Download LATIN CONSTRUCTIONS

LATIN CONSTRUCTIONS
1) Uses of the cases
a) You should be familiar by now with the basic uses of the cases:
nominative – subject – puella in villa stat. The girl stands in the villa.
vocative – addressing someone – manete hic, pueri ! Stay here, boys !
(The nominative & vocative endings are identical except in the case of the singular of
‘servus/dominus’ type –2nd declension e.g. mane hic, serve ! – Stay here, slave !
accusative – object – puellam in villa video. I see a girl in the villa.
genitive – ‘of’- vocem servi audio. I hear the slave’s voice.
dative – ‘to/for’ equum puellae dedi. I gave a horse to the girl.
ablative – ‘by/with/from/in’ auxilio servi… with the help of the slave
(There is one other case known as the locative. This looks a bit like the
genitive and is only used with places. See section dii) below.)
NOTE ALSO:
b) The ablative of comparison:
Marcus est fortior Sexto. Marcus is braver than Sextus.
(also written: Marcus est fortior quam Sextus.)
c) Expressions of time:
i) Time ‘how long’/duration – accusative case
unum diem manebam. – I waited (for) one day.
ii) Time ‘when’/’within’/’at’/’in’ – ablative case
tribus diebus adveniemus – We will arrive in three days.
decimo die – at/on the tenth day
Latin GCSE Constructions 2.
d) Expressions of space (where a preposition is not needed)
Most nouns indicating a place take a preposition
e.g. ad Britanniam – to Britain
a flumine – from the river
apud villam – at the villa
However, names of TOWNS, SMALL ISLANDS, and the word DOMUS, do not
take prepositions, and the case of the noun carries the sense of a preposition.
i) ‘towards’ = accusative – Romam ambulo
domum ambulo
I am walking to Rome.
I am walking home.
ii)‘at/in’
= locative
– Romae habito
domi manebo
I live in Rome.
I shall stay at home.
iii) ‘from’
= ablative
- Roma progredior
domo discedo.
I set off from Rome.
I am leaving home.
e) Cases after verbs
Normally the direct object of a verb is in the ACCUSATIVE CASE.
servum vidimus – We saw a slave.
However a few verbs on your list take a different case for the direct object:
i) + DATIVE: credere – to believe, imperare – to command
servo non credimus – We do not believe the slave.
populo imperavit – She commanded/ruled the people.
ii) + ABLATIVE: utor – to use
silva utebatur ut exercitum celaret. He used the wood to hide the army.
Latin GCSE Constructions 3.
2) Direct Questions
-ne indicates a question
nonne = non-ne
num
eumne vidisti ? Did you see him ?
nonne eum vidisti ? Did you not see him ?
Surely you saw him ?
num eum vidisti ? You didn’t see him, did you ?
Surely you did not see him ?
3) Direct Commands & Wishes
a) IMPERATIVE FORMS:
i) Positive: (singular) fortiter pugna ! – Fight bravely ! responde ! – Reply !
(plural)
hic manete !
- Stay here !
audite ! – Listen !
ii) Negative: noli/nolite + infinitive
(singular) noli pugnare – Don’t fight ! OR Stop fighting !
(plural)
nolite respondere – Don’t answer ! (Stop answering !)
Latin GCSE Constructions 4.
4) Indirect Statement or Thought
This is expressed by the accusative and infinitive:
puella putat puerum timere. The girl thinks the boy to be afraid.
i.e. The girl thinks that the boy is afraid.
NOTES:
a) The tense of the infinitive in Latin is the same of the original words or
thought of the speaker. In English we generally need to make an adjustment.
nuntius dixit servos effugisse.
(perfect infinitive)
The messenger said the slaves to have escaped.
(actual words “The slaves have escaped !)
becomes in English:
The messenger said that the slaves had escaped.
Similarly:
nuntius putavit servos effugere
The messenger thought the slaves to be escaping.
(present infinitive)
(actual words “The slaves are escaping.)
becomes in English:
The messenger thought the slaves were escaping.
nuntius dixit servos redituros esse
(future infinitive)
The messenger said the slaves to be about to
return.
