Download Structural Levels of Organization

Chapter 41
Introduction to Anatomy and
Physiology
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Introduction to Anatomy and
Physiology
• Anatomy

The study, classification, and description of structures
and organs of the body
• Physiology

Explains the processes and functions of the various
structures and how they interrelate with one another
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Slide 2
Anatomical Terminology
• Terms that specifically locate a structure

Anterior—to face forward
 Cranial—toward the head
 Caudal—toward the tail
 Superior—toward the head or above
 Inferior—lower, below another
 Medial—toward the midline
 Lateral—toward the side
 Proximal—nearest the trunk
 Distal—farthest from the trunk
 Superficial—nearer the body surface
 Deep—farther away from the body surface
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Slide 3
Anatomical Terminology
• Body planes

Sagittal
• Divides the body into right and left halves

Coronal
• Divides the body into front and back halves

Transverse
• Divides the body into caudal and cranial portions
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Slide 4
Figure 41-2
(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Directions and planes of the body.
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Slide 5
Anatomical Terminology
• Body cavities

Ventral cavity
• Thoracic cavity
•
Heart and lungs
• Abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominal
o
•
Stomach, kidneys, liver, gallbladder, spleen,
pancreas, and a large portion of the intestines
Pelvic
o
Lower portion of the intestines, urinary bladder, and
internal structures of the reproductive system
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Slide 6
Anatomical Terminology
• Body cavities (continued)

Dorsal cavity
• Cranial cavity
•
Brain
• Spinal cavity
•
Spinal cord
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Slide 7
Figure 41-3
(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
Location and subdivisions of the dorsal and ventral body cavities as
viewed from the front (anterior) and from the side (lateral).
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Slide 8
Abdominal Regions
• Nine abdominal regions

Right hypochondriac region: liver, gallbladder
 Epigastric region: liver, stomach
 Left hypochondriac region: stomach, large intestine
 Right lumbar region: large, small intestine
 Umbilical region: transverse colon, small intestine
 Left lumbar region: small intestine, colon
 Right iliac (inguinal) region: cecum, small intestine
 Hypogastric region: small intestine, bladder,
appendix
 Left iliac (inguinal) region: colon, small intestine
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Slide 9
Figure 41-4
(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
The nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity.
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Slide 10
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Physicians and other health professionals
frequently divide the abdomen into four
quadrants to describe the site of pain or locate
internal pathology

Right upper quadrant: liver, gallbladder

Left upper quadrant: spleen

Right lower quadrant: appendix

Left lower quadrant: colon
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Slide 11
Figure 41-5
(From Thibodeau, G.A., Patton, K.T. [2008]. Structure and function of the body. [13th ed.]. St. Louis: Mosby.)
The abdomen divided into right and left upper quadrants and right and left
lower quadrants.
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Slide 12
Structural Levels of Organization
• Organization is one of the most important
characteristics of body structure.

Chemical level
• Atoms: smallest unit of matter
• Molecules: two or more united atoms

Cellular level: smallest living unit
 Tissue level: organized group of cells
 Organs: group of tissues
 System level: organized group of organs
 Organism (human being)
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Slide 13
Structural Levels of Organization
• Cell

Structural parts
• Plasma membrane
•
•
Keeps cell whole and intact
Selectively permeable
• Cytoplasm
•
•
Sticky, fluid-like substance (nutrients) between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus
Contains organelles
o Tiny functioning structures
o Nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, centrioles
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Slide 14
Figure 41-7
(From Herlihy, B., Maebius, N.K. [2007]. The human body in health and illness. [3rd ed.]. Philadelphia: Saunders.)
A typical cell.
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Slide 15
Structural Levels of Organization
• Nucleus

Largest organelle
 Responsible for cell reproduction and control of
other organelles
 Surrounded by nuclear membrane
 Contains nucleoplasm: refined cytoplasm
 Two structures:
• Nucleolus

Critical in formation of protein
• Chromatin granules

Composed of protein and DNA
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Slide 16
Structural Levels of Organization
• Endoplasmic reticulum

Smooth and rough; Functions as a miniature circulation system
• Ribosomes

Produce enzymes and proteins
• Mitochondria

Convert food to energy ATP
• Lysosomes

Contain enzymes that digest food and microbes
• Golgi apparatus

Packaging plant
• Packages certain carbohydrate and protein compounds into
globules, then releases them outside of the cell
• Centrioles


Aid in the formation of the spindle during mitosis
• Necessary for cell reproduction
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Paired,
rodshaped
Slide 17
Structural Levels of Organization
• Protein synthesis

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Located in the nucleus
• Chemical blueprint
•

Encodes the message for protein synthesis and
sends it to RNA
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
• Located in the cytoplasm
• Chemical messenger
•
Transports DNA message to ribosomes where the
protein is produced
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Slide 18
Structural Levels of Organization
• Cell division

Mitosis
• Reproduction of cells
• One cell divides to form two daughter cells
• Chromosomes
•
•
•
•
•
Located in the nucleus
Carry genes responsible for the organism’s traits
Each body cell contains 46 chromosomes
Each exists in pairs (one from the father and one from the
mother)
Four phases of mitosis
• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
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Slide 19
Structural Levels of Organization
• Mitosis

Prophase: chromosomes form two strands
(chromatids); centrioles form spindle fibers

