Download MEMORY AND LEARNING

MEMORY AND LEARNING
CMPT 481
Overview
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HCI applications of memory
Iconic, short-term, long-term
Moving things into LTM
Errors of memory
Retrieval: Hick’s law
HCI applications of memory
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Hotkeys
Command locations in GUI
Menu contents
Targeting actions in games
Password typing
Command languages
Navigation in virtual environments
Memorizing game levels
Heuristic design principles
3. Minimize user’s memory load
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Promote recognition over recall
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Computers good at remembering things, people aren’t!
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menus, icons, lists vs. command lines, field formats
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relies on visibility of objects to the user
3. Minimize user’s memory load
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Input formats
 Indicate
required format
 give example and default entry
3. Minimize user’s memory load
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Small number of rules applied universally
 generic
 same
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command can be applied to all interface objects
interpreted in context of interface object
 copy,
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commands
cut, paste, drag and drop
for characters, words, paragraphs, circles, files
Memory
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Types of Memory
 Iconic
 Short-Term
 Long
term
 Implicit
 Explicit
• Processes
– Encoding, storage,
retrieval
– Forgetting
• Methods
– Recognition, recall
• Anatomy of
Memory
– Hippocampus and
Amygdala
Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”
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Memories are transient (fade with time)
Remembering requires attention
Our memories can be temporarily blocked
We can misattribute the source of memory
We are suggestible in our memories
We can show memory distortion (bias)
We often fail to forget the things we would like not
to recall (persistence of memory)
A Tale of Three Memories
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Iconic memory
 large
capacity
 Same modality as experience
 Very fast decay
A Tale of Three Memories
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Short Term Memory
 Limited
capacity
 Acoustic recoding
 Rehearsal maintains information
 Probabilistic
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transfer into LTM
Information from LTM retrieved and used here
A Tale of Three Memories
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Long term memory
 Unlimited
capacity
 Semantic coding
 Little decay
Traditional Model of Memory
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Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) 3 Stage Model
Stimuli
Sensory
registers
Short Term
Memory
(STM)
Information Processing Model
Long Term
Memory (LTM)
Sensory Stores
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Iconic store or Visual sensory register
Holds visual information for 250ms
 Information held is pre-categorical
 Capacity – up to 12 items
 Information fades quickly
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Auditory sensory register
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Holds auditory information for 2-3 seconds to allow
‘re-hearing’
Iconic memory test
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Whole report procedure
 Flash
a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
 Identify as many letters as possible
 Participants typically remembered 4 letters
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Partial Report Procedure
 Flash
a matrix of letters for 50 milliseconds
 Participants are told to report bottom row
 Participants were able to report any row requested
Whole Report
Keep your eyes on the “X” on the next slide
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
B 5 Q T
2 HXS 9
O 4 M Y
B 5 Q T
2 H S 9
O 4 M Y
Partial Report
X X X X
X X X X
X X X X
2 V 9 R
Q MX7 L
> K H 5 F <
2 V 9 R
Q M 7 L
> K H 5 F <
Short Term and Long Term Memory
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You experience memory as a single, unified whole.
Yet, remembering almost anything recruits several
systems and involves multiple processes.
Memory Processes
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Encoding
 Processes
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used to store information in memory
Storage
 Processes
used to maintain information in memory
 Rehearsal
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and elaboration
Retrieval
 Processes
used to get information back out of memory
Serial Position Curve
Serial Position Effect
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Primacy Effect
 remembering
stuff at beginning of list better than
middle because of rehearsal
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Recency Effect
 remembering
stuff at the end of list better than middle
because of lack of interference
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‘Peak-End’ Theory
Recall vs. Recognition
Recall Tasks
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Free Recall
 Recall
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Cued Recall
 Recall
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words from a list seen previously
everything you can that is associated with birds
Serial Recall
 Recall
the names of prime ministers in order
 Need to recall order as well as item names
Recognition Tasks
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Circle all the words you previously studied
Indicate which pictures you saw yesterday
The participant selects from a list of items they have
previously seen
Short-Term Memory
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Attention
Rehearsal
 Attend
to information
in the sensory store, it
moves to STM
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Short Term
Memory
(STM)
Rehearsal
 Repeat
information to
keep in STM
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Retrieval
 Access
memory in LTM
and place in STM
Attention
Storage &
Retrieval
Research on Short-Term Memory
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Miller (1956)
 Examined
memory capacity
 7+/- 2 items or “chunks”
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Chunking -- organize the input into larger units
1
9 8 0 1 9 9 8 2 0 0 3 - Exceeds capacity
 1980
1998 2003 - Reorganize by chunking
Birthyear
H.S
graduation
College
Graduation
Memory strategies: STM  LTM
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Mnemonic devices are strategies to improve
memory by organizing information
 Method
of Loci: ideas are associated with a place or
part of a building
 Peg-Word system: peg words associated with ideas
 Interactive Images: verbal associations are created for
items to be learned
Peg word system
Mnemonic
Item
One is a gun
Two is a shoe
Three is a tree
Four is a door
Five is a hive
Six is sticks
Seven is heaven
Eight is a gate
Nine is a line
Ten is a hen
Sponge
Firewood
Crown
Cigar
Barack Obama
YouTube
Window
Dog
Microsoft
Dryer lint
Forgetting
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Proactive interference:
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Retroactive interference:
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memory trace fades with time
Motivated forgetting:
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new information interferes with recall of old information
Decay theory:
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old information interferes with recall of new information
involves the loss of painful memories (protective memory loss)
Retrieval failure:
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the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because
the retrieval cue is absent
Human errors of memory
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Slips
 Memory
errors in which behaviour gets misdirected en
route to satisfying goal
 e.g.
