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Ariel Jarovsky and Eyal Altshuler 8/11/07, 15/11/07 1 Today • A short review • Multi-Modal Logic • First Order Modal Logic • Applications of Modal Logic: • Artificial Intelligence • Program Verification • Summary 2 3 Introduction Modal Logics are logics of qualified truth. (From the dictionary) Modal – of form, of manner, pertaining to mood, pertaining to mode Necessary, Obligatory, true after an action, known, believed, provable, from now on, since, until, and many more… 4 Syntax – Language The formal language: A non-empty set of propositions (as in classical logic): P { p , p , p , } 1 2 3 {¬, Ù, Ú, , , ,W,, à } Operators: Parentheses. Some define the ◊ as: The Modal Operators à A def ¬W¬A 5 Syntax – Formulas • Formulas are the only syntactic category of Propositional Modal Logics, as in CPL. • Every proposition p is a formula. • If A, B are formulas, then the following are also formulas: • ¬A, A Ù B, A Ú B, A B, AB • If A is a formula then the following are also formulas: • WA àA 6 Modal Logics - Semantics Possible worlds semantics (Kripke, 1959) The different possible worlds represent the states of a given problem. 7 Semantics - Frame A frame is a pair (W,R) where W is a non- empty set and R is a binary relation on W. W is the set of all possible worlds, or states. R determines which worlds are accessible from any given world in W. We say that b is accessible from a iff (a,b)R. R is known as the accessibility relation. 8 Semantics – Model A Model is a triple M=(W,R,V) while (W,R) is a frame and V is a valuation. A valuation is a function V : P W {T , F }. Informally, V(p,w)=T is to be thought as p is true at world w. 9 Semantics – Semantic Relation The relation ‘ between a pair (M,w) where M is a model and w is a world, and a formula A, is defined recursively as follows: M , w ‘ p, p P V ( p, w) T M , w ‘ pA Ù B M , w ‘ A and M , w ‘ B Similar for the other classical logic connectors. M , w ‘ WA x W if wRx then M , x ‘ A M , w ‘ à A x W s.t. wRx Ù M , x ‘ A 10 Logics Given a language L(P) (P is a set of atoms) a logic is defined to be any subset of formulas generated from P that satisfies: includes all tautologies; Closure under Modus Ponens. Closure under uniform substitution. 11 Normal Logic A logic is said to be normal if it contains the formula scheme: K : W( A B) (WA WB) and if it is provided with the modal inference necessitation rule: Λ A Λ WA 12 Axiomatic Systems An axiomatic system for a normal logic is made up of the following three components: An axiomatic system of CPL (as HPC) The axiom scheme denoted: K : W( A B) (WA WB) The modal inference rule of necessitation: Λ A Λ WA 13 14 Multi-Modal Logics There exist logic languages with more than one modal operator Why do you think? They may use: Collection of symbols {[i]} Each modal [i] has its dual, <i> <i>A= [i]A. 15 Multi-Modal Logics- Syntax • Very similar to the syntax of uni-modal logics, that we already know. •Every proposition p is a formula. • If A, B are formulas, then the following are also formulas: • ¬A, A Ù B, A Ú B, A B, AB • If A is a formula then the following are also formulas: • [i ] A i A 16 Multi-Modal Logics- Semantics A frame F for multimodal language is define as follows – F=(W,{Ri | i}) W is a non-empty set of worlds For each i, Ri is a binary relation on W. A model M is a tupple M=(W,{Ri | i},V) A valuation V is function V : P W {T , F } 17 The Semantic Relation The relation ‘ between a pair (M,w) where M is a model and w is a world, and a formula A, is defined recursively as follows: M , w ‘ p, p P V ( p, w) T M , w ‘ pA Ù B M , w ‘ A and M , w ‘ B Similar for the other classical logic connectors. M , w ‘ [i] A x W if (w, x) Ri then M , x ‘ A M , w ‘ i A x W s.t. (w, x) Ri Ù M , x ‘ A 18 Multi-Modal Logics A Logic is defined as same as in uni-modal logics (includes all tautologies and closed under MP and substitution). A logic is said to be normal if it contains the schemata: Ki : [i]( A B) ([i] A [i]B) And satisfies the necessitation rule for each i. Λ A Λ [i ] A The smallest normal logic is generally denoted Ki. 19 Multi-Modal Logic - Example ([1]A) Yesterday, Dan had 2 children. ([2]B) Tomorrow, Dan will have 3 children. Let us look on the formula – [1] A Ù[2]B Intuitively, It has to be true only in the day in which his third child was born. 20 Example Formally, we will define a frame to be- F (W , R1 , R2 ) W – the days during the year. R1 – all the pairs (dayi, dayi-1). R2 – all the pairs (dayi, dayi+1). A world w in model M in which [1]A [2]B will be true is- R1 A–T B-F A–T B-F A–T B-F R2 A–T B-T A–F B-T Dan’s 3rd child birthday A–F B-T A–F B-T 21 First Order Modal Logic Motivation: Every lecturer strikes. Yossi is a lecturer. Thus Yossi strikes. The formal language – There are two parts – A common part for all of the languages. A signature - unique for every language. 22 First Order Modal Logic The common part – {¬, Ù, Ú, , ,W, à } Operators: {, } Quantifies: Parentheses. Variables: v1,v2,… • Syntactic Categories – • formulas Will be detailed • terms 23 First Order Modal Logic Signature: the unique part of every language - A non-empty set of function symbols. A (maybe empty) set of constants. A (maybe empty) set of predicate symbols. Terms: Every variable is a term. Every constant is a term. If f is a function symbol and t1,…,tn are terms, then f(t1,…,tn) is also a term. 24 Definition of a formula If p is a predicate symbol and t1,…,tn are terms, the p(t1,…,tn) is an atomic formula. If A, B are formulas then the following are also formulas: A, AB, AB, AB, AB x.A, x.A A, A 25 First Order Logic- Semantics Let L(σ) be a first order language. When is a formula true? A Structure M is a pair M=<D,I>, such that – D – (domain) a non-empty set of objects. I – an interpretation function of σ: I [c ] D I[ f ] Dn D I [ p] D n 26 FOL – Valuations A valuation is a function from terms do the domain V :xD However, it is generalized to a function V : o D from terms to the domain and is defined as: V[c]= I[c] V[x] – given by V. V[f(t1,…,tn)]=I[f](V[t1],…,V[tn]) 27 Domains in First Order Modal Logic This is a problematic issue. Why? “Tomorrow, everyone will be glad”. We’ve already asked “When is tomorrow?” A new question is added- “Who is everyone?” On Sunday- Everyone includes Yossi,Dan and Moshe. On Monday- Everyone includes Yossi,Dan, Moshe, and Gad. On Tuesday- Everyone includes Dan, Moshe and Gad. 28 Domain- 3 natural definitions 1) The set of all individuals existing in the actual world (D = a). 2) The set of all individuals existing in a given possible world w (D = w). 3) The set of all the individuals existing in any world (D = *=UwWw). 29 Domain- 3 natural definitions The quantifiers have different meanings, according to the definition of the domain1) a x means- ‘for all x in the actual world’. a x means- ‘for an x in the actual world’. 2) w x means- ‘for all x in the world w’. w x means- ‘for an x in the world w’. 3) * x means- ‘for all x’. * x means- ‘for at least one x’. 30 31 Where is modal logic used? Modal logic is a widely applicable method of reasoning for many areas of computer science. Artificial Intelligence Database theory Distributed systems Program verification Cryptography theory 32 AI – Epistemic Logic Epistemic Logic is the modal logic that reasons about knowledge and belief. Philosophy, Artificial Intelligence, Distributed Systems. Important: our examples in that part will be about propositional multi-epistemic logic (no quantifiers, more than one modal) 33 Epistemic Logic – Syntax Will be minimally defined, more details – next lecture of the seminar. Suppose there are n agents. Let P { p1 , p2 , p3 , } be a non-empty set of propositions. Operators: {¬, Ù, Ú, , ,[i ], i } [i]φ- agent i knows φ. <i>φ- agent i knows that φ is true at some state. 