(actual words “The slaves will return.)
becomes in English:
The messenger said the slaves would return
b) When the subject of the main verb is the same as the subject of the accusative and
infinitive, Latin uses the preposition ‘se’ to indicate ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘it’ or ‘they’
servi dixerunt se redituros esse.
The slaves said that they would return.
(It would be wrong to translate this sentence: The slaves said that they themselves
would return.)
Otherwise part of ‘is’ ‘ea’ ‘id’ is used:
nuntius dixit eos non redituros esse. The messenger said they would not return.
c) Latin often uses the verb ‘negare’ (to deny) where we would use ‘to say…not’)
e.g. nuntius negavit se servos vidisse. Becomes: The messenger said he had not
(The messenger denied he had seen the slaves.)
seen the slaves.
FOR EXTRA INFO ONLY!
Latin GCSE Constructions 5.
5) The Sequence of tenses
In a number of Latin constructions (such as Indirect Commands, Purpose
Clauses & Verbs of Fearing), the Sequence of Tenses applies. The tense of the
subjunctive is governed by the tense of the main verb.
Main verbs that are PRESENT, FUTURE or PERFECT where we use the
word ‘have’ are PRIMARY.
All other verbs (IMPERFECT, PLUPERFECT, other uses of PERFECT) are
HISTORIC.
Here is one example using the Purpose Clause construction:
PRIMARY SEQUENCE
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE (Not
needed for GCSE)
PRESENT
venit – He is coming
ut te videat – so that he may see you.
FUTURE
veniet – He will come
i.e. to see you.
PERFECT (‘have’)
venit - He has come
HISTORIC SEQUENCE
IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
IMPERFECT
veniebat – He was coming
ut te videret – so that he might see you.
PERFECT
venit - He came
i.e. to see you
PLUPERFECT
venerat – He had come
Here is another example using the Verbs of Fearing construction:
PRIMARY SEQUENCE
timet
timebit
timuit
She fears/will be afraid/ has been afraid
HISTORIC SEQUENCE
timebat
timuit
timuerat
She was afraid / feared / had feared
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE (Not needed
for GCSE)
ne capti sint.
that they have been captured.
PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
ne capti essent.
that they had been captured
Latin GCSE Constructions 6.
6) Indirect Commands or Requests
These are expressed in Latin by ut or ne + imperfect subjunctive
e.g. monui te ut descenderes. you should climb down.
I warned you to climb down. (I warned you that
eos monuisti ne manerent –
You warned them not to remain.
NOTES:
i)
iubeo takes an infinitive as in English e.g. iussit nos manere.
He ordered us to stay.
ii)
Other command verbs on list: docere, hortari, imperare (+ dat.),
petere, quaerere
Latin GCSE Constructions 7.
7) Purpose Clauses (or ‘Final Clauses’)
Purpose Clauses take ‘ut’ or ‘ne’ with the imperfect subjunctive
(the same as Indirect Commands)
progrediebamur ut urbem videremus. We were setting out to see the city.
(imp. subj.)
(in order that we might see…)
NOTES:
i)
Watch out for these forms:
ne…quis
= lest….anyone…
i.e. so that no-one…
ne…quid
= lest…anything…
i.e. so that nothing…
ne…umquam = lest…ever…
i.e. so that never…
ne…ulli….
i.e. so that no…
= lest…any…
e.g. hostes custodiebamus ne quis effugeret – We guarded the enemy so that no-one
might escape.
hostes necavit ne umquam effugerent - He killed the enemy so that they
would never escape.
castra custodiebant ne ulli hostes effugerent - They guarded the camp so that
no enemy would escape.
Latin GCSE Constructions 8.
8) Result Clauses (or ‘Consecutive Clauses’)
Result clauses indicate the result of a given action. A result clause is
expressed in Latin by UT + SUBJUNCTIVE often with a SIGNPOST WORD (see
below). The tense of the subjunctive is generally the same as they equivalent English
tense.
e.g.
tot spectatores adevenerant ut non videre possemus (imperfect subj.)