drive to store, arrive at the office
 Shows
up frequently in skilled behaviour
 Norman, Design of Everyday Things
Slips
Capture error
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Frequently-done activity takes charge instead of
one intended
 occurs
when common and less common actions have the same
initial sequence
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change clothes for dinner and find oneself in bed
(William James, 1890)
confirm saving of a file you meant to rename
I can’t
believe I
pressed
Yes...
Description error
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Intended action has much in common with others
 usually
occurs when right and wrong objects physically
near each other
 pour
juice into bowl instead of glass
 go jogging, come home, throw sweaty shirt in toilet instead
of laundry basket
 move file to trash instead of to folder
Data-driven error
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Data for the intended action is similar to other data
 more
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common data pushes itself forward
telephone home instead of correct number
Loss of activation error
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Forgetting what the goal is while undergoing the
sequence of actions
 start
going to room and forget why you are going there
 navigating menus/dialogs and can’t remember what you
are looking for
 can sometimes continue action to remember (or go back to
beginning)!
Mode error
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Execute action in one mode thinking they are in
another
 insert
/ edit mode in vi
 try to draw with incorrect tool in paint program
 refer to file that’s in a different directory
 look for commands / menu options that are not relevant
Designing for slips
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Mode errors
 have
as few modes as possible (preferably none)
 make modes highly visible
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Capture errors
 instead
of confirmation, make actions undoable
 allows reconsideration of action by user
 e.g.
trash can can be opened and deleted file retrieved
Designing for slips
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Loss of activation errors
 if
system knows the goal, make it explicit
 if not, allow person to see path taken so far
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Description errors
 in
icon-based interfaces, make sure icons are not too
similar
 check for reasonable input
Baddeleys’ Working Memory Model
Central Executive
Visual Scribe
Visuo-spatial
Sketch Pad
Articulatory Loop
Episodic Buffer
Phonological
Store
Working Memory Model
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Articulatory Loop
 Used
to maintain information for a short time and for
acoustic rehearsal
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Visuo-spatial Sketch Pad
 Used
for maintaining and processing visuo-spatial
information
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Episodic Buffer
 Used
for storage of an integrated episode
Working Memory Model
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Central Executive
 Focuses
attention on relevant items and inhibiting
irrelevant ones
 Plans sequence of tasks to accomplish goals, schedules
processes in complex tasks, often switches attention
between different parts
 Updates and checks content to determine next step in
sequence of parts
Working Memory
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Context
 Trouble
recognizing somebody at work when you meet
them on vacation
 Scuba divers learning a list of words under water will
recall it better underwater than on land
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State Dependent Recall
 Learning
while happy or sad means better recall while
happy or sad
Long Term memory
Long-term Memory
Explicit Memory
Episodic
Memory
Semantic
Memory
Implicit Memory
Procedural
Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Priming
Examples
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Episodic: “I bumped into a friend today at the diner
whom I hadn’t seen since last year.”
Semantic: John A. MacDonald was the first prime
minister of Canada
Procedural Memory: Riding a bike
Classical conditioning: Pavlovian reflex
Priming: P-O-T-S joke
Implicit and Explicit Memory
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Explicit memory tasks
 Voluntary
and conscious
 Also called declarative memory
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Implicit memory tasks
 Involuntary
and unconscious
Levels of Processing
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Craik & Lockhart
Continuum of processing
 Shallow:
surface, perceptual features
 Deep: processed, meaningful interpretation
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Level or “depth” of processing affects memorability
 Deeper
encoding produces more elaborate and longerlasting memory
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Baker vs. Baker
Schemas
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We reconstruct memories according to a map of
behaviors that are highly related to one another
 Prior
knowledge influences memory
 Interpretation of details
 Reductions in ambiguity
 Makes unusual things stand out
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E.g., chess positions
Procedural memory
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Memory for particular types of actions
Long-term, implicit, and unconscious
 Automaticity
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Created through procedural learning
 Repetition
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and rehearsal
“Choking under pressure”
Power Law of Practice
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States that the logarithm of the reaction time for a
particular task decreases linearly with the logarithm
of the number of practice trials taken
RT = aP-b + c
 RT
is response time
 a, b, and c are empirical constants
 P is the trial number
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“each new trial with a task will take about <half>
as long as the previous trial”
Power Law of Practice
Hick’s Law
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Describes the time it takes to make a decision or
recall an item as a function of the number of choices
T = b * log2(n+1)
T
is decision time
 b is an empirical constant
 n is the number of choices
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Case study: spatial memory
Hick’s Law