Internet
•Make sure the information you are using comes from a person or organization that can
be trusted.
•One simple way to tell if a site is reliable is to look at who runs the site. Usually,
looking at the first section of a web address will tell you where it came from. If it
came from a museum, university, or some other place you’ve heard of, chances are
that it can be trusted.
Dupe Detector:
A checklist to help surfers begin determining if information found on a website is true or not*.
Trustworthy
Questionable
Website:
1.
Do large companies you know advertise on the site?
Yes
2.
Are there any ‘dead links’, or links to ‘moved pages’?
No
3.
Do the images support the stated facts?
Is the site hosted by a credible provider and reside in a
‘trustworthy’ domain.
Are there links and references to other web sites, resources
and experts that corroborate this information?
Is the resource available in another format?
Do the site’s authors have other publications with credible
sites and publishers?
Are the sites authors experts in the subject? (Do they have
any credentials or experience around the topic?)
Is contact information provided and does the place/email
exist and work?
Does the site present highly biased visuals (e.g. racist
statements, derogatory remarks, and emotional language)?
Is the site professional (grammar and typing errors are not
present or very minimal)?
Totals**:
Yes
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10
.
11
.
Yes
□
□
□
□
Yes
□
□
□
Yes
□
Yes □
No □
No □
No
No
□
□
□
□
No
□
Yes
□
No
□
No
□
Yes
□
Yes
□
No
□
Yes
Yes
No
No
.com – is a website domain that anyone can buy. Usually it is for a business or for a personal
website to communicate or give out information.
.net – is a website domain that anyone can buy. Usually it is for a business or for a personal website
to communicate or give out information.
.edu – is a website domain that indicates a school, college, or university.
.org – is a website domain that indicates an organization, such as a relief agency or an organization
that wants better treatment of animals. Just because they are using a .org domain does not mean
that they are a good organization or even that they are legal.
.gov – is a website domain that indicates it is a branch of the US government. It may be a website
for information for people or a website that is only used inside the government and has passwords
to prevent it being misused
34
!
"#$%&#%'!!
()'*!
+,-'.
35
36
37
PARTS OF SPEECH:
Part of
Speech
Definition
Examples

noun
A noun is the name of a person,
place, thing or idea.
girl, man, Steve, church, pencil,
happiness

verb
A verb expresses action or being.
sings, laughs, am, was, should

adjective
An adjective describes a noun or
pronoun by telling how many, what
kind or which one.
five, few, beautiful, empty, that,
those

adverb
An adverb describes a verb,
adjective, or another adverb by
telling how, when or where.
slowly, carefully, soon,
tomorrow, there

pronoun
A pronoun in used in place of a
noun.
I, we, you, he, she, they, me,
him, them, mine, someone

conjunction A conjunction joins words, phrases, and, but, also, however,
clauses or sentences together.
therefore

preposition
A preposition shows the
relationship between a noun or
pronoun and another word.
about, around, before, behind,
between, by, down, during, for,
from, over, to