So many spectators had arrived that we were not able to see.
Tot spectatores intraverant ut amicos non invenissent. (pluperfect subj.)
So many spectators had come in that we hadn’t found our friends.
NOTES:
i)
In this construction NE is never used as a negative (UNLIKE PURPOSE
CLAUSES). Instead Latin uses UT...NON…, UT...NEMO… etc.
ii)
This construction can often be recognized by some SIGNPOST WORDS that
indicate a result is about to be expressed. The ones on your GCSE list are:
tam – so
tot – so many tantus –a –um – so great
talis –e – such, of such a kind/type/sort
e.g
tantum erat flumen ut transiri non posset. The river was so great that it
could not be crossed.
talis erat equus ut facile non capi posset. The horse was of the SORT that it could
not easily be caught.
iii) It is sometimes difficult to tell a PURPOSE CLAUSE from a RESULT CLAUSE.
Both take UT + imperf. subj. However Result Clauses never use NE, and often have
SIGNPOST WORDS to help you recognize them.
Latin GCSE Constructions 9.
9) Indirect Questions
The verb of the question always goes into the SUBJUNCTIVE. This is
normally the same tense as natural English.
e.g.
quaerebam quis esset
cognovi quid fecissent.
(pluperfect)
- I kept asking who she was.
(imperfect)
– I discovered what they had done.
NOTES:
1)Watch out for disguised Indirect Questions. There will always be a QUESTION
WORD half way through the sentence, even if there is no word for ‘asking’.
princeps intellexit ubi hostes essent. The emperor understood where the enemy were.
iii) The word ‘num’ has special meanings in indirect questions: ‘if/whether’
rogavi num castra cepissent. I asked if/whether they had captured the camp.
Latin GCSE Constructions 10.
10) Uses of ‘cum’
a) ‘cum’ + ablative = with (i.e. along with, in the company of)
cum amico Roma progressus sum. I set out from Rome with a friend.
b) ‘cum’ + subjunctive verb = when
cum laborarem, nihil audiebam. When I was working, I heard nothing.
(imperf. subj.)
cum pugnam pervenissem, pugnavi. When I had reached the battle, I fought.
(pluperfect subj.)
c) ‘cum’ + subjunctive (always) = since OR although
cum pugnavissem, vulneratus sum. Since I had been fighting, I was wounded.
NOTES: i)
Sometimes it is hard to distinguish the meanings of ‘cum’. Look at
THE CONTEXT of the sentence in the story as a whole.
cum fortiter pugnavissem,
When/since/although I had fought bravely,
effugi.
I escaped/ran away.
ii) A common phrase: quae cum essent… = “Since these things are/were so…”
Latin GCSE Constructions 11.
11) Other clauses of time & indicative clauses
a) Time. Apart from ‘cum’, clauses involving time generally take the
indicative. However, occasionally the subjunctive is used to describe a
potential that does not take place.
antequam locutus est, nemo timebat.
Before he spoke, no-one was afraid.
priusquam loqueretur, a militibus necata est. Before she could speak, she was
killed by the soldiers.
Here is a list of the relevant conjunctions with a few further examples:
ubi – when
antequam – before
dum – while
priusquam - before
dum loquebatur, nemo audiebat.
postquam – after
While he spoke, no-one listened.
postquam locutus est, nemo respondit. After he spoke, no-one replied.
ubi discessit, omnes tacebamus.
When he left, everyone was silent.
NOTES:
i) ‘dum’ often takes a present indicative in Latin, where we would use a past tense,
unless (as in the example above) the two events described are simultaneous and
continuous.
COMPARE: dum loquitur, multi discesserunt. While he was speaking, many left.
(pres.)
AND:
dum loquebatur, nemo audiebat. While he was speaking, no-one was
(imperf.)