34 Epistemic Logic- Syntax Formulas are defined as usual. In addition to reasoning about what each agent knows, it may be helpful to reason about: n Everyone knows: Eφ Ù[i]φ Common knowledge: Cφ Ù Eφ( k ) , k i 1 Eφ(1) Eφ , Eφ( k 1) E( Eφ( k ) ) 35 Applications of Epistemic Logic (semantics) In a multi-agent system, there are n agents. Each agent i has it’s local environment, that consists of information of what i’s local state is in the system. In addition there is a global environment, that includes information that agents might not necessarily know but is still important for the system to run (this information is categorized as seen from a “bird’s eye” view of the system). 36 Examples (1) A scrabble game: Agents i’s local environment: The letters i contained in its hand. The letters that have been currently played. Which words were played by each player. The current score. The global environment may contains The letters that haven’t been chosen by any player. 37 Examples (2) A distributed system. Each process is an agent. The local environment of a process might contain messages i has sent or received, the values of local variables, the clock time. The global environment might include the number of process, a log file of all the process’ operations, etc. 38 Applying epistemic logic using possible worlds semantics The environments defines a global state. A global state is a set (se,s1,…,sn) of environments Se is the global environment. Each si is the local environment of agent i. A run is defined as a function from time to global states. A point is a pair (r,m) where r is a run at some time m (assume time to be the natural numbers). 39 Applying epistemic logic using possible worlds semantics A system is defined as a set of runs. Thus, our description of a system entails a collection of interacting agents. Intuitively, a system is the set of all possible runs. At point (r,m), system is in some global state r(m). Let ri(m) be the local environment for agent i. 40 Applying epistemic logic using possible worlds semantics Note that a system can be viewed in terms of a frame. W = a set of points. Ri = the relation for agent i. Ri {((r , m),(r ', m ')) | ri (m) r 'i (m ')} This means that agent i considers (r’,m’) possible at point (r,m) if I has the same local environment at both point. This means, intuitively, that if agent i runs in r at time m, then he could continue running in r’ at time m’. 41 Applying epistemic logic using possible worlds semantics Let be a set of propositions. These propositions describe facts about the system as “the system is deadlocked” or “the value of variable x is 5”. An interpreted system is a tuple (S,V), where S is a system and V is a function that maps propositions in , V(p,s){true, false}, where p is a proposition and s is a state. 42 Applying epistemic logic using possible worlds semantics We associate I=(S,V) with the modal structure M=(W,R1,…,Rn,V). Thus, agents’ knowledge is determined by their local environment. What it means for a formula to be true at point (r,m) in I? By applying earlier definitions we get: (I, r , m) ‘ φ ( M , (r , m)) ‘ φ 43 44 Applying epistemic logic using axiomatic systems • Martha puts a spot of mud on the forehead of each child. •Each child can see the forehead of the otherA knows that B’s forehead is muddy, and conversely. •Neither child knows whether their own forehead is muddy. 45 Applying epistemic logic using axiomatic systems • Martha announces, “At least one of you has a muddy forehead”. [Martha said] Ka Kb ( A Ú B) • Then she asks, “does either of you know whether your own forehead is muddy?” [b sees a] Ka ( Kb A Ú Kb ¬A) • Neither child answers. [b doesn't know] Ka ¬Kb B • She asks the same question again, and this time both children answer- “I know mine is”. [We want] Ka A • How did it happen? 46 Definitions In order to proof the conclusion we have to take an axiomatic system of classical logic (as HPC) and add some axioms and rules of inference: Distributivity Ka ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth Ka X X (Semantically, R is reflexive) Rule N X Ka X X Y Rule R K a X K aY 47 Proof K a Kb (¬A B) 2. Kb (¬A B) ( Kb ¬A Kb B) 3. Ka Kb (¬A B) Ka ( Kb ¬A Kb B) 4. Ka ( Kb ¬A Kb B) 1. [Martha said] Distributivity Rule R 2 MP 1,3 It means that A knows that if B knows that A’s forehead is not muddy then B knows his forehead is muddy! Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X X Y Rule R: K a X 48K aY Proof K a Kb (¬A B) [Martha said] 2. Kb (¬A B) ( Kb ¬A Kb B) Distributivity 3. Ka Kb (¬A B) Ka ( Kb ¬A Kb B) Rule R 1 4. Ka ( Kb ¬A Kb B) MP 1,3 5. ( Kb ¬A Kb B) (¬Kb B ¬Kb ¬A) CPL theorem 6. Ka ( Kb ¬A Kb B) Ka (¬Kb B ¬Kb ¬A) Rule R 5 7. Ka (¬Kb B ¬Kb ¬A) MP 4,6 8. Ka (¬Kb B ¬Kb ¬A) ( Ka ¬Kb B Ka ¬Kb ¬A) Distributivity 9. K a ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A MP 7,8 1. Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X X Y Rule R: K a X 49K aY Proof (cont’d) 9. K a ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A MP 7,8 It means that A knows that if B doesn’t knows whether his forehead is muddy then A knows that it is possible in B’s knowledge that A’s forehead is muddy! Remember that: [i]A <i>A Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X X Y Rule R: K a X 50K aY Proof (cont’d) 9. K a ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A 10. K a ¬Kb B 11. K a ¬Kb ¬A MP 7,8 [b doesn’t know] MP 9,10 It means that A knows that it is possible in B’s knowledge that A’s forehead is muddy! Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X X Y Rule R: K a X 51K aY Proof (cont’d) Ka ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A K a ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A Ka (¬Kb ¬A Kb A) 13. Ka (¬Kb ¬A Kb A) ( Ka ¬Kb ¬A Ka Kb A) 14. K a ¬Kb ¬A K a Kb A 15. K a Kb A 9. 10. 11. 12. MP 7,8 [b doesn’t know] MP 9,10 [b sees a] Distribution MP 12,13 MP 11,14 It means that A knows that B knows A’s forehead is muddy! Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X X Y Rule R: K a X 52K aY Proof (cont’d) 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. Ka ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A K a ¬Kb B K a ¬Kb ¬A Ka (¬Kb ¬A Kb A) Ka (¬Kb ¬A Kb A) ( Ka ¬Kb ¬A Ka Kb A) K a ¬Kb ¬A K a Kb A K a Kb A Kb A A K a Kb A K a A Ka A Dist.: K a ( X Y ) ( K a X K aY ) Truth: Ka X X MP 7,8 [b doesn’t know] MP 9,10 [b sees a] Distribution MP 12,13 MP 11,14 Truth Rule R 16 MP 15,17 X Y Rule R: K a X 53K aY [Vaughan Pratt 1974] 54 Dynamic Logic We will concentrate on: Propositional Dynamic Logic (PDL) [Fischer & Lander 1977] 55 What is Dynamic Logic? Program verification ensures that a program is correct, meaning that any possible input/ output combination is expected based on the specifications of the program. A modal logic, called dynamic logic, was developed to verify programs. 56 PDL Syntax Let ={p1, p2, p3, … } – a non-empty set of propositions. An ‘atomic’ program is a smallest basic program, meaning it does not consist of other programs. Let ={a1, a2, a3, … } – a non-empty set of atomic programs. 57 PDL Formulas Formulas: If p, then p is a formula. If and are formulas, then , , , , are formulas. If is a formula and is a program, then [], <> are formulas. 58 PDL Programs Programs: If a, then a is a program. If and are programs, then ;(sequential composition), (nondeterministic choice), and *(iteration) are programs. If is a formula, then ? (test) is a program. Operators precedence: Unary operators. The operator ‘;’, and the operator . Classical Logic operators. 59 Program Operators Interpretation ;: means “do and then ”. : means “do either or (non- deterministically)”. *: means “repeat some finite number of times”. ?: means “test : continue if is true, otherwise ‘fail’”. 60 Modal Operators Interpretation [] means that “if terminates, then holds” or in other terms “after every terminating execution of , holds”. <> means that “there is an execution of that terminates with as true”. 61 Programming Statements We can write some classical programming statements, such as loop constructs, using PDL program operators: ‘if then else ’ =def (?;)(?;) ‘while do ’ =def (?;)*;? ‘repeat until ’ =def ;(?;)*;? 