interjection
An interjection shows surprise or
expresses strong feeling.
Ah! Help! Oh! Wow!
38
SPELLING RULES:
Quick Guide
Rule 1:
Write i before e except after c, or when sounded like a as in neighbor and
weigh.
Examples:
receive
perceive
relief
Exceptions:
This sentence contains eight exceptions: Neither sheik
dared leisurely seize either weird species of financiers.
Rule 2:
When a one-syllable word (bat) ends in a consonant (t) preceded by one vowel
(a), double the final consonant before adding a suffix that begins with a vowel
(batting).
sum—summary
god—goddess
When a multisyllable word (control) ends in a consonant (l) preceded by one
vowel (o), the accent is on the last syllable (con trol’), and the suffix begins with
a vowel (ing) - the same rule holds true: double the final consonant (controlling).
prefer—preferred
begin—beginning
forget—forgettable
admit—admittance
Rule 3:
If a word ends with a silent e, drop the e before adding a suffix that begins with
a vowel. You do not drop the e when the suffix begins with a consonant.
state—stating—statement
like—liking—likeness
use—using—useful
nine—ninety—nineteen
Rule 4:
When y is the last letting in a word and the y is preceded by a consonant,
change the y to i before adding any suffix except those beginning with i.
fry—fries
hurry—hurries
lady—ladies
ply—pliable
happy—happiness
beauty—beautiful
When forming the plural of a word that ends with a y that is preceded by a
vowel, add s.
toy—toys
play—plays
monkey—monkeys
NOTE: Never trust your spelling to even the best spell checker. Carefully proofread.
Use a dictionary for questionable words your spell checker does not cover.
39
40
41
GRAMMAR GUIDE:
A period is used…
 at the end of declarative sentences
and mild imperatives.
 after initials and abbreviations.
 only once for a sentence ending
with an abbreviation.
 A personal pronoun must agree
A question mark is used…
 at the end of an interrogative sentence.
 Collective nouns are plural when
An exclamation mark is used…
 after a word, phrase or sentence
showing strong feeling.
A comma is used…
 to separate two or more adjectives
of equal rank.
 to set off a direct quotation.
 to separate three or more words,
phrases or clauses in a series.
 to separate two independent
clauses in a compound sentence.
 to set off a word, phrase or dependent clause at the beginning of
a sentence.
A semicolon is used…
 to separate independent clauses
very close in meaning but not
separated by and, but, or, nor, for,
or yet.
 to separate items in a series when
the series already contains commas.
A colon is used…
 before a list of items or details.
 before a statement that summarizes the original statement.
 before a long, formal quotation or
statement.
Parentheses are used…
 to set off words, phrases, clauses
or sentences which are independent of the main part of the sentence.
Quotation marks are used…
 to set off a direct quotation. (Single
quotation marks are used for
quotes within quotes.)
 to set off words, phrases, or sentences referred to in the sentence.
 to set off slang and foreign words
or phrases.
with its antecedent in person, number and gender.
 Collective nouns are singular when
 All principal words in titles are
capitalized. Do not capitalize
prepositions, coordinating conjunctions, and articles unless they begin the title.
the group is acting as a single unit.
the members of the group are acting independently.
Example:
The orchestra disagree on
the selections for the concert.
 Underline the titles of books,
magazines, newspapers, and
films. (Italics may take the place of
underlining if you are using a word
processor capable of doing it.)
 Quotation marks are used to en-
close the titles of magazine articles, chapters of books, names of
songs, and titles of poems.
 Normally, when two or more sub-
jects are connected by and, the
subject is plural and requires a
plural verb.
Fred and Dave like this class.
 If the two subjects form a unit, the
subject is then singular and requires a singular verb.
Chicken and dumplings is my
favorite meal.
 Two singular subjects joined by or
are considered singular and require a singular verb.
 When one of the subjects is singu-
lar and the other is plural, the verb
agrees with the subject that is
nearer.
 The subject of the sentence is
never affected by intervening
phrases that might come between
it and the verb.
 Capitalize names of particular per-
sons, places, and things.
 Capitalize titles of rank when they