(all the time that)
listening.
b) Cause
‘quod’ meaning ‘because’ takes the indicative (for the purposes
of the GCSE syllabus) and is very straightforward.
quod discessit, omnes sequebantur. Because she left, everyone followed.
c) Concessive ‘quamquam’ meaning ‘although’ also takes the indicative.
quamquam discessit, omnes manebamus. Although she left, we all stayed.
d) ‘ut’ – as/so takes the indicative
Britannia, ut dicunt, est magna insula. Britain, as/so they say, is a large island.
Latin GCSE Constructions 12.
12) Verbs of Fearing
a) Sometimes Latin uses an infinitive just like English:
pugnare timeo. – I am afraid to fight.
b) However, Latin also commonly uses a construction with
1.
NE + SUBJUNCTIVE
timebam ne adveniret. (imperf.)
I was afraid lest he might arrive.
i.e. I was afraid he would arrive.
2.
timebam ne discessisset. (pluperfect)
I was afraid lest she had gone away.
i.e. I was afraid she had gone.
NOTES:
i) The normal negative in this construction is NON:
timeo ne non discesserit – I am afraid she has not gone.
(Occasionally ‘UT’ is used to replace ‘NE NON’
timeo ut discesserit. – I am afraid she has not gone.)
ii) ‘SE’ always refers back to the subject of the MAIN VERB.
timebat ne se vidissemus. - He was afraid that we had seen him.
Latin GCSE Constructions 13.
13) Conditionals (‘if’ clauses)
This is the most complicated construction on your list but you need only learn half of
it. A conditional sentence has TWO parts, the ‘if’ clause itself, known as the PROTASIS, and
the main clause expressing the consequence, known as the APODOSIS.
i) OPEN/LIKELY CONDITIONALS:
If I see her, I shall wave.
OPEN/LIKELY CONDITIONALS take the INDICATIVE.
Conditionals may refer to the FUTURE, PRESENT, or PAST. Here is a table showing the
types of conditional for GCSE:
PRESENT
OPEN
PAST
OPEN
si laboras,
(present)
gaudeo.
(present)
If you are
working,
I am happy.
si id fecit,
(perfect)
fortis erat.
(imperfect)
If she did
that,
she was brave.
NOTES:
i) ‘nisi’ is used for ‘unless’ or ‘if…not…’ e.g.
nisi te videro, Romam statim redi ! – If I don’t see you, return to Rome at once !
(Fut. Perfect)
ii) It is possible, of course, to have MIXED conditionals, where two different times are
combined e.g.
si hoc fecisti, nemo te culpare potest
If you did this, no-one can blame you.
Latin GCSE Constructions 14.
14) Uses of participles
There are THREE participles in Latin:
a) The Present (active) is used to describe an event happening at the same time as
the main verb
b) The Future (active) is used to describe an event that will OR may happen after
the action of the main verb
c) The Past (passive, unless deponent) is used to describe an event happening
before the main verb.
a) servum effugientem vidimus. We saw the slave (while) escaping.
b) servum discessurum cepimus. We captured the slave (as he was) about to leave.
OR ‘intending to leave’
c) servum captum domum duximus. We took the (having been) captured slave home.
NOTES:
i) The future participle has -ur before the ending e.g. redituros.
The present participle has -ant or -ent before the ending e.g. clamantes
(apart from the nom. sing ending –ans or –ens.)
Other participles will be past.
ii) Look carefully at the ending to find out which word the participle is agreeing with.
iii) Translate the participle LITERALLY first, especially the PAST PARTICIPLE
which is generally passive in form. When you are sure you understand the meaning,
retranslate the phrase into NATURAL ENGLISH.
e.g. hostes visos sequebamur. We followed the having-been-seen enemy.
BECOMES:
OR:
After seeing the enemy, we followed them.
We saw the enemy and followed them.
e.g. progressuri hostes vidimus. About to advance we saw the enemy.
(nominative)
i.e. When we were about to advance we saw the enemy.
e.g. hostes progressuros vidimus. We saw the about to advance enemy.
(accusative)
i.e. We saw the enemy as they were about to advance
Latin GCSE Constructions 15.