62 PDL Semantics A modal structure is M=(W,{Ra|a},V). W is a set of program states. Ra is one or more binary relation(s) that determines which states are accessible from any state in W. V is a function from {W} to {true, false}. 63 Accessibility Relations We consider (w,w’)Ra as the case that w is the initial state of program a and w’ is an ending state. Developed accessibility relations: Rα ; β def {( w, w ') | w '' s.t. wRα w '' w '' Rβ w '} Rα β def Rα Rβ Rα* def {(u, v) | u0 ,..., un where n 0, u u0 , v un s.t. (ui , ui 1 ) Rα for 0 i n 1} We will give the definition of R? after presenting the definition of . 64 The Semantic Relation The relation ‘ between a pair (M,w) where M is a model and w is a state, and a formula A, is defined recursively as follows: M , w ‘ p, p Φ V ( p, w) true M , w ‘ pA Ù B M , w ‘ A and M , w ‘ B Similar for the other classical logic connectors. M , w ‘ [[α] A x W if (w, x) Rα then M , x ‘ A M,w‘ < α A x W s.t. (w, x) Rα Ù M , x ‘ A 65 The R? relation R? =def {(u,u) | M,u } For example, we can define the accessibility relation for the while-do program (;)*;?: Rwhile do def {(u , v) | u0 ,..., un where n 0, u u0 , v un s.t. M , ui ‘ φ, 0 i n 1 and (ui , ui 1 ) Rα for 0 i n 1, and M , un ‘ φ} 66 Applications of PDL A correctness specification is a formal description of how a program is to behave. A program is correct if its output meets the correctness specification. PDL, and hence dynamic logic, is not well- suited about program behavior at intermediary states. Other logics that do so are process logic and temporal logic. 67 Applications of PDL PDL is better suited to reasoning about program behavior with respect to only input and output states. For example, the accessibility relation for a program only contains information about an input and an output state, i.e., (w,w’)R means that w’ is an output state when program is run with initial state w. Thus, a reasonable restriction for dynamic logic is to only consider programs that halt (so its correctness specifications are usually in the form of input/output). 68 A PDL Example Let a,b be atomic programs. Let p be an atomic proposition. Suppose M=(W,Ra,Rb,V) W = {s,t,u,v} Ra = {(u,s),(v,t),(s,u),(t,v)} Rb = {(u,v),(v,u),(s,t),(t,s)} s b a p u t a b V(p,u) = V(p,v) = true v 70 s A PDL Example Prove: Mp[(ab*a)*]p b a p u t a b v Proof: M,wp[(ab*a)*]p (xW.(w,x)R(ab*a)*M,xp) (M,wp) What is R(ab*a)*? 71 s A PDL Example R(ab*a)*: b a p u t a b v Let’s build it from: Rb*={(u,u), (u,v), (v,u), (v,v), (s,s), (s,t), (t,s), (t,t)} Rab*={(u,s), (u,t), (v,s), (v,t), (s,u), (s,v), (t,u), (t,v)} Rab*a={(u,u), (u,v), (v,u), (v,v), (s,s), (s,t), (t,s), (t,t)} R(ab*a)*={(u,u), (u,v), (v,u), (v,v), (s,s), (s,t), (t,s), (t,t)} 72 s A PDL Example M,wp[(ab*a)*]p b a p u t a b v (xW.(w,x)R(ab*a)*M,xp) (M,wp) R(ab*a)*={(u,u), (u,v), (v,u), (v,v), (s,s), (s,t), (t,s), (t,t)} If M,wp then w{u,v} and so: For each accessible state x from w (that are u and v), M,xp. If M,wp then w{s,t} and so: There is an accessible state x from w (for instance, s itself), such that M,xp. Thus, Mp[(ab*a)*]p. 73 s A PDL Example b a p u t a b v Let: = (aabb(abba)(aabb)*(abba))* M [] Proof: M,w [] (xW.(w,x)RM,x) (M,w) What is R? 74 s A PDL Example R: b t a p u a b v Let’s build it from: Raa = {(u,u), (v,v), (s,s), (t,t)} Rbb = {(u,u), (v,v), (s,s), (t,t)} Rab = {(u,t), (v,s), (s,v), (t,u)} Rba = {(u,t), (v,s), (s,v), (t,u)} R = {(u,u), (v,v), (s,s), (t,t)} The identity relation RI = (aabb(abba)(aabb)*(abba))* 75 s A PDL Example M,w [] b a p u t a b v (xW.(w,x)RM,x) (M,w) R = {(u,u), (v,v), (s,s), (t,t)} In conclusion, The only state accessible from w is w itself. And so, (xW.(w,x)RM,xp) (M,wp) Thus, M []. 76 Summary Modal logic as an extension of classical logic Possible worlds semantics Logics and normal logics Axiomatic systems Extensions of multi-modal logic. First order modal logic Various Applications of modal logic- focus on artificial intelligence and program verification 77 78