Metaphase: spindle fibers attach to chromatids

Anaphase: cell division begins

Telophase: two nuclei appear; two new cells
developed
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Slide 20
Structural Levels of Organization
• Movement of materials across cell membranes

Active transport
• Movement of material across the membrane of a cell by
means of a chemical activity that allows the cell to admit
larger molecules than would otherwise be able to enter
• Requires energy
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Slide 21
Structural Levels of Organization
• Types of active transport

Phagocytosis—Movement of cells or other large particles into
the cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane


Pinocytosis—Movement of fluid and dissolved molecules into a
cell by trapping them in a section of plasma membrane


White blood cells trapping bacteria
Cell trapping protein molecule
Pump (calcium or sodium-potassium)—Movement of solute
particles from an area of low concentration to an area of higher
concentration by means of a carrier molecule

Muscle cell action
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Slide 22
Structural Levels of Organization
• Passive transport



Movement of small molecules across the membrane of a cell by
diffusion
No energy is required
Types
• Diffusion—Solid particles in a fluid move from an area of
higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
o
Nerve cell impulse
• Osmosis—The passage of water across a selectively
permeable membrane, with water molecules going from the
less concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution
o
Water imbalance correction
• Filtration—The movement of water and particles through a
membrane by force
o
Small solutes moving from high pressure to low pressure
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Slide 23
Structural Levels of Organization
• Tissues

Epithelial tissue
• Covers outside of the body and some internal
structures
• Functions
•
•
•
Protection
Absorption
Secretion
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Slide 24
Structural Levels of Organization
• Types of epithelial tissue

Simple squamous
• Alveoli of lungs and lining of vessels

Simple columnar
• Lining of stomach, intestines, and respiratory tract

Stratified squamous
• Lining of mouth and esophagus; surface of skin

Stratified transitional
• Urinary bladder
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Slide 25
Structural Levels of Organization
• Connective tissue

Connects
• Joins tissues or structures to the body

Types
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Areolar: between tissues and organs
Adipose: under skin
Dense fibrous: tendons
Bone: skeleton
Cartilage: ear
Blood: vessels
Hematopoietic: bone marrow
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Slide 26
Structural Levels of Organization
• Muscle tissue


Contracts in response to a message from the brain or
spinal cord
Types
• Skeletal
•
Voluntary; attached to bones
• Cardiac
•
Involuntary; form the heart
• Smooth (visceral)
•
•
Involuntary
Lining of internal organs (blood vessels, stomach,
intestines, uterus)
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Slide 27
Structural Levels of Organization
• Nervous tissue

Provides rapid communication between body
structures and control of body functions
 Brain, spinal cord, nerves
 Neurons
• Transmit impulses or messages

Glial cells
• Support and nourish the neurons
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Slide 28
Structural Levels of Organization
• Membranes

Epithelial membranes
• Mucous membranes
•

Line body surfaces that open to the outside
• Nose, mouth, urinary tract, reproductive tract, etc.
Secrete mucus
• Thick, slippery material
• Keeps membranes soft and moist
• Protects against bacterial invasion
• Lubricant in GI tract
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Slide 29
Structural Levels of Organization
• Serous membranes

Line body surfaces that do not open to the
outside
• Lungs, intestines, heart

Secrete serous fluid
• Thin, watery fluid

Two layers
• Parietal membrane (lines the wall of the cavity)
• Visceral membrane (covers the surface of the
organ)
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Slide 30
Structural Levels of Organization
• Connective tissue membranes (synovial
membranes)


Line the joint spaces between bones and prevent
friction
Secrete synovial fluid
• Thick, colorless lubricating fluid
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Slide 31
Structural Levels of Organization
• Organs/systems

Integumentary
•
•
•
•
•
•
Skin
Hair
Nails
Sense receptors
Sweat glands
Oil glands
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Slide 32
Structural Levels of Organization
• Skeletal system


Bones
Joints
• Muscular system

Muscles
• Nervous system



Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
• Circulatory system

Heart and blood vessels
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Slide 33
Structural Levels of Organization
• Endocrine system

Pituitary glands
 Pineal gland
 Hypothalamus
 Thyroid gland
 Parathyroids
 Thymus
 Adrenals
 Pancreas
 Ovaries (female)
 Testes (male)
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Slide 34
Structural Levels of Organization
• Lymphatic system




Lymph nodes and vessels
Thymus
Spleen
Tonsils
• Respiratory system

Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs
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Slide 35
Structural Levels of Organization
• Digestive system (primary organs)

Mouth
 Pharynx
 Esophagus
 Stomach
 Small intestine
 Large intestine
 Rectum
 Anal canal
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Slide 36
Structural Levels of Organization
• Digestive system (accessory organs)

Teeth
 Salivary glands
 Tongue
 Liver
 Gallbladder
 Pancreas
 Appendix
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Slide 37
Structural Levels of Organization
• Urinary system

Kidneys
 Ureters
 Urinary bladder
 Urethra
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Slide 38
Structural Levels of Organization
• Reproductive system (male)

Gonads
• Testes

Genital ducts
• Vas deferens
• Urethra

Accessory glands
• Prostate


Supporting structures
Genitalia
• Penis and scrotum
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Slide 39
Structural Levels of Organization
• Reproductive system (female)

Gonads
• Ovaries

Accessory organs
• Uterus
• Fallopian tubes
• Vagina

Supporting structures
 Genitalia
• Vulva

Mammary glands (breasts)
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Slide 40