(participles cont.)
iv) The ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE is a PARTICPLE in the ablative agreeing with a
NOUN in the ablative forming a clause with no strict grammatical connection with
the main sentence. It is a very flexible construction and very common.
e.g.
servis clamantibus, dominus intravit.
(With) the slaves shouting, the master entered.
hostibus urbem capturis,
populus timebat.
(With) the enemy about to capture the city, the people were afraid.
urbe capta,
nemo tutus erat.
(With) the city captured, no-one was safe.
Needless to say, these literal translation will not do for GCSE and MUST be
turned into good English e.g.
While the slaves were shouting…
Since the enemy were about to capture the city…
Once the city had been captured…
v) Remember that the past participle of deponent verbs is ACTIVE:
diu conatus, tandem ad Britanniam navigavi.
After trying for a long time, at last I sailed for Britain.
15) Uses of ‘qui/quae/quod’ (the relative pronoun)
qui/quae/quod’ – who/which takes the indicative (unless indicating purpose – See
p.7 note ii)
navis quam vidisti discessit. The ship which you saw has gone.
Part of ‘qui/quae/quod’ is often used as a connecting word to a previous sentence.
This is known as the ‘connecting relative e.g.
cum multa pecunia in urbe esset, imperator eam capere voluit. quod ubi
cives cognoverunt, pecuniam ad eum miserunt. qua accepta, imperator discessit.
Since there was much money in the city, the general wished to capture it.
When the citizens discovered this (‘which thing’), they sent the money to him. After
receiving this (‘with which having been received’), the general left.
Latin GCSE Constructions 16
18) The Gerundive
The gerundive is an adjective declining like ‘bonus/bona/bonum’. It is passive
in meaning, although it generally needs to be turned round into an active form to
make good English. Because it is an adjective it generally agrees with a noun.
i) ad + gerundive –This is used to express ‘purpose’.
imperator exercitum misit ad urbem capiendam.
The emperor sent an army for the city to be captured i.e. to capture the city.
Latin GCSE Constructions 17
18) Common confusions
a) quam
i) who, which
puella quam vidisti est Romana.
The girl, whom you saw, is Roman.
ii) than
puella est pulchrior quam regina.
The girl is prettier than the queen.
iii) how
quam pulchra est illa puella!
How pretty that girl is !
iv) as…possible…
quam celerrime cucurrit.
He ran as quickly as possible.
b) quod
i) which
onus, quod portas, grave est.
The load which you carry is heavy.
ii) because
quod grave est, difficile est id portare.
Because it is heavy, it is difficult to carry it.
c) ut
i) + indic. = as/when ut pervenimus, periculum erat magnum.
When we arrived, the danger was great.
periculum est magnum, ut multi credunt.
The danger is great, as/so many believe.
ii) + subj. = that/so that/to
RESULT:
tam parvus erat ut non perveniret.
He was so small that he could not reach.
IND. COMMAND:
PURPOSE:
(FEARING- rare:)
rogabat ut exiret.
She asked to go out
progrediar ut Romam perveniam.
I shall set out to reach Rome.
so that I may reach Rome.
timeo ut Romam perveniam.
I am afraid that I will not reach Rome.
Table of contents
PAGES
1-2
USES OF THE CASES
3
DIRECT QUESTIONS/COMMANDS & WISHES
4
INDIRECT STATEMENT OR THOUGHT (ACCUSATIVE & INFINITIVE)
5
THE SEQUENCE OF TENSES
6
INDIRECT COMMANDS
7
PURPOSE CLAUSES
8
RESULT CLAUSES
9
INDIRECT QUESTIONS
10
USES OF ‘CUM’
11
OTHER CLAUSES OF TIME & INDICATIVE CLAUSES
12
VERBS OF FEARING
13
CONDITIONALS
14-15 USES OF PARTICIPLES (ABLATIVE ABSOLUTE)
15
RELATIVE PRONOUN (QUI/QUAE/QUOD)
16
GERUNDIVES
17
COMMON CONFUSIONS
G.C.S.E. LATIN CONSTRUCTIONS 2013-14
LATINA SEMPER DUCAT!