come before a person’s name.
 Do not capitalize the names of the
seasons of the year unless they
are personified.
 The words north, south, east, and
west are capitalized only when
they refer to sections of the country, not directions.
 The names of school subjects are
not capitalized unless they are
names of languages.
 All words that refer to a specific
deity and sacred books are capitalized.
 A collective noun that is singular
requires a singular verb.
 If the collective noun indicates by
its usage that the individual members are acting separately, then a
plural verb is required.
 A plural noun that shows weight,
extent, or quantity is singular and
takes a singular verb.
Ten dollars is the price of this
tape.
 Do not substitute the preposition of
for the auxiliary verb have.
Common error forms are:
could of
should of
You should use:
could have
should have
42
TRANSITIONS:
A transition or linking expression is a word or group of words that is used to
give a reader some obvious directional signals. They act like a thread to sew your
ideas together. Transitions explain how one idea is linked to another.
Transitions for narration (storytelling):
after
finally
as
first
before
meanwhile
afterwards
now
later
until
next
while
then
during
when
Transitions for adding to ideas already stated:
again
also
another
at the same time
besides
finally
first.. second… finally
likewise
for instance
furthermore
in addition
moreover
another example of
similarly
Transitions for showing result (cause-effect):
according
consequently
to sum up…
because
thus
at this point…
therefore
at last
since
as a result
hence
but
nevertheless
still
Transitions for contrasting ideas:
although
however
On the other hand…
otherwise
43
REFERENCES FOR WRITING:
Helping verbs:
is
am
been
be
being
are
can
could
have
shall
should
has
will
would
had
may
might
was
do
does
were
Substitutes for VERY:
intensely
unusually
immeasurably
exceedingly
truly
infinitely
bitterly
powerfully
severely
surely
richly
chiefly
especially
mightily
shockingly
Dead words:
get
got
the end
SLANG:
very
nice
your
good
lots
well
you
just
a lot
fine
ALL CONTRACTIONS (won’t, I’d, we’ll)
ALL ABBREVIATIONS (etc., o.k., CA)
awesome, cool, fine, totally, rad, raspy
so
fun
Prepositions:
about
along
behind
beyond
for
near
over
upon
to
above
among
below
by
from
of
since
toward
with
across
around
beneath
down
in
off
throughout
under
within
against
at
beside
during
into
on
past
until
without
after
before
between
except
inside
out
through
up
Linking verbs:
is
am
was
were
be
been
appears
tastes
grows
turns
remains
sounds
feels
seems
are
continues
becomes
being
44
REFERENCES FOR WRITING (Con’t.)
“Get” is overworked. Instead, use:
accomplished
approach
bag
bribe
catch
contract
dunk
fetch
generate
hand
induce
learn
master
persuade
purchase
reach
remove
salvage
serve
steal
take
achieve
arrive
be
bring
collect
convince
earn
find
give
help
influence
live
murder
prepare
pursue
reap
rent
score
shoot
strike
thrill
acquire
ask
become
build
come
cook
eat
fix
go
hire
inform
locate
obtain
procure
put
receive
retrieve
secure
slip
succeed
trap
act
assassinate
begat
buy
comprehend
do
escape
follow
grab
hit
inherit
make
overcome
produce
puzzle
regain
ring
see
snare
support
understand
annoy
attain
borrow
capture
conceive
drive
establish
gain
grasp
hook
kill
manage
perceive
profit
raise
remember
run
seize
snatch
survive
win
45
REFERENCES FOR WRITING (Con’t.):
Transitions:
in addition
while
third, first
finally, last
to begin with
to conclude
unfortunately
notwithstanding
equally important
between
similarly
first of all
on the other hand
consequently
soon
again
farther
hence
equally
therefore
although
further
underneath
thus
as though
however
though
accordingly
moreover
instead of
besides
yet
so that
as a result
otherwise
Touch:
cool
steamy
slippery
silky
rough
fragile
cold
damp
mushy
gritty
thick
tender
icy
wet
oily
satiny
pulpy
prickly
tepid
fleshy
sharp
sandy
dry
hairy
warm
rubbery
elastic
smooth
dull
fuzzy
lukewarm
tough
crisp
flabby
thin
feathery
gingery
unripe
peppery
hearty
bland
overripe
medicinal
oily
bittersweet
tasteless
burnt
raw
buttery
mellow
sour
hot
alkaline
salty
sugary
fruity
spoiled
fishy
bitter
crisp
vinegary
minty
stagnant
gaseous
heady
sharp
sour
acidy
fragrant
tempting
mildewed
rotten
spoiled
sickly
pungent
aromatic
savory
dank
gamy
scented
burnt
perfumed
putrid
stench
piney
odorous
moldy
spicy
damp
earthy
rancid
thud
explode
squawk
deafening
clash
hubbub
inaudible
whisper
snap
bump
roar
raucous
stomp
clamor
blatant
piercing
whit
hiss
thump
scream
bawl
stamp
tumult
clap
rowdy
rustle
crackle
thunder
screech
rage
noise
riot
bark
rasp
twitter
grumble
bang
shout
blare
discord
racket
earsplitting
yell
patter
grunt
Taste:
tangy
rotten
spicy
flat
ripe
Smell:
sweet
acrid
musty
reeking
fresh
fishy
Sounds:
crash
smash
whine
slam
disorderly
bedlam
melody
murmur
mutter
pandemonium
whistle
rumble
jangle
brawl
boom
sigh
hum
buzz
46
REFERENCES FOR WRITING (Con’t.):
Sight:
flash
branching
thin
scalloped
wiry
tubular
swollen
jutting
fiery
fragile
miniature
frightened
hardy
orderly
exhausted
dull
formal
twiggy
shapely
ruffled
calm
hollow
lumpy
irregular
blazing
pale
timid
terrified
strong
straight
tired
drab
frail
split
winged
frilled
flared
rotund
clustered
sunny
verdant
pasty
shy
hysterical
healthy
curved
ugly
muddy
elegant
broken
shapeless
crimped
oval
chubby
padded
angular
fresh
sickly
fearful
tall
robust
loose
tied
stout
scrolled
skinny
rolled
crinkled
conical
pleasant
tufted
triangular
clean
small
tearful
lead
sturdy
crooked
packed
wide
tampering
square
unruffled
cylindrical
proportioned
portly
pendulous
wild
scrubbed
tiny
nervous
slender
lively
awkward
rigid
heavy
Colors:
Brown
sandy
almond
amber
tawny
hazel
cinnamon
nutmeg
chocolate
coffee
rust
White
snowy
milky
marble
cream
ivory
oyster
pearl
silver
platinum
Blue
peacock
sapphire
delft
porcelain
violet
turquoise
aqua
navy
Green
celery
mint
apple
lime
pea
sea
kelly
Fast:
hurry
skip
hustle
Gray
ashen
dove
steel
silver
Purple
lavender
mauve
lilac
plum
mulberry
fuchsia
magenta
pansy
Yellow
beige
buff
straw
peach
apricot
butter
buttercup
lemon
chartreuse
citron
canary
Red
rose
pink
salmon
coral
raspberry
strawberry
tomato
currant
crimson
vermilion
flame
Black
licorice
jet
ebony
ink
pitch
Orange
persimmon
gold
topaz
ochre
mustard
tangerine
Slow:
run
dart
whiz
scamper
scramble
zip
creep
slouch
saunter
crawl
lumber
loiter
plod
tiptoe
stray
sneak
bend
slink
47
REFERENCES FOR WRITING (Con’t.):
Action Words:
aching
bashing
bubbling
beeping
beaming
blistering
blinking
blaring
blinding
battering
bickering
babbling
crowing
clucking
creeping
crackling
coughing
clanking
chugging
chatting
crunching
cackling
chanting
crooning
dribbling
dazzling
drifting
dribbling
dancing
dunking
engulfing
entertaining
flailing
fuming
floating
flowing
flapping
flaring
flittering
flopping
flickering
glistening
grinding
gunning
grinding
gliding
glaring
glowing
glittering
groaning
grumbling
hooting
hissing
inviting
jumping
jerking
kissing
kicking
laughing
leaping
lighting
loaning
mumbling
mocking
moaning
munching
nailing
nicking
popping
pouncing
pattering
piling
pounding
plopping
peeping
quacking
reflecting
roaring
rattling
rumbling
shimmering
shrieking
sloshing
sputtering
sprinkling
slapping
sizzling
soaring
spinning
squawking
sizzling
sparkling
smoking
splashing
streaking
smashing
scolding
sailing
trilling
thumping
thundering
twinkling
whipping
whisking
whirring
wailing
winking
wheezing
whimpering
whining
yielding
yammering
yapping
yelling
zapping
zipping
zooming
48
REFERENCES FOR WRITING (Con’t.):
acknowledged
acquiesced
added
addressed
admitted
admonished
advised
advocated
affirmed
agreed
alleged
allowed
announced
answered
approved
argued
assented
asserted
assumed
assured
asked
attested
avowed
babbled
bantered
bargained
began
boasted
called
claimed
commented
complained
confided
coughed
cried
debated
demurred
denied
denounced
described
dictated
directed
disclosed
disrupted
divulged
drawled
droned
elaborated
emphasized
entreated
enunciated
estimated
exclaimed
explained
exposed
expressed
faltered
feared
foretold
fumed
giggled
grinned
grunted
held
implied
indicated
inferred
instructed
itemized
laughed
lectured
lied
maintained
mentioned
mimicked
moaned
mumbled
murmured
mused
muttered
nagged
narrated
noted
notified
objected
observed
opined
orated
ordered
petitioned
pleaded
pled
pointed out
prayed
predicted
proclaimed
professed
prompted
propounded
publicized
quibbled
ranted
reassured
reciprocated
refuted
related
remonstrated
replied
responded
restated
resumed
retorted
returned
revealed
roared
ruled
sanctioned
scoffed
scolded
screamed
shouted
shrieked
snapped
sneered
sobbed
solicited
specified
spoke
sputtered
stammered
stated
stipulated
stormed
stressed
suggested
taunted
thought
threatened
told
twitted
urged
uttered
vowed
wailed
49
50
51
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LA Handbook - Last Updated on 9-19-2011
52